Section 6, quoted above, gave rise to an

The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia Volume 1, of 28 plus Index

January, 1995 [Etexts #181 through #200 reserved for Volume 1]

**Currently referenced only as Project Gutenberg Etext #200**

Volume 1 Also having been known as the Encyclopedia Anglicana

and part 1 of the Interpedia Project. ***Disclaimers follow***

Please take a look at the important information in this header.

We encourage you to keep this file on your own disk, keeping an

electronic path open for the next readers. Do not remove this.

*********IMPORTANT NOTICE! PLEASE READ THIS IN DETAIL********

The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia is a reproduction of a 1911

edition of a famous encyclopedia. The text has not been updated.

Although the text is in the public domain in the United States,

the original publisher still has a valid trademark in the

original title of the encyclopedia. The original publisher

offered Project Gutenberg a license to use the trademark, but

the terms of the license were not consistent with the volunteer

noncommercial nature of Project Gutenberg or its primary goal of

distributing electronic text with the fewest possible restrictions.

In order to avoid the possibility of trademark infringement,

all references to the original title and the original publisher

have been changed or deleted. Because of numerous references

embodying possible trademarks, the entire preface has been omitted.

The original publisher of the 1911 print encyclopedia was not and

is not involved in any way with the creation, editing or distribution

of the Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia. Any errors which may have occurred

in the conversion to electronic form can not be attributed in any way to

the original publisher. In order to avoid possible future trademark

infringements or confusion in the minds of the public, this electronic

version should be referred to as the Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia.

The name of the original print encyclopedia should not be used

in any way in connection with this electronic text.

The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia Volume 1, of 28 plus Index

!!!Remember. . .the information contained herein is OLD. . .!!!

*!!!It reflects the mindset of the turn of the last century!!!*

The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia

A. This letter of ours corresponds to the first symbol in

the Phoenician alphabet and in almost all its descendants. In

Phoenician, a, like the symbols for e and for o, did not

represent a vowel, but a breathing; the vowels originally were

not represented by any symbol. When the alphabet was adopted by

the Greeks it was not very well fitted to represent the sounds

of their language. The breathings which were not required in

Greek were accordingly employed to represent some of the vowel

sounds, other vowels, like i and u, being represented by

an adaptation of the symbols for the semi-vowels y and w.

The Phoenician name, which must have corresponded closely to

the Hebrew Aleph, was taken over by the Greeks in the form

Alpha (alpsa). The earliest authority for this, as for the

names of the other Greek letters, is the grammatical drama

(grammatike Ieoria) of Callias, an earlier contemporary of

Euripides, from whose works four trimeters, containing the names

of all the Greek letters, are preserved in Athenaeus x. 453 d.

The form of the letter has varied considerably. In the

earliest of the Phoenician, Aramaic and Greek inscriptions

(the oldest Phoenician dating about 1000 B.C., the oldest

Aramaic from the 8th, and the oldest Greek from the 8th

or 7th century B.C.) A rests upon its side thus--@. In

the Greek alphabet of later times it generally resembles

the modern capital letter, but many local varieties can be

distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle

at which the cross line is set-- @, &c. From the Greeks of

the west the alphabet was borrowed by the Romans and from them

has passed to the other nations of western Europe. In the

earliest Latin inscriptions, such as the inscription found

in the excavation of the Roman Forum in 1899, or that on a

golden fibula found at Praeneste in 1886 (see ALPHABET).

Fine letters are still identical in form with those of the

western Greeks. Latin develops early various forms, which

are comparatively rare in Greek, as @, or unknown, as

@. Except possibly Faliscan, the other dialects of Italy

did not borrow their alphabet directly from the western Greeks

as the Romans did, but received it at second hand through the

Etruscans. In Oscan, where the writing of early inscriptions

is no less careful than in Latin, the A takes the form

@, to which the nearest parallels are found in north Greece

(Boeotia, Locris and Thessaly, and there only sporadically) .

In Greek the symbol was used for both the long and the short

sound, as in English father (a) and German Ratte

a; English, except in dialects, has no sound corresponding

precisely to the Greek short a, which, so far as can be

ascertained, was a mid-back-wide sound, according to the

terminology of H. Sweet (Primer of Phonetics, p. 107).

Throughout the history of Greek the short sound remained practically

unchanged. On the other hand, the long sound of a in the

Attic and Ionic dialects passed into an open e-sound, which

in the Ionic alphabet was represented by the same symbol as

the original e-sound (see ALPHABET: Greek). The vowel

sounds vary from language to language, and the a symbol has,

in consequence, to represent in many cases sounds which are

not identical with the Greek a whether long or short, and

also to represent several different vowel sounds in the same

language. Thus the New English Dictionary distinguishes about

twelve separate vowel sounds, which are represented by a in

English. In general it may be said that the chief changes

which affect the a-sound in different languages arise from

(1) rounding, (2) fronting, i.e. changing from a sound

produced far back in the mouth to a sound produced farther

forward. The rounding is often produced by combination with

rounded consonants (as in English was, wall, &c.), the

rounding of the preceding consonant being continued into

the formation of the vowel sound. Rounding has also been

produced by a following l-sound, as in the English fall,

small, bald, &c. (see Sweet's History of English Sounds,

2nd ed., sec. sec. 906, 784). The effect of fronting is seen in

the Ionic and Attic dialects of Greek, where the original

name of the Medes, Madoi, with a in the first syllable

(which survives in Cyprian Greek as Madoi), is changed

into Medoi (Medoi), with an open e-sound instead

of the earlier a. In the later history of Greek this

sound is steadily narrowed till it becomes identical with

i (as in English seed). The first part of the process

has been almost repeated by literary English, a (ah)

passing into e (eh), though in present-day pronunciation

the sound has developed further into a diphthongal ei

except before r, as in hare (Sweet, op. cit. sec. 783).

In English a represents unaccented forms of several

words, e.g. an (one), of, have, he, and or various

prefixes the history of which is given in detail in the New

English Dictionary (Oxford, 1888), vol. i. p. 4. (P. GI.)

As a symbol the letter is used in various connexions

and for various technical purposes, e.g. for a note in

music, for the first of the seven dominical letters (this

use is derived from its being the first of the litterae

nundinales at Rome), and generally as a sign of priority.

In Logic, the letter A is used as a symbol for the universal

affirmative proposition in the general form ``all x is y.''

The letters I, E and O are used respectively for the particular

affirmative ``some x is y,'' the universal negative ``no x

is y,'' and the particular negative ``some x is not y.''

The use of these letters is generally derived from the vowels

of the two Latin verbs AffIrmo (or AIo), ``I assert,'' and

nEgO, ``I deny.'' The use of the symbols dates from the 13th

century, though some authorities trace their origin to the Greek

logicians. A is also used largely in abbreviations (q.v.).

In Shipping, A1 is a symbol used to dennote quality of

construction and material. In the various shipping registers

ships are classed and given a rating after an official

examination, and assigned a classification mark, which

appears in addition to other particulars in those registers

after the name of the ship. See SHIPBUILDING. It is

popularly used to indicate the highest degree of excellence.

AA, the name of a large number of small European rivers.

The word is derived from the Old German aha, cognate to

the Latin aqua, water (cf. Ger.-ach; Scand. a, aa,

pronounced o). The following are the more important

streams of this name:--Two rivers in the west of Russia, both

falling into the Gulf of Riga, near Riga, which is situated

between them; a river in the north of France, falling into

the sea below Gravelines, and navigable as far as St Omer;

and a river of Switzerland, in the cantons of Lucerne and

Aargau, which carries the waters of Lakes Baldegger and

Hallwiler into the Aar. In Germany there are the Westphalian

Aa, rising in the Teutoburger Wald, and joining the Werre at

Herford, the Munster Aa, a tributary of the Ems, and others.

AAGESEN, ANDREW (1826-1879), Danish jurist, was educated

for the law at Kristianshavn and Copenhagen, and interrupted

his studies in 1848 to take part in the first Schleswig war,

in which he served as the leader of a reserve battalion. In

1855 he became professor of jurisprudence at the university of

Copenhagen. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the commission

for drawing up a maritime and commercial code, and the navigation

law of 1882 is mainly his work. In 1879 he was elected a member

of the Landsthing; but it is as a teacher at the university

that he won his reputation. Among his numerous juridical

works may be mentioned: Bidrag til Laeren om Overdragelse

af Ejendomsret, Bemaerkinger om Rettigheder over Ting

(Copenhagen, 1866, 1871-1872); Fortegnelse over Retssamlinger,

Retslitteratur i Danmark, Norge, Sverige (Copenhagen,

1876). Aagesen was Hall's successor as lecturer on Roman law

at the university, and in this department his researches were

epoch-making. All his pupils were profoundly impressed by

his exhaustive examination of the sources, his energetic

demonstration of his subject and his stringent search after

truth. His noble, imposing, and yet most amiable personality

won for him, moreover, universal affection and respect.

See C. F. Bricka, Dansk. Brog. Lex. vol. i. (Copenhagen, 1887); Szmlade

Skrifter, edited by F. C. Bornemann (Copenhagen, 1863). (R. N. B.)

AAL, also known as A'L, ACH, or AICH, the Hindustani

names for the Morinda tinctoria and Morinda citrifalia,

plants extensively cultivated in India on account of the

reddish dye-stuff which their roots contain. The name

is also applied to the dye, but the common trade name

is Suranji. Its properties are due to the presence

of a glucoside known as Morindin, which is compounded

from glucose and probably a trioxy-methyl-anthraquinone.

AALBORG, a city and seaport of Denmark, the seat of a bishop,

and chief town of the amt (county) of its name, on the south

bank of the Limfjord, which connects the North Sea and the

Cattegat. Pop. (1901) 31,457. The situation is typical of

the north of Jutland. To the west the Linifjord broadens

into an irregular lake, with low, marshy shores and many

islands. North-west is the Store Vildmose, a swamp where the

mirage is seen in summer. South-east lies the similar Lille

Vildmose. A railway connects Aalborg with Hjorring,

Frederikshavn and Skagen to the north, and with Aarhus and

the lines from Germany to the south. The harbour is good

and safe, though difficult of access. Aalborg is a growing

industrial and commercial centre, exporting grain and

fish. An old castle and some picturesque houses of the

17th century remain. The Budolphi church dates mostly from

the middle of the 18th century, while the Frue church was

partially burnt in 1894, but the foundation of both is of

the 14th century or earlier. There are also an ancient

hospital and a museum of art and antiquities. On the north

side of the fjord is Norre Sundby, connected with Aalborg

by a pontoon and also by an iron railway bridge, one of the

finest engineering works in the kingdom. Aabborgt received

town privileges in 1342 and the bishopric dates from 1554.

AALEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg,

pleasantly situated on the Kocher, at the foot of the Swabian

Alps, about 50 m. E. of Stuttgart, and with direct railway

communication with Ulm and Cannstatt. Pop. 10,000. Woollen

and linen goods are manufactured, and there are ribbon

looms and tanneries in the town, and large iron works in the

neighbourhood. There are several schools and churches, and a

statue of the poet Christian Schubart. Aalen was a free imperial

city from 1360 to 1802, when it was annexed to Wurttemberg.

AALESUND, a seaport of Norway, in Romsdal amt (county), 145

m. N. by E. from Bergen. Pop. (1900) 11,672. It occupies

two of the outer islands of the west coast, Aspo and

Norvo, which enclose the picturesque harbour. Founded

in 1824, it is the principal shipping-place of Sondmore

district, and one of the chief stations of the herring

fishery. Aalesund is adjacent to the Jorund and Geiranger

fjords, frequented by tourists. From Oje at the head of

Jorund a driving-route strikes south to the Nordfjord, and

from Merck on Geiranger another strikes inland to Otta, on

the railway to Liilehammer and Christiania. Aalesund is a

port of call for steamers between Bergen, Hull, Newcastle

and Hamburg, and Trondhjem. A little to the south of the

town are the ruins of the reputed castle of Rollo, the

founder, in the 9th century, of the dynasty of the dukes of

Normandy. On the 23rd of January 1904, Aalesund was the

scene of one of the most terrible of the many conflagrations

to which Norwegian towns, built largely of wood, have been

subject. Practically the whole town was destroyed, a gale aiding

the flames, and the population had to leave the place in the

night at the notice of a few minutes. Hardly any lives were

lost, but the sufferings of the people were so terrible that

assistance was sent from all parts of the kingdom, and by the

German government, while the British government also offered it.

AALI, MEHEMET, Pasha (1815-1871), Turkish statesman, was born

at Constantinople in 1815, the son of a government official.

Entering the diplomatic service of his country soon after reaching

manhood, he became successively secretary of the Embassy in

Vienna, minister in London, and foreign minister under Reshid

Pasha. In 1852 he was promoted to the post of grand vizier,

but after a short time retired into private life. During the

Crimean War he was recalled in order to take the portfolio

of foreign affairs for a second time under Reshid Pasha,

and in this capacity took part in 1855 in the conference of

Vienna. Again becoming in that year grand vizier, an office

he filled no less than five times, he represented Turkey

at the congress of Paris in 1856. In 1867 he was appointed

regent of Turkey during the sultan's visit to the Paris

Exhibition. Aali Pasha was one of the most zealous advocates

of the introduction of Western reforms under the sultans Abdul

Mejid and Abdul Aziz. A scholar and a linguist, he was a

match for the diplomats of the Christian powers, against whom

he successfully defended the interests of his country. He

died at Erenkeni in Asia Minor on the 6th of September 1871.

AAR, or AARE, the most considerable river which both

rises and ends entirely within Switzerland. Its total

length (including all bends) from its source to its junction

with the Rhine is about 181 m., during which distance it

descends 5135 ft., while its drainage area is 6804 sq.

m. It rises in the great Aar glaciers, in the canton of

Bern, and W. of the Grimsel Pass. It runs E. to the Grimsel

Hospice, and then N.W. through the Hasli valley, forming on the

way the magnificent waterfall of the Handegg (151 ft.), past

Guttannen, and pierces the limestone barrier of the Kirchet

by a grand gorge, before reaching Meiringen, situated in a

plain. A little beyond, near Brienz, the river expands

into the lake of Brienz, where it becomes navigable. Near

the west end of that lake it receives its first important

affluent, the Lutschine (left), and then runs across the

swampy plain of the Bodoli, between Interlaken (left) and

Unterseen (right), before again expanding in order to form

the Lake of Thun. Near the west end of that lake it receives

on the left the Kander, which has just before been joined

by the Simme; on flowing out of the lake it passes Thun, and

then circles the lofty bluff on which the town of Bern is

built. It soon changes its north-westerly for a due westerly

direction, but after receiving the Saane or Sarine (left)

turns N. till near Aarberg its stream is diverted W. by the

Hagneck Canal into the Lake of Bienne, from the upper end of

which it issues through the Nidau Canal and then runs E. to

Buren. Henceforth its course is N.E. for a long distance,

past Soleure (below which the Grosse Emme flows in on the

right), Aarburg (where it is joined by the Wigger, right),

Olten, Aarau, near which is the junction with the Suhr on the

right, and Wildegg, where the Hallwiler Aa falls in on the

right. A short way beyond, below Brugg, it receives first the

Reuss (right), and very shortly afterwards the Limmat or Linth

(right). It now turns due N., and soon becomes itself an

affluent of the Rhine (left), which it surpasses in volume

when they unite at Coblenz, opposite Waldshut. (W. A. B. C.)

AARAU, the capital of the Swiss canton of Aargau. In 1900

it had 7831 inhabitants, mostly German-speaking, and mainly

Protestants. It is situated in the valley of the Aar, on the

right bank of that river, and at the southern foot of the range

of the Jura. It is about 50 m. by rail N.E. of Bern, and 31

m. N.W. of Zurich. It is a well-built modern town, with

no remarkable features about it. In the Industrial Museum

there is (besides collections of various kinds) some good

painted glass of the 16th century, taken from the neighbouring

Benedictine monastery of Muri (founded 1027, suppressed

1841---the monks are now quartered at Gries, near Botzen, in

Tirol). The cantonal library contains many works relating to

Swiss history and many MSS. coming from the suppressed Argovian

monasteries. There are many industries in the town, especially

silk-ribbon weaving, foundries, and factories for the manufacture

of cutlery and scientific instruments. The popular novelist

and historian, Heinrich Zschokke (1771-1848), spent most of

his life here, and a bronze statue has been erected to his

memory. Aarau is an important military centre. The slopes

of the Jura are covered with vineyards. Aarau, an ancient

fortress, was taken by the Bernese in 1415, and in 1798 became

for a time the capital of the Helvetic republic. Eight miles

by rail N.E. are the famous sulphur baths of Schinznach,

just above which is the ruined castle of Habsburg, the

original home of that great historical house. (W. A. B. C.)

AARD-VARK (meaning ``earth pig''), the Dutch name for

the mammals of genus Orycteropus, confined to Africa (see

EDEN-TATAI. Several species have been named. Among them

is the typical form, O. capensis, or Cape ant-bear from

South Africa, and the northern aard-vark (O. aethiopicus)

of north-eastern Africa, extending into Egypt. In form

these animals are somewhat pig-like; the body is stout,

with arched back; the limbs are short and stout, armed with

strong, blunt claws; the ears disproportionately long; and

the tail very thick at the base and tapering gradually. The

greatly elongated head is set on a short thick neck, and at

the extremity of the snout is a disk in which the nostrils

open. The mouth is small and tubular, furnished with a long

extensile tongue. The measurements of a female taken in the

flesh, were head and body 4 ft., tail 17 1/2 in.; but a large

individual measured 6 ft. 8 in. over all. In colour the

Cape aard-vark is pale sandy or yellow, the hair being scanty

and allowing the skin to show; the northern aard-vark has

a still thinner coat, and is further distinguished by the

shorter tail and longer head and ears. These animals are of

nocturnal and burrowing habits, and generally to be found near

ant-hills. The strong claws make a hole in the side of the

ant-hill, and the insects are collected on the extensile

tongue. Aard-varks are hunted for their skins; but the

flesh is valued for food, and often salted and smoked.

AARD-WOLF (earth-wolf), a South and East African carnivorous

mammal (Proteles cristatus), in general appearance like a

small striped hyena, but with a more pointed muzzle, sharpe

ears, and a long erectile mane down the middle line of the

neck and back. It is of nocturnal and burrowing habits, and

feeds on decomposed animal substances, larvae and termites.

AARGAU (Fr. Argovie), one of the more northerly Swiss

cantons, comprising the lower course of the river Aar (q.v.),

whence its name. Its total area is 541.9 sq. m., of which

517.9 sq. m. are classed as ``productive'' (forests covering

172 sq. m. and vineyards 8.2 sq. m.). It is one of the least

mountainous Swiss cantons, forming part of a great table-land,

to the north of the Alps and the east of the Jura, above which

rise low hills. The surface of the country is beautifully

diversified, undulating tracts and well-wooded hills alternating

with fertile valleys watered mainly by the Aar and its

tributaries. It contains the famous hot sulphur springs of

Baden (q.v.) and Schinznach, while at Rheinfelden there are

very extensive saline springs. Just below Brugg the Reuss

and the Limmat join the Aar, while around Brugg are the ruined

castle of Habsburg, the old convent of Konigsfelden (with

fine painted medieval glass) and the remains of the Roman

settlement of Vindonissa [Windisch]. The total population

in 1900 was 206,498, almost exclusively German-speaking, but

numbering 114,176 Protestants to 91,039 Romanists and 990

Jews. The capital of the canton is Aarau (q.v.), while

other important towns are Baden (q.v.), Zofingen (4591

inhabitants), Reinach (3668 inhabitants), Rheinfelden (3349

inhabitants), Wohlen (3274 inhabitants), and Lenzburg (2588

inhabitants). Aargau is an industrious and prosperous canton,

straw-plaiting, tobacco-growing, silk-ribbon weaving, and

salmon-fishing in the Rhine being among the chief industries.

As this region was, up to 1415, the centre of the Habsburg

power, we find here many historical old castles (e.g.

Habsburg, Lenzburg, Wildegg), and former monasteries (e.g.

Wettingen, Muri), founded by that family, but suppressed in

1841, this act of violence being one of the main causes

of the civil war called the ``Sonderbund War,'' in 1847 in

Switzerland. The cantonal constitution dates mainly from

1885, but since 1904 the election of the executive council

of five members is made by a direct vote of the people. The

legislature consists of members elected in the proportion of

one to every 1100 inhabitants. The ``obligatory referendum''

exists in the case of all laws, while 5000 citizens have the

right of ``initiative'' in proposing bills or alterations

in the cantonal constitution. The canton sends 10 members

to the federal Nationalrat, being one for every 20,000,

while the two Standerate are (since 1904) elected by

a direct vote of the people. The canton is divided into

eleven administrative districts, and contains 241 communes.

1415 the Aargau region was taken from the Habsburgs by the Swiss

Confederates. Bern kept the south-west portion (Zofingen,

Aarburg, Aarau, Lenzburg, and Brugg), but some districts,

named the Freie Amter or ``free bailiwicks'' (Mellingen,

Muri, Villmergen, and Bremgarten), with the county of Baden,

were ruled as ``subject lands'' by all or certain of the

Confederates. In 1798 the Bernese bit became the canton of

Aargau of the Helvetic Republic, the remainder forming the

canton of Baden. In 1803, the two halves (plus the Frick

glen, ceded in 1802 by Austria to the Helvetic Republic)

were united under the name of Kanton Aargau, which was then

admitted a full member of the reconstituted Confederation.

See also Argovia (published by the Cantonal Historical

Society), Aarau, from 1860; F. X. Bronner, Der Kanton Aargau,

2 vols., St Gall and Bern, 1844; H. Lehmann, Die argauische

Strohindustrie, Aarau, 1896; W. Merz, Die mittelalt.

Burganlagen und Wehrbauten d. Kant. Argau (fine illustrated

work on castles), Aarau, 2 vols., 1904--1906; W. Merz and

F. E. Welti, Die Rechtsquellen d. Kant. Argau, 3 vols.,

Aarau, 1898--1905; J. Muller, Der Aargau, 2 vols., Zurich,

1870; E. L. Rochholz, Aargauer Weisthumer, Atarau, 1877; E.

Zschokke, Geschichte des Aargaus, Aarau, 1903. (W. A. B. C.)

AARHUS, a seaport and bishop's see of Denmark, on the

east coast of Jutland, of which it is the principal port;

the second largest town in the kingdom, and capital of

the amt (county) of Aarhus. Pop. (1901) 51,814. The

district is low-lying, fertile and well wooded. The town

is the junction of railways from all parts of the country.

The harbour is good and safe, and agricultural produce is

exported, while coal and iron are among the chief imports.

The cathedral of the 13th century (extensively restored) is

the largest church in Denmark. There is a museum of art and

antiquities. To the south-west (13 m. by rail), a picturesque

region extends west from the railway junction of Skanderborg,

including several lakes, through which flows the Gudenaa,

the largest river in Jutland, and rising ground exceeding

500 ft. in the Himmelbjerg. The railway traverses this

pleasant district of moorland and wood to Silkeborg, a modern

town having one of the most attractive situations in the

kingdom. The bishopric of Aarhus dates at least from 951.

AARON, the traditional founder and head of the Jewish

priesthood, who, in company with Moses, led the Israelites

out of Egypt (see EXODUS; MOSES) . The greater part of

his life-history is preserved in late Biblical narratives,

which carry back existing conditions and beliefs to the

time of the Exodus, and find a precedent for contemporary

hierarchical institutions in the events of that period.

Although Aaron was said to have been sent by Yahweh (Jehovah)

to meet Moses at the ``mount of God'' (Horeb, Ex.iv.27),he

plays only a secondary part in the incidents at Pharaoh's

court. After the ``exodus'' from Egypt a striking account

is given of the vision of the God of Israel vouchsafed to

him and to his sons Nadab and Abihu on the same holy mount

(Ex. xxiv. 1 seq. 9-11), and together with Hur he was at the

side of Moses when the latter, by means of his wonder-working

rod, enabled Joshua to defeat the Amalekites (xvii. 8-16).

Hur and Aaron were left in charge of the Israelites when

Moses and Joshua ascended the mount to receive the Tables of

the Law (xxiv. 12-15), and when the people, in dismay at the

prolonged absence of their leader, demanded a god, it was at

the instigation of Aaron that the golden calf was made (see

CALF, GOLDEN). This was regarded as an act of apostasy

which, according to one tradition, led to the consecration

of the Levites, and almost cost Aaron his life (cp. Deut.

ix. 20). The incident paves the way for the account of the

preparation of the new tables of stone which contain a series

of laws quite distinct from the Decalogue (q.v.) (Ex. xxxiii.

seq.). Kadesh, and not Sinai or Horeb, appears to have been

originally the scene of these incidents (Deut. xxxiii. 8

seq. compared with Ex. xxxii. 26 sqq.), and it was for some

obscure offence at this place that both Aaron and Moses were

prohibited from entering the Promised Land (Num. xx.). In

what way they had not ``sanctified'' (an allusion in the

Hebrew to Kadesh ``holy'') Yahweh is quite uncertain, and

it would appear that it was for a similar offence that the

sons of Aaron mentioned above also met their death (Lev. x. 3;

cp. Num. xx. 12, Deut. xxxii. 51). Aaron is said to have

died at Moserah (Deut. x. 6), or at Mt. Hor; the latter is

an unidentified site on the border of Edom (Num. xx. 23,

xxxiii. 37; for Moserah see ib. 30-31), and consequently

not in the neighbourhood of Petra, which has been the

traditional scene from the time of Josephus (Ant. iv. 4. 7).

Several difficulties in the present Biblical text appear to

have arisen from the attempt of later tradition to find a

place for Aaron in certain incidents. In the account of the

contention between Moses and his sister Miriam (Num. xii.),

Aaron occupies only a secondary position, and it is very doubtful

whether he was originally mentioned in the older surviving

narratives. It is at least remarkable that he is only thrice

mentioned in Deuteronomy (ix. 20, x. 6, xxxii. 50). The

post-exilic narratives give him a greater share in the plagues of

Egypt, represent him as high-priest, and confirm his position

by the miraculous budding of his rod alone of all the rods of

the other tribes (Num. xvii.; for parallels see Gray comm.

ad loc., p. 217). The latter story illustrates the growth

of the older exodus-tradition along with the development of

priestly ritual: the old account of Korah's revolt against the

authority of Moses has been expanded, and now describes (a)

the divine prerogatives of the Levites in general, and (b)

the confirmation of the superior privileges of the Aaronites

against the rest of the Levites, a development which can

scarcely be earlier than the time of Ezekiel (xliv. 15 seq.).

Aaron's son Eleazar was buried in an Ephraimite locality

known after the grandson as the ``hill of Phinehas'' (Josh.

xxiv. 33). Little historical information has been preserved of

either. The name Phinehas (apparently of Egyptian origin)

is better known as that of a son of Eli, a member of the

priesthood of Shiloh, and Eleazar is only another form of

Eliezer the son of Moses, to whose kin Eli is said to have

belonged. The close relation between Aaronite and Levitical

names and those of clans related to Moses is very noteworthy,

and it is a curious coincidence that the name of Aaron's

sister Miriam appears in a genealogy of Caleb (1 Chron. iv.

17) with Jether (cp. JETHRO) and Heber (cp. KENITES). In

view of the confusion of the traditions and the difficulty of

interpreting the details sketched above, the recovery of the

historical Aaron is a work of peculiar intricacy. He may

well have been the traditional head of the priesthood, and

R. H. Kennett has argued in favour of the view that he was

the founder of the cult at Bethel (Journ. of Theol. Stud.,

1905, pp. 161 sqq.), corresponding to the Mosaite founder

of Dan (q.v.). This throws no light upon the name, which

still remains quite obscure: and unless Aaron (Aharon) is

based upon Aron, ``ark'' (Redslob, R. P. A. Dozy, J. P.

N. Land), names associated with Moses and Aaron, which are,

apparently, of South Palestinian (or North-Arabian) origin.

For the literature and a general account of the Jewish

priesthood, see the articles LEVTTES and PRIEST. . (S. A. C.)

AARON'S ROD, the popular name given to various tall flowering

plants (``hag taper,', ``golden rod,'' &c.). In architecture

the term is given to an ornamental rod with sprouting leaves,

or sometimes with a serpent entwined round it (from the

Biblical references in Exodus vii. 10 and Numbers xvii. 8).

AARSSENS, or AARSSEN, FRANCIS VAN (1572-1641), a

celebrated diplomatist and statesman of the United Provinces.

His talents commended him to the notice of Advocate Johan

van Oldenbarneveldt, who sent him, at the age of 26 years,

as a diplomatic agent of the states-general to the court of

France. He took a considerable part in the negotiations of

the twelve years' truce in 1606. His conduct of affairs having

displeased the French king, he was recalled from his post by

Oldenbarneveldt in 1616. Such was the hatred he henceforth

conceived against his former benefactor, that he did his

very utmost to effect his ruin. He was one of the packed

court of judges who in 1619 condemned the aged statesman to

death. For his share in this judicial murder a deep stain

rests on the memory of Aarssens. He afterwards became the

confidential counsellor of Maurice, prince of Orange, and

afterwards of Frederick Henry, prince of Orange, in their

conduct of the foreign affairs of the republic. He was sent

on special embassies to Venice, Germany and England, and

displayed so much diplomatic skill and finesse that Richelieu

ranked him among the three greatest politicians of his time.

AASEN, IVAR (1813-1896), Norwegian philologist and

lexicographer, was born at Aasen i Orsten, in Sondmore,

Norway, on the. 5th of August 1813. His father, a small

peasant-farmer named Ivar Jonsson, died in 1826. He was

brought up to farmwork, but he assiduously cultivated all

his leisure in reading, and when he was eighteen he opened an

elementary school in his native parish. In 1833 he entered

the household of H. C. Thoresen the husband of the eminent

writer Magdalene Thoresen, in Hero, and here he picked up

the elements of Latin. Gradually, and by dint of infinite

patience and concentration, the young peasant became master

of many languages, and began the scientific study of their

structure. About 1841 he had freed himself from all the

burden of manual labour, and could occupy his thoughts with

the dialect of his native district, the Sondmore; his

first publication was a small collection of folk-songs in

the Sondmore language (1843) . His remarkable abilities now

attracted general attention, and he was helped to continue his

studies undisturbed. His Grammar ofthe Norwegian Dialects

(1848) was the result of much labour, and of journeys taken

to every part of the country. Aasen's famous Dictionary

of the Norwegian Dialects appeared in its original form in

1850, and from this publication dates all the wide cultivation

of the popular language in Norwegian, since Aasen really did

no less than construct, out of the different materials at his

disposal, a popular language or definite folke-maal for

Norway. With certain modifications, the most important of which

were introduced later by Aasen himself, this artificial language

is that which has been adopted ever since by those who write in

dialect, and which later enthusiasts have once more endeavoured

to foist upon Norway as her official language in the place of

Dano-Norwegian. Aasen composed poems and plays in the composite

dialect to show how it should be used; one of these dramas,

The Heir (1855), was frequently acted, and may be considered

as the pioneer of all the abundant dialect-literature of the

last half-century, from Vinje down to Garborg. Aasen continued

to enlarge and improve his grammars and his dictionary. He

lived very quietly in lodgings in Christiania, surrounded by

his books and shrinking from publicity, but his name grew into

wide political favour as his ideas about the language of the

peasants became more and more the watch-word of the popular

party. Quite early in his career, 1842, he had begun to

receive a stipend to enable him to give his entire attention

to his philological investigations; and the Storthing--.

conscious of the national importance of his woth---treated hm

in this respect with more and more generosity as he advanced in

years. He continued his investigations to the last, but it

may be said that, after the 1873 edition of his Dictionary,

he added but little to his stores. Ivar Aasen holds perhaps

an isolated place in literary history as the one man who has

invented, or at least selected and constructed, a language

which has pleased so many thousands of his countrymen that

they have accepted it for their schools, their sermons

and their songs. He died in Christiania on the 23rd of

September 1896, and was buried with Public honours. (E. G.)

AB, the fifth month of the ecclesiastical and the

eleventh of the civil year of the Jews. It approximately

Corresponds to the period of the 15th of July to the 15th of

August. The word is of Babylonian origin, adopted by the

Jews with other calendar names after the Babylonian exile.

Tradition ascribes the death of Aaron to the first day of Ab.

On the ninth is kept the Fast of Ab, or the Black Fast, to

bewail the destruction of the first temple by Nebuchadrezzar

(586 B.C.) and of the second by Titus (A.D. 70).

ABA. (1) A form of altazimuth instrument, invented by, and Cabled

after, Antoine d'Abbadie; (2) a rough homespun manufactured in

Bulgariai (3) a long coarse shirt worn by the Bedouin Arabs.

ABABDA (the Gebadei of Pliny, probably the Troglodytes of

classical writers), a nomad tribe of African ``Arabs,, of Hamitic

origin. They extend from the Nile at Assuan to the Red Sea,

and reach northward to the Kena-Kosseir road, thus occupying

the southern border of Egypt east of the Nile. They call

themselves ``sons of the Jinns.'' With some of the clans of

the Bisharin (q.v.) and possibly the Hadendoa (q.v.) they

represent the Blemmyes of classic geographers, and their location

to-day is almost identical with that assigned them in Roman

times. They were constantly at war with the Romans, who at

last subsidized them. In the middle ages they were known as

Beja (q.v.), and convoyed pilgrims from the Nile valley to

Aidhab, the port of embarkation for Jedda. From time immemorial

they have acted as guides to caravans through the Nubian

desert and up the Nile valley as far as Sennar. To-day many of

them are employed in the telegraph service across the Arabian

desert. They intermarried with the Nuba, and settled in small

Colonies at Shendi and elsewhere long before the Egyptian

invasion (A.D. 1820-1822). They are still great trade

carriers, and visit very distant districts. The Ababda of

Egypt, numbering some 30,000, are governed by an hereditary

``chief.'' Although nominally a vassal of the Khedive he pays no

tribute. Indeed he is paid a subsidy, a portion of the

road-dues, in return for his safeguarding travellers from Bedouin

robbers. The sub-sheikhs are directly responsible to him.

The Ababda of Nubia, reported by Joseph von Russegger, who

visited the country in 1836, to number some 40,000, have since

diminished, having probably amalgamated with the Bisharin,

their hereditary enemies when they were themselves a powerful

nation. The Ababda generally speak Arabic (mingled with

Barabra [Nubian] words), the result of their long-continued

contact with Egypt; but the southern and south-eastern portion

of the tribe in many cases still retain their Beja dialect,

ToBedawiet. Those of Kosseir will not speak this before

strangers, as they believe that to reveal the mysterious

dialect would bring ruin on them. Those nearest the Nile

have much fellah blood in them. As a tribe they claim an Arab

origin, apparently through their sheikhs. They have adopted

the dress and habits of the fellahin, unlike their kinsmen

the Bisharin and Hadendoa, who go practically naked. They

are neither so fierce nor of so fine a physique as these

latter. They are lithe and well built, but small: the average

height is little more than 5 ft., except in the sheikh clan,

who are obviously of Arab origin. Their complexion is more

red than black, their features angular, noses straight and hair

luxuriant. They bear the character of being treacherous and

faithless, being bound by no oath, but they appear to be honest

in money matters and hospitable, and, however poor, never

beg. Formerly very poor, the Ababda became wealthy after

the British occupation of Egypt. The chief settlements are in

Nubia, where they live in villages and employ themselves in

agriculture. Others of them fish in the Red Sea and then

hawk the salt fish in the interior. Others are pedlars,

while charcoal burning, wood-gathering and trading in gums

and drugs, especially in senna leaves, occupy many. Unlike

the true Arab, the Ababda do not live in tents, but build

huts with hurdles and mats, or live in natural caves, as

did their ancestors in classic times. They have few horses,

using the camel as beast of burden or their ``mount'' in

war. They live chiefly on milk and durra, the latter

eaten either raw or roasted. They are very superstitious,

believing, for example, that evil would overtake a family

if a girl member should, after her marriage, ever set eyes

on her mother: hence the Ababda husband has to make his

home far from his wife's village. In the Mahdist troubles

(1882-1898) many ``friendlies'' were recruited from the tribe.

For their earlier history see BEJA; see also BISHARIN,

HADENDOA, KABBABish; and the following authorities:---Sir

F. R. Wingate, Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan (Lond.

1891); Giuseppe Sergi, Africa: Antropologia della Stirpe

Camitica (Turin, 1897); A. H. Keane, Ethnology of Egyptian

Sudan (Lond. 1884); Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by

Count Gleichen (Lond. 1905); Joseph von Russegger, Die

Reisen in Afrika (Stuttgart, 1841-1850). (T. A. J.)

ABACA, or ABAKA, a native name for the plant Musa textilis,

which produces the fibre called Manila Hemp (q.v.). .

ABACUS (Gr. abax, a slab Fr. abaque, tailloir), in

architecture, the upper member of the capital of a column.

Its chief function is to provide a larger supporting surface

for the architrave or arch it has to carry. In the Greek Doric

order the abacus is a plain square slab. In the Roman and

Renaissance Doric orders it is crowned by a moulding. In the

Archaic-Greek Ionic order, owing to the greater width of the

capital, the abacus is rectangular in plan, and consists of a

carved ovolo moulding. In later examples the abacus is square,

except where there are angle volutes, when it is slightly

curved over the same. In the Roman and Renaissance Ionic

capital, the abacus is square with a fillet On the top of an

ogee moulding, but curved over angle volutes. In the Greek

Corinthian order the abacus is moulded, its sides are concave

and its angles canted (except in one or two exceptional Greek

capitals, where it is brought to a sharp angle); and the same

shape is adopted in the Roman and Renaissance Corinthian and

Composite capitals, in some cases with the ovolo moulding

carved. In Romanesque architecture the abacus is square with

the lower edge splayed off and moulded or carved, and the

same was retained in France during the medieval period; but

in England,in Early English work, a circular deeply moulded

abacus was introduced, which in the 14th and 15th centuries

was transformed into an octagonal one. The diminutive of

Abacus, ABACISCUS, is applied in architecture to the chequers

or squares of a tessellated pavement . ``Abacus'' is also the

name of an instrument employed by the ancients for arithmetical

calculations; pebbles, hits of bone or coins being used as

counters. Fig. 1 shows a Roman abacus taken from an ancient

monument. It contains seven long and seven shorter rods

or bars, the former having four perforated beads running

on them and the latter one. The bar marked 1 indicates

units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads on the

shorter bars denote fives,--five units, five tens, &c. The

rod O and corresponding short rod are for marking ounces;

and the short quarter rods for fractions of an ounce.

The Swan-Pan of the Chinese (fig. 2) closely resembles

the Roman abacus in its construction and use. Computations

are made with it by means of balls of bone or ivory running

on slender bamboo rods, similar to the simpler board,

fitted up with beads strung on wires, which is employed in

teaching the rudiments of arithmetic in English schools.

FIG. 2.--Chinese Swan-Pan. The name of ``abacus'' is also

given, in logic, to an instrument, often called the ``logical

machine,'' analogous to the mathematical abacus. It is

constructed to show all the possible combinations of a set of

logical terms with their negatives, and, further, the way in which

these combinations are affected by the addition of attributes

or other limiting words, i.e. to simplify mechanically the

solution of logical problems. These instruments are all more

or less elaborate developments of the ``logical slate,'' on

which were written in vertical columns all the combinations

of symbols or letters which could be made logically out of a

definite number of terms. These were compared with any given

premises, and those which were incompatible were crossed

off. In the abacus the combinations are inscribed each on a

single slip of wood or similar substance, which is moved by a

key; incompatible combinations can thus be mechanically removed

at will, in accordance with any given series of premises.

The principal examples of such machines are those of W. S.

Jevons (Element. Lessons in Logic, C. xxiii.), John Venn

(see his Symbolic Logic, 2nd ed., 1894, p. 135), and Allan

Marquand (see American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1885, pp.

303-7, and Johns Hopkins University Studies in Logic, 1883).

ABADDON, a Hebrew word meaning ``destruction.'' In poetry

it comes to mean ``place of destruction,'' and so the

underworld or Sheol (cf. Job xxvi. 6; Prov. xv. 11). In Rev.

ix. 11 Abaddon ((Abaddon) is used of hell personified,

the prince of the underworld. The term is here explained

as Apollyon (q.v.), the ``destroyer.', W. Baudissin

(Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo padie) notes that Hades and

Abaddon in Rabbinic writings are employed as personal names,

just as shemayya in Dan. iv. 23, shamayim (``heaven''),

and makom (``place'') among the Rabbins, are used of God.

ABADEH, a small walled town of Persia, in the province of

Fars, situated at an elevation of 6200 ft. in a fertile

plain on the high road between Isfahan and Shiraz, 140 m.

from the former and 170 m. from the latter place. Pop.

4000. It is the chief place of the Abadeh-Iklid district,

which has 30 villages; it has telegraph and post offices,

and is famed for its carved wood-work, small boxes, trays,

sherbet spoons, &c., made of the wood of pear and box trees.

ABAE (rabai), a town in the N.E. corner of Phocis, in

Greece, famous in early times for its oracle of Apollo,

one of those consulted by Croesus (Herod. i. 46). It was

rich in treasures (Herod. viii. 33), but was sacked by the

Persians, and the temple remained in a ruined state. The

oracle was, however, still consulted, e.g. by the Thebans

before Leuctra (Paus. iv. 32. 5). The temple seems to have

been burnt again during the Sacred War, and was in a very

dilapidated state when seen by Pausanias (x. 35), though

some restoration, as well as the building of a new temple,

was undertaken by Hadrian. The sanctity of the shrine

ensured certain privileges to the people of Abac (Bull.

Corresp. Hell. vi. 171), and these were confirmed by the

Romans. The polygonal wabs of the acropolis may still be

seen in a fair state of preservation on a circular hill

standing about 500 ft. above the little plain of Exarcho;

one gateway remains, and there are also traces of town walls

below. The temple site was on a low spur of the hill, below the

town. An early terrace wall supports a precinct in which are

a stoa and some remains of temples; these were excavated by the

British School at Athens in 1894, but very little was found.

See also W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece, ii. p. 163i Journal

of Hellenic Studies, xvi. pp. 291-312 (V. W. Yorke). . (E. GR.)

ABAKANSK, a fortified town of Siberia, in the Russian

government of Yeniseisk, on the river Yenisei, 144 m. S.S.W.

of Krasnoyarsk, in lat. 54 deg. 20' N., long. 91 deg. 40' E. This is

considered the mildest and most salubrious place in Siberia, and

is remarkable for certain tumuli (of the Li Kitai) and statues

of men from seven to nine feet high, covered with hieroglyphics.

Peter the Great had a fort built here in 1707. Pop. 2000.

ABALONE, the Spanish name used in California for various

species of the shell-fish of the Haliotidae family, with a

richly coloured shell yielding mother-of-pearl. This sort

of Haliotis is also commonly called ``ear-shell,'' and in

Guernsey ``ormer'' (Fr. ormier, for oreille de mer).

The abalone shell is found especially at Santa Barbara and

other places on the southern Californian coast, and when

polished makes a beautiful ornament. The mollusc itself is

often eaten, and dried for consumption in China and Japan.

ABANA (or AMANAH, classical Chrysorrhoas) and PHARPAR,

the ``rivers of Damascus'' (2 Kings v. 12), now generally

identified with the Barada (i.e. ``cold'') and the A`waj

(i.e. ``crooked'') respectively, though if the reference

to Damascus be limited to the city, as in the Arabic

version of the Old Testament, Pharpar would be the modern

Taura. Both streams run from west to east across the plain of

Damascus, which owes to them much of its fertility, and lose

themselves in marshes, or lakes, as they are called, on the

borders of the great Arabian desert. John M'Gregor, who gives

an interesting description of them in his Rob Roy on the

Jordan, affirmed that as a work of hydraulic engineering,

the system and construction of the canals, by which the Abana

and Pharpar were used for irrigation, might be considered as

one of the most complete and extensive in the world. As the

Barada escapes from the mountains through a narrow gorge,

its waters spread out fan-like, in canals or ``rivers'', the

name of one of which, Nahr Banias, retains a trace of Abana.

ABANCOURT, CHARLES XAVIER JOSEPH DE FRANQUE VILLE D',

(1758-1792), French statesman, and nephew of Calonne. He was

Louis XVI.'s last minister of war (July 1792), and organized

the defence of the Tuileries for the 10th of August. Commanded

by the Legislative Assembly to send away the Swiss guards, he

refused, and was arrested for treason to the nation and sent

to Orleans to be tried. At the end of August the Assembly

ordered Abancourt and the other prisoners at Orleans to

be transferred to Paris with an escort commanded by Claude

Fournier, ``the American.'' At Versailles they learned of the

massacres at Paris, and Abancourt and his fellow-prisoners

were murdered in cold blood on the 8th of September 1792.

Fournier was unjustly charged with complicity in the crime.

ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to

abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent

to mettrea bandon, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of

another, bandon being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order,

decree, ``ban''), in law, the relinquishment of an interest,

claim, privilege or possession. Its signification varies

according to the branch of the law in which it is employed,

but the more important uses of the word are summarized below.

ABANDONMENT OF AN ACTION is the discontinuance of proceedings

commenced in the High Court of Justice either because the

plaintiff is convinced that he will not succeed in his action

or for other reasons. Previous to the Judicature Act of 1875,

considerable latitude was allowed as to the time when a suitor

might abandon his action, and yet preserve his right to bring

another action on the same suit (see NONSUIT); but since 1875

this right has been considerably curtailed, and a plaintiff who

has deilvered his reply (see PLEADING), and afterwards wishes

to abandon his action, can generally obtain leave so to do only

on condition of bringing no further proceedings in the matter.

ABANDONMENT IN MARINE INSURANCE is the surrender of the ship

or goods insured to the insurers, in the case of a constructive

total loss of the thing insured. For the requisites and

effects of abandonment in this sense See INSURANCE, MARINE.

ABANDONMENT OF WIFE AND CHILDREN is dealt with under

DESERTION, and the abandonment or exposure of a

young child under the age of two, which is an indictable

misdemeanour, is dealt with under CHILDREN, CRUELTY TO.

ABANDONMENT OF DOMICILE is the ceasing to reside permanently

in a former domicile coupled with the intention of choosing a new

domicile. The presumptions which will guide the court in deciding

whether a former domicile has been abandoned or not must be

inferred from the facts of each individual case. See DOMICILE.

ABANDONMENT OF AN EASEMENT is the relinquishment of some

accommodation or right in another's land, such as right of

way, free access of light and air, &c. See EASEMENT.

ABANDONMENT OF RAILWAYS has a legal signification in England

recognized by statute, by authority of which the Board of

Trade may, under certain circumstances, grant a warrant to a

railway authorizing the abandonment of its line or part of it.

ABANO, PIETRO D, (1250-1316), known also as PETRUS DE

APONO or APONENSIS, Italian physician and philosopher,

was born at the Italian town from which he takes his name

in 1250, or, according to others, in 1246. After studying

medicine and philosophy at Paris he settled at Padua, where

he speedily gained a great reputation as a physician, and

availed himself of it to gratify his avarice by refusing

to visit patients except for an exorbitant fee. Perhaps

this, as well as his meddling with astrology, caused him to

be charged with practising magic, the particular accusations

being that he brought back into his purse, by the aid of the

devil, all the money he paid away, and that he possessed the

philosopher's stone. He was twice brought to trial by the

Inquisition; on the first occasion he was acquitted, and he

died (1316) before the second trial was completed. He was

found guilty, however, and his body was ordered to be exhumed

and burned; but a friend had secretly removed it, and the

Inquisition had, therefore, to content itself with the public

proclamation of its sentence and the burning of Abano in

effigy. In his writings he expounds and advocates the medical

and philosophical systems of Averroes and other Arabian

writers. His best known works are the Conciliator differentiarum

quae inter philosophos et medicos versantur (Mantua, 1472;

V.enice, 1476), and De venenis eorumque remediis (1472),

of which a French translation was published at Lyons in 1593.

ABANO BAGNI, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of

Padua, on the E. slope of the Monti Euganei; it is 6 m. S.W.

by rail from Padua. Pop. (1901) 4556. Its hot springs and

mud baths are much resorted to, and were known to the Ronlans

as Aponi fons or Aquae Patavinae. Some remains of the

ancient baths have been discovered (S. Mandruzzato, Trattato

dei Bagni d' Abano, Padua, 1789). An oracle of Geryon lay

near, and the so-called sortes Praenestinae (C.I.L. i.,

Berlin, 1863; 1438-1454), small bronze cylinders inscribed, and

used as oracles, were perhaps found here in the 16th century.

ABARIS, a Scythian or Hyperborean, priest and prophet

of Apollo, who is said to have visited Greece about 770

B.C., or two or three centuries later. According to

the legend, he travelled throughout the country, living

without food and riding on a golden arrow, the gift of

the god; he healed the sick, foretold the future, worked

miracles, and delivered Sparta from a plague (Herod. iv. 36;

Iamblichus, De Fit. Pythag. xix. 28). Suidas credits him

with several works: Scythian oracles, the visit of Apollo to

the Hyperboreans, expiatory formulas and a prose theogony.

ABATED, an ancient technical term applied in masonry and

metal work to those portions which are sunk beneath the

surface, as in inscriptions where the ground is sunk round

the letters so as to leave the letters or ornament in relief.

ABATEMENT (derived through the French abattre, from the

Late Latin battere, to beat), a beating down or diminishing or

doing away with; a term used especially in various legal phrases.

ABATEMENT OF A NUISANCE is the remedy allowed by law to

a person or public authority injured by a public nuisance

of destroying or removing it, provided no breach of the

peace is committed in doing so. In the case of private

nuisances abatement is also allowed provided there be no

breach of the peace, and no damage be occasioned beyond

what the removal of the nuisance requires. (See NUISANCE.)

ABATEMENT OF FREEHOLD takes place where, after the death of

the person last seised, a stranger enters upon lands before

the entry of the heir or devisee, and keeps the latter out of

possession. It differs from intrusion, which is a similar

entry by a stranger on the death of a tenant for life, to

the prejudice of the reversioner, or remainder man; and from

disseisin, which is the forcible or fraudulent expulsion

of a person seised of the freehold. (See FREEHOLD.)

ABATEMENT OE DEBTS AND LEGACIES. When the equitable assets

(see ASSETS) of a deceased person are not sufficient to

satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate

proportionately, and they must accept a dividend. Also, in

the case of legacies when the funds or assets out of which

they are payable are not sufficient to pay them in full, the

legacies abate in proportion, unless there is a priority given

specially to any particular legacy (see LEGACY). Annuities

are also subject to the same rule as general legacies.

ABATEMENT IN PLEADING, or plea in abatement, was the

defeating or quashing of a particular action by some matter of

fact, such as a defect in form or the personal incompetency

of the parties suing, pleaded by the defendant. It did not

involve the merits of the cause, but left the right of action

subsisting. In criminal proceedings a plea in abatement was at

one time a common practice in answer to an indictment, and was

set up for the purpose of defeating the indictment as framed,

by alleging misnomer or other misdescription of the defendant.

Its effect for this purpose was nullified by the Criminal Law

Act 1826, which required the court to amend according to the

truth, and the Criminal Procedure Act 1851, which rendered

description of the defendant unnecessary. All pleas in abatement

are now abolished (R.S.G. Order 21, r. 20). See PLEADING.

ABATEMENT IN LITIGATION. In civil proceedings, no action

abates by reason of the marriage, death or bankruptcy of any

of the parties, if the cause of action survives or continues,

and does not become defective by the assignment, creation or

devolution of any estate or title pendente lite (R.S.C. Order

17, r. 1). Criminal proceedings do not abate on the death of

the prosecutor, being in theory instituted by the crown, but

the crown itself may bring about their termination without any

decision on the merits and without the assent of the prosecutor.

ABATEMENT OF FALSE LIGHTS. By the Merchant Shipping Act

1854, the general lighthouse authority (see LIGHTHOUSE) has

power to order the extinguishment or screening of any light

which may be mistaken for a light proceeding from a lighthouse.

ABATEMENT IN COMMERCE is a deduction sometimes made at a

custom-house from the fixed duties on certain kinds of goods, on

account of damage or loss sustained in warehouses. The rate and

conditions of such deductions are regulated, in England, by the

Customs Consolidation Act 1853. (See also DRAWBACK; REBATE.)

ABATEMENT IN HERALDRY is a badge in coat-armour, indicating some

kind of degradation or dishonour. It is called also rebatement.

ABATI, or DELL' ABBATO, NICCOLO (1512--1571), a celebrated

fresco-painter of Modena, whose best works are there and at

Bologna. He accompanied Primaticcio to France, and assisted

in decorating the palace at Fontainebleau (1552--1571). His

pictures exhibit a combination of skill in drawing, grace

and natural colouring. Some of his easel pieces in oil are

in different collections; one of the finest, in the Dresden

Gallery, represents the martyrdom of St Peter and St Paul.

ABATIS,ABATTIS or ABBATTIS (a French word meaning

a heap of material thrown), a term in field fortification

for an obstacle formed of the branches of trees laid

in a row, with the tops directed towards the enemy and

interlaced or tied with wire. The abatis is used alone or

in combination with wire-entanglements and other obstacles.

ABATTOIR (from abattre, to strike down), a French word often

employed in English as an equivalent of ``slaughter-house''

(q.v.), the place where animals intended for food are killed.

ABAUZIT, FIRMIN (1679-1767), a learned Frenchman, was born of

Protestant parents at Uzes, in Languedoc. His father died when

he was but two years of age; and when, on the revocation of the

edict of Nantes in 1685, the authorities took steps to have him

educated in the Roman Catholic faith, his mother contrived his

escape. For two years his brother and he lived as fugitives in

the mountains of the Cevennes, but they at last reached Geneva,

where their mother afterwards joined them on escaping from

the imprisonment in which she was held from the time of their

flight. Abauzit at an early age acquired great proficiency in

languages, physics and theology. In 1698 he went to Holland,

and there became acquainted with Pierre Bayle, P. Jurieu and J.

Basnage. Proceeding to England, he was introduced to Sir Isaac

Newton, who found in him one of the earliest defenders of his

discoveries. Sir Isaac corrected in the second edition of

his Principia an error pointed out by Abauzit, and, when

sending him the Commercium Epistolicum, said, ``You are

well worthy to judge between Leibnitz and me.'' The reputation

of Abauzit induced William III. to request him to settle in

England, but he did not accept the king's offer, preferring

to return to Geneva. There from 1715 he rendered valuable

assistance to a society that had been formed for translating

the New Testament into French. He declined the offer of

the chair of philosophy in the university in 1723, but

accepted, in 1727, the sinecure office of librarian to the

city of his adoption. Here he died at a good old age, in

1767. Abauzit was a man of great learning and of wonderful

versatility. Whatever chanced to be discussed,it used to be

said of Abauzit, as of Professor W. Whewell of more modern

times, that he seemed to have made it a subject of particular

study. Rousseau, who was jealously sparing of his praises,

addressed to him, in his Nouvelle Heloise, a fine panegyric;

and when a stranger flatteringly told Voltaire he had come

to see a great man, the philosopher asked him if he had seen

Abauzit. Little remains of the labours of this intellectual

giant, his heirs having, it is said, destroyed the papers

that came into their possession, because their own religious

opinions were different. A few theological, archaeological

abd astronomical articles from his pen appeared in the

Journal Helvetique and elsewhere, and he contributed

several papers to Rousseau's Dictionnaire de musique

(1767). He wrote a work throwing doubt on the canonical

authority of the Apocalypse, which called forth a reply

from Dr Leonard Twells. He also edited and made valuable

additions to J. Spon's Histoire de la republique de Geneve.

A collection of his writings was published at Geneva in

1770 (OEuvres de feu M. Abauzit), and another at London

in 1773 (OEuvres diverses de M. Abauzit). Some of them

were translated into English by Dr Edward Harwood (1774).

Information regarding Abauzit will be found in J.

Senebier's HIstoire Litteraire de Geneve, Harwood's

Miscellanies, and W. Orme's Bibliotheca Biblica (1824).

'ABAYE, the name of a Babylonian 'amora (q.v.),

born in the middle of the 3rd century. He died in 339.

'ABBA 'ARIKA, the name of thc Babylonian 'amora (q.v.) of

the 3rd century, who established at Sura the systematic study

of the Rabbinic traditions which, using the Mishnah as text, led

to the compilation of the Talmud. He is commonly known as Rab.

ABBADIDES, a Mahommedan dynasty which arose in Spain on the

downfall of the western caliphate. It lasted from about 1023

till 1091, but during the short period of its existence was

singularly active and typical of its time. The founder of

the house was Abd-ul-Qasim Mahommed, the cadi of Seville in

1023. He was the chief of an Arab family settled in the city

from the first days of the conquest. The Beni-abbad were not

of ancient descent, though the poets, whom they paid largely,

made an illustrious pedigree for them when they had become

powerful. They were, however, very rich. Abd-ul-Qasim gained

the confidence of the townsmen by organizing a successful

resistance to the Berber soldiers of fortune who were grasping

at the fragments of the caliphate. At first he professed to

rule only with the advice of a council formed of the nobles,

but when his power became established he dispensed with this

show of republican government, and then gave himself the

appearance of a legitimate title by protecting an impostor

who professed to be the caliph Hisham II. When Abd-ul-Qasim

died in 1042 he had created a state which, though weak in

itself, was strong as compared to the little powers about

it. He had made his family the recognized leaders of the

Mahommedans of Arab and native Spanish descent against

the Berber element, whose chief was the king of Granada.

Abbad, surnamed El Motaddid, his son and successor, is

one of the most remarkable figures in Spanish Mahommedan

history. He had a striking resemblance to the Italian princes

of the later middle ages and the early renaissance, of the

stamp of Fiiipo Maria Visconti. El Motaddid was a poet and

a lover of letters, who was also a poisoner, a drinker of

wine, a sceptic and treacherous to the utmost degree. Though

he waged war all through his reign he very rarely appeared in

the field, but directed the generals, whom he never trusted,

from his ``lair'' in the fortified palace, the Alcazar of

Seville. He killed with his own hand one of his sons who had

rebelled against him. On one occasion he trapped a number

of his enemies, the Berber chiefs of the Ronda, into visiting

him, and got rid of them by smothering them in the hot room

of a bath. It was his taste to preserve the skulls of the

enemies he had killed--those of the meaner men to be used as

flower-pots, while those of the princes were kept in special

chests. His reign until his death on the 28th of February

1069 was mainly spent in extending his power at the expense

of his smaller neighbours, and in conflicts with his chief

rival the king of Granada. These incessant wars weakened the

Mahommedans, to the great advantage of the rising power of

the Christian kings of Leon and Castile, but they gave the

kingdom of Seville a certain superiority over the other little

states. After 1063 he was assailed by Fernando El Magno of

Castile and Leon, who marched to the gates of Seville, and

forced him to pay tribute. His son, Mahommed Abd-ul-Qasim

Abenebet---who reigned by the title of El Motamid--was the

third and last of the Abbadides, He was a no less remarkable

person than his father and much more amiable. Like him he was

a poet, and a favourer of poets. El Motamid went, however,

considerably further in patronage of literature than his father,

for he chose as his favourite and prime minister the poet Ibn

Ammar. In the end the vanity and featherheadedness of Ibn

Ammar drove his master to kill him. El Motamid was even

more influenced by his favourite wife, Romaica, than by his

vizir. He had met her paddling in the Guadalquivir, purchased

her from her master, and made her his wife. The caprices

of Romaica, and the lavish extravagance of Motamid in his

efforts to please her, form the subject of many stories.

In politics he carried on the feuds of his family with the

Berbers, and in his efforts to extend his dominions could be

as faithless as his father. His wars and his extravagance

exhausted his treasury, and he oppressed his subjects by

taxes. In 1080 he brought down upon himself the vengeance of

Alphonso VI. of Castile by a typical piece of flighty oriental

barbarity. He had endeavoured to pay part of his tribute to the

Christian king with false money. The fraud was detected by a

Jew, who was one of the envoys of Alphonso. El Motamid, in

a moment of folly and rage, crucified the Jew and imprisoned

the Christian members of the mission. Alphonso retaliated

by a destructive raid. When Alphonso took Toledo in 1085,

El Motamid called in Yusef ibn Tashfin, the Almoravide (see

SPAIN, History, and ALMORAVIDES). During the six years

which preceded his deposition in 1091, El Motamid behaved

with valour on the field, but with much meanness and political

folly. He endeavoured to curry favour with Yusef by betraying

the other Mahommedan princes to him, and intrigued to secure

the alliance of Alphonso against the Almoravide. It was

probably during this period that he surrendered his beautiful

daughter Zaida to the Christian king, who made her his

concubine, and is said by some authorities to have married

her after she bore him a son, Sancho. The vacillations and

submissions of El Motamid did not save him from the fate

which overtook his fellow-princes. Their scepticism and

extortion had tired their subjects, and the mullahs gave Yusef

a ``fetva'' authorzing him to remove them in the interest of

religion. In 1091 the Almoravides stormed Seville. El

Motamid, who had fought bravely, was weak enough to order his

sons to surrender the fortresses they still held, in order

to save his own life. He died in prison in Africa in 1095.

AUTHORITIES.--Dozy, Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne,

Leiden, 1861; and Historia Abbadidarum (Scriptorum

Arabum loci de Abbadidio), Leiden, 1846. (D. II.)

ABBADIE, ANTOINE THOMSON D', (1810-1897), and ARNAUD MICHEL

D', (1815-1893), two brothers notable for their travels in

Abyssinia during the first half of the 19th century. They

were both born in Dublin, of a French father and an Irish

mother, Antoine in 1810 and Arnaud in 1815. The parents

removed to France in 1818, and there the brothers received

a careful scientific education. In 1835 the French Academy

sent Antoine on a scientific mission to Brazil, the results

being published at a later date (1873) under the title of

Observations relatives a! la physique du globe faites au

Bresil et en Ethiopie. The younger Abbadie spent some

time in Algeria before, in 1837, the two brothers started for

Abyssinia, landing at Massawa in February 1838. They visited

various parts of Abyssinia, including the then little-known

districts of Ennarea and Kaffa, sometimes together and

sometimes separately. They met with many difficulties and

many adventures, and became involved in political intrigues,

Antoine especially exercising such influence as he possessed

in favour of France and the Roman Catholic missionaries. After

collecting much valuable information concerning the geography,

geology, archaeology and natural history of Abyssinia, the

brothers returned to France in 1848 and began to prepare their

materials for publication. The younger brother, Arnaud, paid

another visit to Abyssinia in 1853. The more distinguished

brother, Antoine, became involved in various controversies

relating both to his geographical results and his political

intrigues. He was especially attacked by C. T. Beke, who

impugned his veracity, especially with reference to the journey to

Kana. But time and the investigations of subsequent explorers

have shown that Abbadie was quite trustworthy as to his facts,

though wrong in his contention--hotly contested by Beke--that

the Blue Nile was the main stream. The topographical results

of his explorations were published in Paris in 1860-1873 in

Geodesie d'Ethiopie, full of the most valuable information and

illustrated by ten maps. Of the Geographie de l'Ethiopie

(Paris, 1890) only one volume has been published. In Un

Catalogue raisonne de manuscrits ethiopiens (Paris, 1859)

is a description of 234 Ethiopian manuscripts collected by

Antoine. He also compiled various vocabularies, including

a Dictionnaire de la langue amarinna (Paris, 1881), and

prepared an edition of the Shepherd of Hermas, with the

Latin version, in 1860. He published numerous papers dealing

with the geography of Abyssinia, Ethiopian coins and ancient

inscriptions. Under the title of Reconnaissances magnetiques

he published in 1890 an account of the magnetic observations

made by him in the course of several journeys to the Red

Sea and the Levant. The general account of the travels of

the two brothers was published by Arnaud in 1868 under the

title of Douze ans dans la Haute Ethiopie. Both brothers

received the grand medal of the Paris Geographical Society in

1850. Antoine was a knight of the Legion of Honour and a

member of the Academy of Sciences. He died in 1897, and

bequeathed an estate in the Pyrenees, yielding 40,000 francs

a year, to the Academy of Sciences, on condition of its

producing within fifty years a catalogue of half-a-million

stars. His brother Arnaud died in 1893. (J. S. K.)

ABBADIE, JAKOB (1654?-1727), Swiss Protestant divine,

was born at Nay in Bern. He studied at Sedan, Saumur and

Puylaurens, with such success that he received the degree of

doctor in theology at the age of seventeen. After spending

some years in Berlin as minister of a French Protestant church,

where he had great success as a preacher, he accompanied

Marshal Schomberg, in 1688, to England, and next year became

minister of the French church in the Savoy, London. His

strong attachment to the cause of King William appears in

his elaborate defence of the Revolution (Defense de la

nation britannique, 1692) as well as in his history of the

conspiracy of 1696 (Histoire de la grande conspiration

d'Angleterre). The king promoted him to the deanery of Killaloe

in Ireland. He died in London in 1727. Abbadie was a man

of great ability and an eloquent preacher, but is best known

by his religious treatises, several of which were translated

from the original French into other languages and had a wide

circulation throughout Europe. The most important of these are

Traite de la verite de la religion chretienne (1684); its

continuation, Traite de la divinite de Jesus-Christ

(1689); and L'Art de se connaitre soi-meme (1692).

'ABBAHU, the name of a Palestinian 'amora (q.v.)

who flourished c. 279-320. 'Abbahu encouraged the

study of Greek by Jews. He was famous as a collector of

traditional lore, and is very often cited in the Talmud.

ABBA MARI (in full, Abba Mari ben Moses benJoseph), French

rabbi, was born at Lunel, near Montpellier, towards the end of

the 13th century. He is also known as Yarhi from his birthplace

(Heb. Yerah, i.e. moon, lune), and he further took the

name Astruc, Don Astruc or En Astruc of Lunel. The descendant

of men learned in rabbinic lore, Abba Mari devoted himself

to the study of theology and philosophy, and made himself

acquainted with the writing of Moses Maimonides and Nachmanides

as well as with the Talmud. In Montpellier, where he lived

from 1303 to 1306, he was much distressed by the prevalence

of Aristotelian rationalism, which, through the medium of

the works of Maimonides, threatened the authority of the Old

Testament, obedience to the law, and the belief in miracles and

revelation. He, therefore, in a series of letters (afterwards

collected under the title Minhat Kenaot, i.e. ``Jealousy

Offering'') called upon the famous rabbi Solomon ben Adret

of Barcelona to come to the aid of orthodoxy. Ben Adret,

with the approval of other prominent Spanish rabbis, sent a

letter to the community at Montpellier proposing to forbid the

study of philosophy to those who were less than thirty years

of age, and, in spite of keen opposition from the liberal

section, a decree in this sense was issued by ben Adret in

1305. The result was a great schism among the Jews of Spain

and southern France, and a new impulse was given to the study

of philosophy by the unauthorized interference of the Spanish

rabbis. On the expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip

IV. in 1306, Abba Mari settled at Perpignan, where he

published the letters connected with the controversy. His

subsequent history is unknown. Beside the letters, he was

the author of liturgical poetry and works on civil law.

AUTHORITIES.--Edition of the Minhat Kenaot by M. L.

Bislichis (Pressburg, 1838); E. Renan, Les rabbins francais,

pp. 647 foll.; Perles, Salomo ben Abrahann ben Adereth,

pp. 15-54; Jewish Encyclopaedia, s.v. ``Abba Mari.''

ABBAS I. (1813-1854), pasha of Egypt, was a son of Tusun

Pasha and grandson of Mehemet Ali, founder of the reigning

dynasty. As a young man he fought in Syria under Ibrahim Pasha

(q.v.), his real or supposed uncle. The death of Ibrahim

in November 1848 made Abbas regent of Egypt, and in August

following, on the death of Mehemet Alh--who had been deposed

in July 1848 on account of mental weakness,--Abbas succeeded

to the pashalik. He has been generally described as a mere

voluptuary, but Nubar Pasha spoke of him as a true Turkish

gentleman of the old school. He was without question a

reactionary, morose and taciturn, and spent nearly all his

time shut up in his palace. He undid, as far as lay in his

power, the works of his grandfather, good and bad. Among

other things he abolished trade monopolies, closed factories

and schools, and reduced the strength of the army to 9000

men. He was inaccessible to adventurers bent on plundering

Egypt, but at the instance of the British government

allowed the construction of a railway from Alexandria to

Cairo. In July 1854 he was murdered in Benha Palace by two

of his slaves, and was succeeded by his uncle, Said Pasha.

ABBAS II. (1874-- ), khedive of Egypt. Abbas Hilmi Pasha,

great-great-grandson of Mehemet Ali, born on the 14th of

July 1874, succeeded his father, Tewfik Pasha, as khedive

of Egypt on the 8th of January 1892. When a boy he visited

England, and he had an English tutor for some time in

Cairo. He then went to school in Lausanne, and from there

passed on to the Theresianum in Vienna. In addition to

Turkish, his mother tongue, he acquired fluency in Arabic,

and a good conversational knowledge of English, French and

German. He was still at college in Vienna when the sudden

death of his father raised him to the Khedivate; and he was

barely of age according to Turkish law, which fixes majority

at eighteen in cases of succession to the throne. For

some time he did not co-operate very cordially with Great

Britain. He was young and eager to exercise his new

power. His throne and life had not been saved for him by the

British, as was the case with his father. He was surrounded

by intriguers who were playing a game of their own, and for

some time he appeared almost disposed to be as reactionary

as his great-uncle Abbas I. But in process of time he learnt

to understand the importance of British counsels. He paid

a second visit to England in 1900, during which he frankly

acknowledged the great good the British had done in Egypt,

and declared himself ready to follow their advice and to

co-operate with the British officials administering Egyptian

affairs. The establishment of a sound system of native

justice, the great remission of taxation, the reconquest

of the Sudan, the inauguration of the stupendous irrigation

works at Assuan, the increase of cheap, sound education,

each received his approval and all the assistance he could

give. He displayed more interest in agriculture than in

statecraft, and his farm of cattle and horses at Koubah,

near Cairo, would have done credit to any agricultural

show in England; at Montaza, near Alexandria, he created

a similar establishment. He married the Princess Ikbal

Hanem and had several children. Mahommed Abdul Mouneim,

the heir-apparent, was born on the 20th of February 1899.

ABBAS I. (e. 1557-1628 or 1629), shah of Persia, called

the Great, was the son of shah Mahommed (d. 1586) . In the

midst of general anarchy in Persia, he was proclaimed ruler of

Khorasan, and obtained possession of the Persian throne in

1586. Determined to raise the fallen fortunes of his country,

he first directed his efforts against the predatory Uzbegs,

who occupied and harassed Khorasan. After a long and severe

struggle, he regained Meshed, defeated them in a great battle

near Herat in 1597, and drove them out of his dominions. In

the wars he carried on with the Turks during nearly the whole

of his reign, his successes were numerous, and he acquired,

or regained, a large extent of territory. By the victory he

gained at Bassora in 1605 he extended his empire beyond the

Euphrates; sultan Ahmed I. was forced to cede Shirvan and

Kurdistan in 1611; the united armies of the Turks and Tatars

were completely defeated near Sultanieh in 1618, and Abbas

made peace on very favourable terms; and on the Turks renewing

the war, Bagdad fell into his hands after a year's siege in

1623. In 1622 he took the island of Ormuz from the Portuguese,

by the assistance of the British, and much of its trade was

diverted to the town of Bander-Abbasi, which was named after the

shah. When he died, his dominions reached from the Tigris

to the Indus. Abbas distinguished himself, not only by his

successes in arms, and by the magnificence of his court and

of the buildings which he erected, but also by his reforms in

the administration of his kingdom. He encouraged commerce,

and, by constructing highways and building bridges, did much

to facilitate it. To foreigners, especially Christians, he

showed a spirit of tolerance; two Englishmen, Sir Anthony

and Sir Robert Shirley, or Sherley, were admitted to his

confidence. His fame is tarnished, however, by numerous deeds

of tyranny and cruelty. His own family, especially, suffered

from his fits of jealousy; his eldest son was slain, and

the eyes of his other children were put out, by his orders.

See The Three Brothers, or Travels of Sir Anthony, Sir

Robert Sherley, &c. (London, 1823); Sir C. R. Markham,

General Sketch of the History of Persia (London, 1874).

ABBASIDS, the name generally given to the caliphs of Bagdad,

the second of the two great dynasties of the Mahommedan

empire. The Abbasid caliphs officially based their claim

to the throne on their descent from Abbas (A.D. 566-652),

the eldest uncle of Mahomet, in virtue of which descent they

regarded themselves as the rightful heirs of the Prophet as

opposed to the Omayyads, the descendants of Omayya. Throughout

the second period of the Omayyads, representatives of this

family were among their most dangerous opponents, partly by

the skill with which they undermined the reputation of the

reigning princes by accusations against their orthodoxy,

their moral character and their administration in general,

and partly by their cunning manipulation of internecine

jealousies among the Arabic and non-Arabic subjects of the

empire. In the reign of Merwan II. this opposition culminated

in the rebellion of Ibrahim the Imam, the fourth in descent

from Abbas, who, supported hy the province of Khorasan, achieved

considerable successes, but was captured (A.D. 747) and died

in prison (as some hold, assassinated). The quarrel was taken

up by his brother Abdallah, known by the name of Abu'l-Abbas

as-Saffah, who after a decisive victory on the Greater Zab

(750) finally crushed the Omayyads and was proclaimed caliph.

The history of the new dynasty is marked by perpetual

strife and the development of luxury and the liberal arts,

in place of the old-fashioned austerity of thought and

manners. Mansur, the second of the house, who transferred

the seat of government to Bagdad, fought successfully against

the peoples of Asia Minor, and the reigns of Harun al-Rashid

(786--809) and Mamun (813-833) were periods of extraordinary

splendour. But the empire as a whole stagnated and then decayed

rapidly. Independent monarchs established themselves in

Africa and Khorasan (Spain had remained Omayyad throughout),

and in the north-west the Greeks successfully encroached.

The ruin of the dynasty came, however, from those Turkish

slaves who were constituted as a royal bodyguard by Moqtasim

(833-842). Their power steadily grew until Radi (934-941) was

constrained to hand over most of the royal functions to Mahommed

b. Raik. Province after province renounced the authority

of the caliphs, who were merely lay figures, and finally

Hulagu, the Mongol chief, burned Bagdad (Feb. 28th, 1258).

The Abbasids still maintained a feeble show of authority,

confined to religious matters, in Egypt under the Mamelukes,

but the dynasty finally disappeared with Motawakkil III., who

was carried away as a prisoner to Constantinople by Selim I.

See CALIPHATE (Sections B, 14 and C), where a

detailed account of the dynasty will be found.

ABBAS MIRZA (c. 1783-1833), prince of Persia, was a

younger son of the shah, Feth Ali, but on account of his

mother's royal birth was destined by his father to succeed

him. Entrusted with the government of a part of Persia, he

sought to rule it in European fashion, and employed officers

to reorganize his army. He was soon at war with Russia, and

his aid was eagerly solicited by both England and Napoleon,

anxious to checkmate one another in the East. Preferring

the friendship of France, Abbas continued the war against

Russia, but his new ally could give him very little assistance,

and in 1814 Persia was compelled to make a disadvantageous

peace. He gained some successes during a war between Turkey

and Persia which broke out in 1821, but cholera attacked his

army, and a treaty was signed in 1823. His second war with

Russia, which began in 1825, was attended with the same want of

success as the former one, and Persia was forced to cede some

territory. When peace was made in 1828 Abbas then sought

to restore order in the province of Khorasan, which was

nominally under Persian supremacy, and while engaged in the

task died at Meshed in 1833. In 1834 his eldest son, Mahommed

Mirza, succeeded Feth Ali as shah. Abbas was an intelligent

prince, possessed some literary taste, and it noteworthy

on account of the comparative simplicity of his life.

ABBAS-TUMAN, a spa in Russian Transcaucasia, government of

Tiflis, 50 m. S.W. of the Borzhom railway station and 65

m. E. of Batum, very picturesquely situated in a cauldron-shaped

valley. It has hot sulphur baths (93 1/2 deg. -118 1/2 deg.

Fahr.) and an astronomical observatory (4240 ft.).

ABBAZIA, a popular summer and winter resort of Austria, in

Istria, 56 m. S.E. of Trieste by rail. Pop. (1900) 2343. It

is situated on the Gulf of Quarnero in a sheltered position at

the foot of the Monte Maggiore (4580 ft.), and is surrounded

by beautiiul woods of laurel. The average temperature is 50 deg.

Fahr. in winter, and 77 deg. Fahr. in summer. The old abbey,

San Giacomo della Priluca, from which the place derives its

name, has been converted into a villa. Abbazia is frequented

annually by about 16,000 visitors. The whole sea-coast to

the north and south of Abbazia is rocky and picturesque,

and contains several smaller winter-resorts. The largest

of them is Lovrana (pop. 513), situated 5 m. to the south.

ABBESS (Lat. abbatissa, fem. form of abbas, abbot),

the female superior of an abbey or convent of nuns. The

mode of election, position, rights and authority of an abbess

correspond generally with those of an abbot (q.v.). The

office is elective, the choice being by the secret votes of the

sisters from their own body. The abbess is solemnly admitted

to her office by episcopal benediction, together with the

conferring of a staff and pectoral cross, and holds for life,

though liable to be deprived for misconduct. The council of

Trent fixed the qualifying age at forty, with eight years of

profession. Abbesses have a right to demand absolute obedience

of their nuns, over whom they exercise discipline, extending

even to the power of expulsion, subject, however, to the

bishop. As a female an abbess is incapable of performing the

spiritual functions of the priesthood belonging to an abbot.

She cannot ordain, confer the veil, nor excommunicate. In

England abbesses attended ecclesiastical councils, e.g. that

of Becanfield in 694, where they signed before the presbyters.

By Celtic usage abbesses presided over joint-houses of monks and

nuns. This custom accompanied Celtic monastic missions to France

and Spain, and even to Rome itself. At a later period, A.D.

1115, Robert, the founder of Fontevraud, committed the government

of the whole order, men as well as women, to a female superior.

In the German Evangelical church the title of abbess (Aebtissin)

has in some cases--e.g. Itzehoe--survived to designate the

heads of abbeys which since the Reformation have continued as

Stifte, i.e. collegiate foundations, which provide a home

and an income for unmarried ladies, generally of noble birth,

called canonesses (Kanonissinen) or more usually Stiftsdamen.

This office of abbess is of considerable social dignity, and

is sometimes filled by princesses of the reigning houses.

ABBEVILLE, a town of northern France, capital of an

arrondissement in the department of Somme, on the Somme, 12

m. from its mouth in the English Channel, and 28 m. N,W. of

Amiens on the Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 18,519; (1906)

18,971. It lies in a pleasant and fertile valley, and is

built partly on an island and partly on both sides of the

river, which is canalized from this point to the estuary. The

streets are narrow, and the houses are mostly picturesque old

structures, built of wood, with many quaint gables and dark

archways. The most remarkable building is the church of St

Vulfran, erected in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. The

original design was not completed. The nave has only two bays

and the choir is insignificant. The facade is a magnificent

specimen of the flamboyant Gothic style, flanked by two Gothic

towers. Abbeville has several other old churches and an

hotel-de-ville, with a belfry of the 13th century. Among

the numerous old houses, that known as the Maison de Francois

Ie, which is the most remarkable, dates from the 16th century.

There is a statue of Admiral Courbet (d. 1885) in the chief

square. The public institutions include tribunals of first instance

and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, and a communal

college. Abbeville is an important industrial centre; in addition

to its old-established manufacture of cloth, hemp-spinning,

sugar-making, ship-building and locksmiths' work are carried on;

there is active commerce in grain, but the port has little trade.

Abbeville, the chief town of the district of Ponthieu, first

appears in history during the 9th century. At that time

belonging to the abbey of St Riquier, it was afterwards

governed by the counts of Ponthieu. Together with that county,

it came into the possession of the Alencon and other French

families, and afterwards into that of the house of Castillo,

from whom by marriage it fell in 1272 to Edward I., king of

England. French and English were its masters by turns till

1435 when, by the treaty of Arras, it was ceded to the duke of

Burgundy. In 1477 it was annexed by Louis XI., king of France,

and was held by two illegitimate branches of the royal family in

the 16th and 17th centuries, being in 1696 reunited to the crown.

ABBEY, EDWIN AUSTIN (1852- ), American painter, was born at

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 1st of April 1852. He left

the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts at the

age of nineteen to enter the art department of the publishing

house of Harper & Brothers in New York, where, in company

with such men as Howard Pyle, Charles Stanley Reinhart, Joseph

Pennell and Alfred Parsons, he became very successful as an

illustrator. In 1878 he was sent by the Harpers to England

to gather material for illustrations of the poems of Robert

Herrick. These, published in 1882, attracted much attention,

and were followed by illustrations for Goldsmith's She

Stoops to Conquer (1887), for a volume of Old Songs

(1889), and for the comedies (and a few of the tragedies) of

Shakespeare. His water-colours and pastels were no less

successful than the earlier illustrations in pen and ink.

Abbey now became closely identified with the art life of

England, and was elected to the Royal Institute of Painters

in Water-Colours in 1883. Among his water-colours are ``The

Evil Eye'' (1877); ``The Rose in October'' (1879); ``An Old

Song'' (1886); ``The Visitors'' (1890), and ``The Jongleur''

(1892). Possibly his best known pastels are ``Beatrice,''

``Phyllis,'' and ``Two Noble Kinsmen.'' In 1890 he made his

first appearance with an oil painting, ``A May Day Morn,'' at

the Royal Academy in London. He exhibited ``Richard duke of

Gloucester and the Lady Anne'' at the Royal Academy in 1896,

and in that year was elected A.R.A., becoming a full R.A. in

1898. Apart from his other paintings, special mention must

be made of the large frescoes entitled ``The Quest of the Holy

Grail,'' in the Boston Public Library, on which he was occupied

for some years; and in 1901 he was commissioned by King Edward

VII. to paint a picture of the coronation, containing many

portraits elaborately grouped. The dramatic subjects, and the

brilliant colouring of his on pictures, gave them pronounced

individuality among the works of contemporary painters.

Abbey became a member not only of the Royal Academy, but also

of the National Academy of Design of New York, and honorary

member of the Royal Bavarian Society, the Societe Nationale

des Beaux Arts (Paris), the American Water-Colour Society,

etc. He received first class gold medals at the International

Art Exhibition of Vienna in 1898, at Philadelphia in 1898,

at the Paris Exhibitions of 1889 and 1900, and at Berlin in

1903; and was made a chevalier of the French Legion of Honour.

ABBEY (Lat. abbatia; from Syr. abba, father), a

monastery, or conventual establishment, under the government

of an ABBOT or an ABBESS. A priory only differed from

an abbey in that the superior bore the name of prior instead

of abbot. This was the case in all the English conventual

cathedrals, e.g. Canterbury, Ely, Norwich, &c., where the

archbishop or bishop occupied the abbot's place, the superior

of the monastery being termed prior. Other priories were

originally offshoots from the larger abbeys, to the abbots

of which they continued subordinate; but in later times the

actual distinction between abbeys and priories was lost.

The earliest Christian monastic communities (see MONASTICISM)

with which we are acquainted consisted of groups of cells or

huts collected about a common centre, which was usually the abode

of some anchorite celebrated for superior holiness or singular

asceticism, but without any attempt at orderly arrangement.

The formation of such communities in the East does not date

from the introduction of Christianity. The example had been

already set by the Essenes in Judea and the Therapeutae in Egypt.

In the earliest age of Christian monasticism the ascetics

were accustomed to live singly, independent of one another,

at no great distance from some village, supporting themselves

by the labour of their own hands, and distributing the

surplus after the supply of their own scanty wants to the

poor. Increasing religious fervour, aided by persecution,

drove them farther and farther away from the abodes of men

into mountain solitudes or lonely deserts. The deserts

of Egypt swarmed with the ``cells'' or huts of these

anchorites. Anthony, who had retired to the Egyptian Thebaid

during the persecution of Maximin, A.D. 312, was the most

celebrated among them for his austerities, his sanctity, and

his power as an exorcist. His fame collected round him a

host of followers, emulous of his sanctity. The deeper he

withdrew into the wilderness, the more numerous his disciples

became. They refused to be separated from him, and built

their ceils round that of their spiritual father. Thus arose

the first monastic community, consisting of anchorites living

each in his own little dwelling, united together under one

superior. Anthony, as Neander remarks (Church History,

vol. iii. p. 316, Clark's trans.), ``without any conscious

design of his own, had become the founder of a new mode

of living in common, Coenobitism.'' By degrees order was

introduced in the groups of huts. They were arranged in

lines like the tents in an encampment, or the houses in a

street. From this arrangement these lines of single cells

came to be known as Laurae, Laurai, "streets" or "lanes."

The real founder of coenobian koinos, common, and bios,

life) monasteries in the modern sense was Pachomius, an Egyptian

of the beginning of the 4th century. The first community

established by him was at Tabennae, an island of the Nile in Upper

Egypt. Eight others were founded in his lifetime, numbering 3000

monks. Within fifty years from his death his societies could

reckon 50,000 members. These coenobia resembled vilIages,

peopled by a hard-working religious community, ail of one

sex. The buildings were detached, small and of the humblest

character. Each cell or hut, according to Sozomen (H.R. iii.

14), contained three monks. They took their chief meal in a

common refectory at 3 P.M., up to which hour they usually

fasted. They ate in silence, with hoods so drawn over their

faces that they could see nothing but what was on the table

before them. The monks spent all the time, not devoted to

religious services or study, in manual labour. Palladius,

who visited the Egyptian monasteries about the close of the

4th century, found among the 300 members of the coenobium of

Panopolis, under the Pachomian rule, 15 tailors, 7 smiths, 4

carpenters, 12 cameldrivers and 15 tanners. Each separate

community had its own oeconomus or steward, who was subject

to a chief oeconomus stationed at the head establishment.

All the produce of the monks' labour was committed to him, and

by him shipped to Alexandria. The money raised by the sale

was expended in the purchase of stores for the support of the

communities, and what was over was devoted to charity. Twice

in the year the superiors of the several coenobia met at

the chief monastery, under the presidency of an archimandrite

(``the chief of the fold,'' from miandra, a fold), and at

the last meeting gave in reports of their administration for the

year. The coenobia of Syria belonged to the Pachomian

institution. We learn many details concerning those in the

vicinity of Antioch from Chrysostom's writings. The monks

lived in separate huts, kalbbia, forming a religious hamlet

on the mountain side. They were subject to an abbot, and

observed a common rule. (They had no refectory, but ate their

common meal, of bread and water only, when the day's labour

was over, reclining on strewn grass, sometimes out of doors,)

Four times in the day they joined in prayers and psalms.

Santa Laura, Mount Athos.

The necessity for defence from hostile attacks, economy of

space and convenience of access from one part of the community

to another, by degrees dictated a more compact and orderly

arrangement of the buildings of a monastic coenobium. Large

piles of building were erected, with strong outside walls,

capable of resisting the assaults of an enemy, within which

all the necessary edifices were ranged round one or more

open courts, usually surrounded with cloisters. The usual

Eastern arrangement is exemplified in the plan of the convent

of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Laura, the designation of a

monastery generally, being converted into a female saint).

This monastery, like the oriental monasteries generally, is

surrounded by a strong and lofty blank stone wall, enclosing

an area of between 3 and 4 acres. The longer side extends to

a length of about 500 feet. There is only one main entrance,

on the north side (A), defended by three separate iron

doors. Near the entrance is a large tower (M), a constant

feature in the monasteries of the Levant. There is a small

postern gate at L. The enceinte comprises two large open

courts, surrounded with buildings connected with cloister

galleries of wood or stone. The outer court, which is much the

larger, contains the granaries and storehouses (K), and the

kitchen (H) and other offices connected with the refectory

(G). Immediately adjacent to the gateway is a two-storied

guest-house, opening from a cloister (C). The inner court is

surrounded by a cloister (EE), from which open the monks' cells

(II). In the centre of this court stands the catholicon

or conventual church, a square building with an apse of

the cruciform domical Byzantine type, approached by a domed

narthex. In front of the church stands a marble fountain

(F), covered by a dome supported on columns. Opening from

the western side of the cloister, but actually standing in

the outer court, is the refectory (G), a large cruciform

building, about 100 feet each way, decorated within with

frescoes of saints. At the upper end is a semicircular

recess, recalling the triclinium of the Lateran Palace

A. Gateway.

B. Chapels.

C. Guest-house.

D. Church.

E. Cloister.

F. Fountain.

G. Refectory.

H. Kitchen.

I. Cells.

K. Storehouses.

L. Postern gate.

M. Tower.

FIG. 1.---Monastery of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Lenoir).

at Rome, in which is placed the seat of the hegumenos or

abbot. This apartment is chiefly used as a hall of meeting, the

oriental monks usually taking their meals in their separate cells.

Vatopede

St Laura is exceeded in magnitude by the convent of Vatopede

also on Mount Athos. This enormous establishment covers at

least 4 acres of ground, and contains so many separate buildings

within its massive walls that it resembles a fortified town. It

lodges above 300 monks, and the establishment of the hegumenos is

described as resembling the court of a petty sovereign prince.

The immense refectory, of the same cruciform shape as that of

St Laura, will accommodate 500 guests at its 24 marble tables.

The annexed plan of a Coptic monastery, from Lenoir,

shows a church of three aisles, with cellular apses, and

two ranges of cells on either side of an oblong gallery.

Benedictine.

Monasticism in the West owes its extension and development

to Benedict of Nursia (born A.D. 480). His rule was

diffused with miraculous rapidity from the parent foundation

on Monte Cassino through the whole of western Europe, and

every country witnessed the erection of monasteries far

exceeding anything that had yet been seen in spaciousness and

splendour. Few great towns in Italy were without their

Benedictine convent, and they quickly rose in all the great

centres of population in England, France and Spain. The number

of these monasteries founded between A.D. 520 and 700 is

amazing. Before the Council of Constance, A.D. 1415, no

fewer than 15,070 abbeys had been established of this order

alone. The buildings of a Benedictine abbey were uniformly

arranged ofter one plan, modified where necessary (as at

Durham and Worcester, where the monasteries stand close to the

steep bank of a river) to accommodate the arrangement to local

circumstances. We have no existing examples of the earlier

monasteries of the Benedictine order. They have all yielded

to the ravages of time and the violence of man. But we

have fortunately preserved to us an elaborate plan of the

great Swiss monastery of St Gall, erected about A.D. 820,

which puts us in possession of the whole arrangements of a

monastery of the first class towards the early part of the 9th

century. This curious and interesting plan has been made

the subject of a memoir both by Keller (Zurich, 1844) and by

Professor Robert Willis (Arch. Journal, 1848, vol. v. pp.

86-117. To the latter we are indebted for the substance of

the following description, as well as for the plan, reduced

from his elucidated transcript of the original preserved

FIG. 2.---Plan of Coptic Monastery.

A. Narthex. B. Church.

C. Corridor, with cells on each side.

D. Staircase.

in the archives of the convent. The general apperance

of the convent is that of a town of isolated houses with

streets running between them. It is evidently planned in

compliance with the Benedictine rule, which enjoined that,

if possible, the monastery should contain within itself

every necessary of life, as well as the buildings more

intimately connected with the religious and social life of its

inmates. It should comprise a mill, a bakehouse, stables

and cow-houses, together with accommodation for carrying

on all necessary mechanical arts within the walls, so as to

obviate the necessity of the monks going outside its limits.

The general distribution of the buildings may be thus

described:-The church, with its cloister to the south, occupies

the centre of a quadrangular area, about 430 feet square. The

buildings, as in all great monasteries, are distributed into

groups. The church forms the nucleus, as the centre of the

religious life of the community. In closest connexion with

the church is the group of buildings appropriated to the

monastic line and its daily requirements---the refectory for

eating, the dormitory for sleeping, the common room for social

intercourse, the chapter-house for religious and disciplinary

conference. These essential elements of monastic life

are ranged about a cloister court, surrounded by a covered

arcade, affording communication sheltered ftom the elements

between the various buildings. The infirmary for sick monks,

with the physician's house and physic garden, lies to the

east. In the same group with the infirmary is the school for

the novices. The outer school, with its headmaster's house

against the opposite wall of the church, stands outside the

convent enclosure, in close proximity to the abbot's house,

that he might have a constant eye over them. The buildings

devoted to hospitality are divided into three groups,--one

for the reception of distinguished guests, another for monks

visiting the monastery, a third for poor travellers and

pilgrims. The first and third are placed to the right and

left of the common entrance of the monastery,---the hospitium

for distinguished guests being placed on the north side of the

church, not far from the abbot's house; that for the poor

on the south side next to the farm buildings. The monks are

lodged in a guest-house built against the north wall of the

church. The group of buildings connected with the material

wants of the establishment is placed to the south and west

of the church, and is distinctly separated from the monastic

buildings. The kitchen, buttery and offices are reached by a

passage from the west end of the refectory, and are connected

with the bakehouse and brewhouse, which are placed still farther

away. The whole of the southern and western sides is devoted to

workshops, stables and farm-buildings. The buildings, with some

exceptions, seem to have been of one story only, and all but

the church were probably erected of wood. The whole includes

thirty-three separate blocks. The church (D) is cruciform,

with a nave of nine bays, and a semicircular apse at either

extremity. That to the west is surrounded by a semicircular

colonnade, leaving an open ``paradise'' (E) between it and

the wall of the church. The whole area is divided by screens

into various chapels. The high altar (A) stands immediately

to the east of the transept, or ritual choir; the altar

of St Paul (B) in the eastern, and that of St Peter (C) in

the western apse. A cylindrical campanile stands detached

from the church on either side of the western apse (FF).

The ``cloister court', (G) on the south side of the nave of the

FIG. 3.--Ground-plan of St

CHURCH. U. House for blood-letting.

A. High altar. V. School.

B. Altar of St Paul. W. Schoolmaster's lodgings.

C. Altar of St Peter. X1X1. Guest-house for those

D. Nave. of superior rank

E. Paradise. X2X2. Guest-house for the poor.

FF. Towers. Y. Guest-chamber for strange monks.

MONASTIC BUILDINGS

G. Cloister. MENIAL DEPARTMENT.

H. Calefactory, with Z. Factory.

dormitory over. a. Threshing-floor

I. Necessary. b. Workshops.

J. Abbot's house. c, c. Mills.

K. Refectory. d. Kiln.

L. Kitchen. e. Stables.

M. Bakehouse and brewhouse. f Cow-sheds.

N. Cellar. g. Goat-sheds.

O. Parlour. (over. h. Pig-sties. i. Sheep-folds.

P1. Scriptorium with library k, k, k. Servants' and workmen's

P2. Sacristy and vestry. sleeping-chambers.

Q. House of Novices--1.chapel; l. Gardener's house

2. refectory; 3. calefactory; m,m. Hen and duck house.

4. dormitory; 5. master's room n. Poultry-keeper's house.

6. chambers. o. Garden.

R. Infirmary--1--6 as above in q. Bakehouse for sacramental

the house of novices.

S. Doctor's house. s, s, s. Kitchens.

T. Physic garden. t, t, t. Baths.

church has on its east side the ``pisalis'' or ``calefactory',

(H), the common sitting-room of the brethren, warmed by

flues beneath the floor. On this side in later monasteries

we invariably find the chapterhouse, the absence of

which in this plan is somewhat surprising. It appears,

however, from the inscriptions on the plan itself, that the

north walk of the cloisters served for the purposes of a

chapter-house, and was fitted up with benches on the long

sides. Above the calefactory is the ``dormitory'' opening

into the south transept of the church, to enable the monks

to attend the nocturnal services with readiness. A passage

at the other end leads to the ``necessarium'' (I), a portion

of the monastic buildings always planned with extreme

care. The southern side is occupied by the ``refectory''

(K), from the west end of which by a vestibule the kitchen

(L) is reached. This is separated from the main buildings

of the monastery, and is connected by a long passage with

a building containing the bake house and brewhouse (M), and

the sleeping-rooms of the servants. The upper story of the

refectory is the ``vestiarium,'' where the ordinary clothes of

the brethren were kept. On the western side of the cloister

is another two story building (N). The cellar is below,

and the larder and store-room above. Between this building

and the church, opening by one door into the cloisters, and

by another to the outer part of the monastery area, is the

``parlour'' for interviews with visitors from the external

world (O). On the eastern side of the north transept is the

``scriptorium'' or writing-room (P1), with the library above.

To the east of the church stands a group of buildings comprising

two miniature conventual establishments, each complete in

itself. Each has a covered cloister surrounded by the usual

buildings, i.e. refectory, dormitory, &c., and a church or

chapel on one side, placed back to back. A detached building

belonging to each contains a bath and a kitchen. One of these

diminutive convents is appropriated to the ``oblati'' or novices

(Q), the other to the sick monks as an ``imfirmary'' (R).

The ``residence of the physicians'' (S) stands contiguous to the

infirmary, and the physic garden (T) at the north-east corner of

the monastery. Besides other rooms, it contains a drug store,

and a chamber for those who are dangerously ill. The ``house

for bloodletting and purging'' adjoins it on the west (U).

The ``outer school,'' to the north of the convent area, contains

a large schoolroom divided across the middle by a screen or

partition, and surrounded by fourteen little rooms, termed

the dwellings of the scholars. The head-master's house (W)

is opposite, built against the side wall of the church. The

two ``hospitia'' or `' guest-houses'' for the entertainment

of strangers of different degrees (X1 X2) comprise a large

common chamber or refectory in the centre, surrounded by

sleeping-apartments. Each is provided with its own brewhouse

and bakehouse, and that for travellers of a superior order has

a kitchen and storeroom, with bedrooms for their servants and

stables for their horses. There is also an ``hospitium'' for

strange monks, abutting on the north wall of the church (Y).

Beyond the cloister, at the extreme verge of the convent

area to the south, stands the `factory'' (Z), containing

workshops for shoemakers, saddlers (or shoemakers, sellarii),

cutlers and grinders, trencher-makers, tanners, curriers,

fullers, smiths and goldsmiths, with their dwellings in the

rear. On this side we also find the farmbuildings, the large

granary and threshing-floor (a), mills (c), malthouse

(d). Facing the west are the stables (e), ox-sheds

(f), goatstables (gl, piggeries (h), sheep-folds (i),

together with the servants' and labourers' quarters (k).

At the south-east corner we find the hen and duck house, and

poultry-yard (m), and the dwelling of the keeper (n).

Hard by is the kitchen garden (o), the beds bearing the

names of the vegetables growing in them, onions, garlic,

celery, lettuces, poppy, carrots, cabbages, &c., eighteen in

all. In the same way the physic garden presents the names

of the medicinal herbs, and the cemetery (p) those of

the trees, apple, pear, plum, quince, &c., planted there.

Canterbury Cathedral.

A curious bird's-eye view of Canterbury Cathedral and its

annexed conventual buildings, taken about 1165, is preserved

in the Great Psalter in the library of Trinity College,

Cambridge. As elucidated by Professor Willis,1 it exhibits

the plan of a great Benedictine monastery in the 12th century,

and enables us to compare it with that of the 9th as seen at St

Gall. We see in both the same general principles of arrangement,

which indeed belong to all Benedictine monasteries, enabling

us to determine with precision the disposition of the various

buildings, when little more than fragments of the walls

exist. From some local reasons, however, the cloister and

monastic buildings are placed on the north, instead, as is far

more commonly the case, on the south of the church. There is

also a separate chapter-house, which is wanting at St Gall.

The buildings at Canterbury, as at St Gall, form separate

groups. The church forms the nucleus. In immediate contact

with this, on the north side, lie the cloister and the

group of buildings devoted to the monastic life. Outside of

these, to the west and east, are the ``halls and chambers

devoted to the exercise of hospitality, with which every

monastery was provided, for the purpose of receiving as

guests persons who visited it, whether clergy or laity,

travellers, pilgrims or paupers.'' To the north a large

open court divides the monastic from the menial buildings,

intentionally placed as remote as possible from the conventual

buildings proper, the stables, granaries, barn, bakehouse,

brewhouse, laundries, &c., inhabited by the lay servants of the

establishment. At the greatest possible distance from the

church, beyond the precinct of the convent, is the eleemosynary

department. The almonry for the relief of the poor,

with a great hall annexed, forms the paupers' hospitium.

The most important group of buildings is naturally that devoted

to monastic life. This includes two Cloisters, the great

cloister surrounded by the buildings essentially connected with

the daily life of the monks,---the church to the south, the

refectory or frater-house here as always on the side opposite

to the church, and farthest removed from it, that no sound or

smell of eating might penetrate its sacred precincts, to the

east the dormitory, raised on a vaulted undercroft, and the

chapter-house adjacent, and the lodgings of the cellarer to the

west. To this officer was committed the provision of the

monks' daily food, as well as that of the guests. He was,

therefore, appropriately lodged in the immediate vicinity of

the refectory and kitchen, and close to the guest-hall. A

passage under the dormitory leads eastwards to the smaller

or infirmary cloister, appropriated to the sick and infirm

monks. Eastward of this cloister extend the hall and chapel of

the infirmary, resembling in form and arrangement the nave and

chancel of an aisled church. Beneath the dormitory, looking

out into the green court or herbarium, lies the ``pisalis''

or ``calefactory,'' the common room of the monks. At its

north-east corner access was given from the dormitory to the

necessarium, a portentous edifice in the form of a Norman

hall, 145 ft. long by 25 broad, containing fifty-five seats. It

was, in common with all such offices in ancient monasteries,

constructed with the most careful regard to cleanliness and

health, a stream of water running through it from end to

end. A second smaller dormitory runs from east to west for

the accommodation of the conventual officers, who were bound

to sleep in the dormitory. Close to the refectory, but outside

the cloisters, are the domestic offices connected with it:

to the north, the kitchen, 47 ft. square, surmounted by a

lofty pyramidal roof, and the kitchen court; to the west, the

butteries, pantries, &c. The infirmary had a small kitchen of its

own. Opposite the refectory door in the cloister are two

lavatories, an invariable adjunct to a monastic dining-hall,

at which the monks washed before and after taking food.

The buildings devoted to hospitality were divided into three

groups. The prior's group ``entered at the south-east angle

of the green court, placed near the most sacred part of the

cathedral, as befitting the distinguished ecclesiastics or

nobility who were assigned to him.'' The cellarer's buildings

were near the west end of the nave, in which ordinary visitors

of the middle class were hospitably entertained. The inferior

pilgrims and paupers were relegated to the north hall or almonry,

just within the gate, as far as possible from the other two.

Westminster Abbey.

Westminster Abbey is another example of a great Benedictine

abbey, identical in its general arrangements, so far as they

can be traced, with those described above. The cloister and

, monastic buildings lie to the south side of the church.

Parallel to the nave, on the south side of the cloister,

was the refectory, with its lavatory at the door. On the

eastern side we find the remains of the dormitory, raised

on a vaulted substructure and communicating with the south

transept. The chapter-house opens out of the same alley of the

cloister. The small cloister lles to the south-east of

the larger cloister, and still farther to the east we have

the remains of the infirmary with the table hall, the

refectory of those who were able to leave their chambers. The

abbot's house formed a small courtyard at the west entrance,

close to the inner gateway. Considerable portions of this

remain, including the abbot's parlour. celebrated as ``the

Jerusalem Chamber,'' his hall, now used for the Westminster

King's Scholars, and the kitchen and butteries beyond.

York.

St Mary's Abbey, York, of which the ground-plan is annexed,

exhibits the usual Benedictine arrangements. The precincts

are surrounded by a strong fortified wall on three sides,

the river Ouse being sufficient protection on the fourth

side. The entrance was by a strong gateway (U) to the

north. Close to the entrance was a chapel, where is now

the church of St Olaf (W), in which the new-comers paid

their devotions immediately on their arrival. Near the

gate to the south was the guest-hall or hospitium (T).

The buildings are completely ruined, but enough remains to

enable us to identify the grand cruciform church (A), the

cloister-court with the chapterhouse (B), the refectory (I),

the kitchen-court with its offices (K, O, O) and the other

principal apartments. The infirmary has perished completely.

Some Benedictine houses display exceptional arrangements,

dependent upon local circumstances, e.g. the dormitory of

Worcester runs from east to west, from the west walk of the

cloister, and that of Durham is built over the west, instead of

FIG. 4

St Mary's Abbey, York (Benedictine).--Churton's Monnastic Ruins.

A. Church. O. Offices.

B. Chapter-house. P. Cellars.

C. Vestibule to ditto. Q. Uncertain.

E. Library or scriptorium. R. Passage to abbot's house.

F. Calefactory. S. Passage to common house.

G. Necessary. T. Hospitium.

H. Parlour. U. Great gate.

I. Refectory. V. Porter's lodge.

K. Great kitchen and court. W. Church of St Olaf.

L. Cellarer's office. X. Tower.

M. Cellars. Y. Entrance from Bootham.

N. Passage to cloister.

as usual, over the east walk; but, as a general rule, the arrangements

deduced from the examples described may be regarded as invariable.

The history of monasticism is one of alternate periods of

decay and revival. With growth in popular esteem came increase

in material wealth, leading to luxury and worldliness. The

first religious ardour cooled, the strictness of the rule was

relaxed, until by the 10th century the decay of discipline

was so complete in France that the monks are said to have

been frequently unacquainted with the rule of St Benedict,

and even ignorant that they were bound by any rule at

all. The reformation of abuses generally took the form of

the establishment of new monastic orders, with new and more

stringent rules, requiring a modification of the architectural

arrangements. One of the earliest of these reformed orders

was the Cluniac. This order took its name from,the little

village of Cluny, 12 miles N.W. of Macon, near which, about

A.D. 909, a reformed Benedictine abbey was founded by William,

duke of Aquitaine and count of Auvergne, under Berno, abbot of

Beaume. He was succeeded by Odo, who is often regarded as

the founder of the order. The fame of Cluny spread far and

wide. Its rigid rule was adopted by a vast number of the

old Benedictine abbeys, who placed themselves in affiliation

to the mother society, while new foundations sprang up in

large numbers, all owing allegiance to the ``archabbot,''

established at Cluny. By the end of the 12th century the

number of monasteries affiliated to Cluny in the various

countries of western Europe amounted to 2000. The monastic

establishment of Cluny was one of the most extensive

and magnificent in France. We may form some idea of its

enormous dimensions from the fact recorded, that when, A.D.

1245, Pope Innocent IV., accompanied by twelve cardinals,

FIG. 5--Abbey of Cluny, from

A. Gateway. F. Tomb of St Hugh. M. Bakehouse.

B. Narthex. G. Nave. N. Abbey buildings.

C. Choir. H. Cloister. O. Garden.

D. High-altar. K. Abbot's house. P. Refectory.

E. Retro-altar. L. Guest-house.

a patriarch, three archbishops, the two generals of the

Carthusians and Cistercians, the king (St Louis), and three

of his sons, the queen mother, Baldwin, count of Flanders

and emperor of Constantinople, the duke of Burgundy, and

six lords, visited the abbey, the whole party, with their

attendants, were lodged withn the monastery without disarranging

the monks, 400 in number. Nearly the whole of the abbey

buildings, including the magnificent church, were swept away

at the close of the 18th century. When the annexed ground-plan

was taken, shortly before its destruction, nearly all the

monastery, with the exception of the church, had been rebuilt.

The church, the ground-plan of which bears a remarkable

resemblance to that of Lincoln Cathedral, was of vast

dimensions. It was 656 ft. high. The nave (G) had double

vaulted aisles on either side. Like Lincoln, it had an

eastern as well as a western transept, each furnished with

apsidal chapels to the east. The western transept was 213

ft. long, and the eastern 123 ft. The choir terminated in

a semicircular apse (F), surrounded by five chapels, also

semicircular. The western entrance was approached by an

ante-church, or narthex (B), itself an aisled church of

no mean dimensions, flanked by two towers, rising from a

stately flight of steps bearing a large stone cross. To the

south of the church lay the cloister-court (H), of immense

size, placed much farther to the west than is usually the

case. On the south side of the cloister stood the refectory

(P), an immense building, 100 ft. long and 60 ft. wide,

accommodating six longitudinal and three transverse rows of

tables. It was adorned with the portraits of the chief

benefactors of the abbey, and with Scriptural subjects. The

end wall displayed the Last Judgment. We are unhappily unable

to identify any other of the principal buildings (N). The

abbot's residence (K), still partly standing, adjoined the

entrance-gate. The guest-house (L) was close by. The bakehouse

(M), also remaining, is a detached building of immense size.

English Cluniac

The first English house of the Cluniac order was that of

Lewes, founded by the earl of Warren, c. A.D. 1077. Of

this only a few fragments of the domestic buildings exist.

The best preserved Cluniac houses in England are Castle Acre,

Norfolk, and Wenlock, Shropshire. Ground-plans of both are

given in Britton's Architectural Antiquities. They show

several departures from the Benedictine arrangement. In

each the prior's house is remarkably perfect. All Cluniac

houses in England were French colonies, governed by priors

of that nation. They did not secure their independence nor

become ``abbeys'' till the reign of Henry VI. The Cluniac

revival, with all its brilliancy, was but short-lived.

The celebrity of this, as of other orders, worked its moral

ruin. With their growth in wealth and dignity the Cluniac

foundations became as worldly in life and as relaxed in

discipline as their predecessors, and a fresh reform was needed.

Cistercian

The next great monastic revival, the Cistercian, arising in

the last years of the 11th century, had a wider diffusion,

and a longer and more honourable existence. Owing its real

origin, as a distinct foundation of reformed Benedictines, in

the year 1098, to Stephen Harding (a native of Dorsetshire,

educated in the monastery of Sherborne), and deriving its

name from Citeaux (Cistercium), a desolate and almost

inaccessible forest solitude, on the borders of Champagne and

Burgundy, the rapid growth and wide celebrity of the order

are undoubtedly to be attributed to the enthusiastic piety

of St Bernard, abbot of the first of the monastic colonies,

subsequently sent forth in such quick succession by the

first Cistercian houses, the far-famed abbey of Clairvaux

(de Clara Valle), A.D. 1116. The rigid self-abnegation,

which was the ruling principle of this reformed congregation

of the Benedictine order, extended itself to the churches and

other buildings erected by them. The characteristic of the

Cistercian abbeys was the extremest simplicity and a studied

plainness. Only one tower--a central one --was permitted, and

that was to be very low. Unnecessary pinnacles and turrets

were prohibited. The triforium was omitted. The windows

were to be plain and undivided, and it was forbidden to

decorate them with stained glass. All needless ornament was

proscribed. The crosses must be of wood; the candlesticks of

iron. The renunciation of the world was to be evidenced

in all that met the eye. The same spirit manifested itself

in the choice of the sites of their monasteries. The more

dismal, the more savage, the more hopeless a spot appeared,

the more did it please their rigid mood. But they came

not merely as ascetics, but as improvers. The Cistercian

monasteries are, as a rule, found placed in deep well-watered

valleys. They always stand on the border of a stream; not

rarely, as at Fountains, the buildings extend over it. These

valleys, now so rich and productive, wore a very different

aspect when the brethren first chose them as the place of their

retirement. Wide swamps, deep morasses, tangled thickets,

wild impassable forests, were their prevailing features. The

``bright valley,'' Clara Vallis of St Bernard, was known

as the ``valley of Wormwood,'' infamous as a den of robbers.

``It was a savage dreary solitude, so utterly barren that

at first Bernard and his companions were reduced to live on

beech leaves.''-(Milman's Lat. Christ. vol. iii. p. 335.)

Clairvaux

All Cistercian monasteries, unless the circumstances of the

locality forbade it, were arranged according to one plan. The

general arrangement and distribution of the various

buildings, which went to make up one of these vast

establishments, may be gathered from that of St Bernard's own

abbey of Clairvaux, which is here given. It will be observed

that the abbey precincts are surrounded by a strong wall,

furnished at intervals with watch-towers and other defensive

works. The wall is nearly encircled by a stream of water,

artificially diverted from the small rivulets which flow

through the precincts, furnishing the establishment with

an abundant supply in every part, for the litigation of

the gardens and orchards, the sanitary requirements of the

brotherhood and for the use of the offices and workshops.

The precincts are divided across the centre by a wall,

running from N. to S., into an outer and inner ward,--the

former containing the menial, the latter the monastic

buildings. The precincts are entered by a gateway (P), at

the extreme western extremity, giving admission to the lower

ward. Here the barns, granaries, stables, shambles, workshops

and workmen,s lodgings were placed, without any regard to

symmetry, convenience being the only consideration. Advancing

eastwards, we have before us the wall separating the

FIG. 6.--.Clairvaux, No. 1 (Cistercian), General

A. Cloisters. I. Wine-press and O. Public presse.

B. Ovens, and corn hay-chamber P. Gateway.

oil-mills K. Parlour R. Remains of old monastery

C. St Bernard's cell. L. Workshops and.

D. Chief entrance. workmen's lodgings S. Oratory.

E. Tanks for fish. V. Tile-works.

F. Guest-house. M. Slaughter-house. X. Tile-kiln.

G. Abbot's house. N. Barns and stables. V. Water-courses.

H. Stables.

outer and inner ward, and the gatehouse (D) affording communication

between the two. On passing through the gateway, the outer

court of the inner ward was entered, with the western facade

of the monastic church in front. Immediately on the right

of entrance was the abbot's house (G), in close proximity to

the guest-house (F). On the other side of the court were the

stables, for the accommodation of the horses of the guests

and their attendants (H). The church occupied a central

position. To the south was the great cloister (A),

surrounded by the chief monastic buildings, and farther to

the east the smaller cloister, opening out of which were

the infirmary, novices' lodgings and quarters for the aged

monks. Still farther to the east, divided from the monastic

buildings by a wall, were the vegetable gardens and orchards,

and tank for fish. The large fish-ponds, an indispensable

adjunct to any ecclesiastical foundation, on the formation

of which the monks lavished extreme care and pains, and

which often remain as almost the only visible traces of these

vast establishments, were placed outside the abbey walls.

Plan No. 2 furninshes the ichnography of the distinctly

monastic buildings on a larger scale. The usually unvarying

arrangement of the Cistercian houses allows us to accept

this as a type of the monasteries of this order. The church

(A) is the chief feature. It consists of a vast nave of

eleven bays, entered by a narthex, with a transept and short

apsidal choir. (It may be remarked that the eastern limb in

all unaltered Cistercian churches is remarkably short, and

usually square.) To the east of each limb of the transept

are two square chapels, divided according to Cistercian

rule by solid walls. Nine radiating chapels, similarly

divided, surround the apse. The stalls of the monks,

forming the ritual choir, occupy the four eastern bays of the

nave. There was a second range of stalls in the extreme

western bays of the nave for the fratres conversi, or lay

brothers. To the south of the church, so as to secure as

much sun as possible, the cloister was invariably placed,

except when local reasons forbade it. Round the cloister

(B) were ranged the buildings connected with the monks' daily

life. The chapter-house (C) always opened out of the east

walk of the cloister in a line with the south transept.

FIG. 7.--Clairvaux, No. 2 (Cistercian), Monastic

A. Church. L. Lodgings of novices. S. Cellars and storehouses.

B. Cloister.

C. Chapter-house. M. Old guest-house. T. Water-course.

D. Monks' parlour. N. Old abbot's lodgings. U. Saw-mill and oil mill

E. Calefactory.

F. Kitchen and court. O. Cloister of V. Currier's shop.

G. Refectory. supernumerary monks.

H. Cemetery. X. Sacristy.

I. Little cloister. P. Abbot's hall. Y. Little library.

K. Infirmary. Q. Cell of St Bernard. Z. Undercroft of dormitory.

R. Stables.

In Cistercian houses this was quadrangular, and was divided

by pillars and arches into two or three aisles. Between

it and the transept we find the sacristy (X), and a small

book-room (Y) armariolum, where the brothers deposited the

volumes borrowed from the library. On the other side of the

chapter-house, to the south, is a passage (D) communicating

with the courts and buildings beyond. This was sometimes

known as the parlour, colloquii locus, the monks having the

privilege of conversation here. Here also, when iscipline

became relaxed, traders, who had the liberty of admission,

were allowed to display their goods. Beyond this we often

find the calefactorium or day-room--an apartment warmed

by flues beneath the pavement, where the brethren, half

frozen during the night offices, betook themselves after

the conclusion of lauds, to gain a little warmth, grease

their sandals and get themselves ready for the work of the

day. In the plan before us this apartment (E) opens from the

south cloister walk, adjoining the refectory. The place usually

assigned to it is occupied by the vaulted substructure of the

dormitory (Z). The dormitory, as a rule, was placed on the

east side of the cloister, running over the calethetory and

chapter-house, and joined the south transept, where a flight

of steps admitted the brethren into the church for nocturnal

services. Opening out of the dormitory was always the

necessarium, planned with the greatest regard to health and

cleanliness, a water-course invariably running from end to

end. The refectory opens out of the south cloister at G.

The position of the refectory is usually a marked point of

difference between Benedictine and Cistercian abbeys. In the

former, as at Canterbury, the refectory ran east and west

parallel to the nave of the church, on the side of the cloister

farthest removed from it. In the Cistercian monasturies, to

keep the noise and smell of dinner still farther away from

the sacred building, the refectory was built north and south,

at right angles to the axis of the church. It was often

divided, sometimes into two, sometimes, as here, into three

aisles. Outside the refectory door, in the cloister,

was the lavatory, where the monks washed their hands at

dinner-time. The buildings belonging to the material life of

the monks lay near the refectory, as far as possible from the

church, to the S.W. With a distinct entrance from the outer

court was the kitchen court (F), with its buttery, scullery

and larder, and the important adjunct of a stream of running

water. Farther to the west, projecting beyond the line of

the west front of the church, were vast vaulted apartments

(SS), serving as cellars and storehouses, above which was

the dormitory of the conversi. Detached from these, and

separated entirely from the monastic buildings, were various

workshops, which convenience repuired to be banished to

the outer precincts, a saw-mill and oil-mill (UU) turned

by water, and a currier's shop (V), where the sandals

and leathern girdles of the monks were made and repaired.

Returning to the cloister, a vaulted passage admitted to the small

cloister (l), opening from the north side of which were eight

small cells, assigned to the scribes employed in copying works

for the library, which was placed in the upper story, accessible

by a turret staircase. To the south of the small cloister

a long hall will be noticed. This was a lecture-hall, or

rather a hall for the religious disputations customary among the

Cistercians. From this cloister opened the infirmary (K),

with its hall, chapel, cells, blood-letting house and other

dependencies. At the eastern verge of the vast group of buildings

we find the novices' lodgings (L), with a third cloister

near the novices' quarters and the original guest-house (M).

Detached from the great mass of the monastic edifices was the

original abbot's house (N), with its dining-hall (P). Closely

adjoining to this, so that the eye of the father of the whole

establishment should be constantly over those who stood the

most in need of his watchful care,--those who were training

for the monastic life, and those who had worn themselves

out in its duties,--was a fourth cloister (O), with annexed

buildings, devoted to the aged and infirm members of the

establishment. The cemetery, the last resting-place of the

brethren, lay to the north side of the nave of the church (H).

It will be seen from the above account that the arrangement of

a Cistercian monastery was in accordance with a clearly defined

system, and admirably adapted to its purpose. The base court

nearest to the outer wall contained the buildings belonging to

the functions of the body as agriculturists and employers of

labour. Advancing into the inner court, the buildings`devoted

to hospitality are found close to the entrance; while those

connected with the supply of the material wants of the brethren,

--the kitchen, cellars, &c.,--form a court of themselves

outside the cloister and quite detached from the church.

The church refectory, dormitory and other buildings belonging

to the professional life of the brethren surround the great

cloister. The small cloister beyond, with its scribes' cells,

library, hall for disputations, &c., is the centre of the

literary life of the community. The requirements of sickness

and old age are carefully provided for in the infirmary

cloister and that for the aged and infirm members of the

establishment. The same group contains the quarters of the novices.

This stereotyped arrangement is further shown by the

illustration of the mother establishment of Citeaux.

Citeaux.

A cross (A), planted on the high road, directs travellers to

the gate of the monastery. reached by an avenue of trees. On

one side of the gate-house (B) is a long building (C), probably

the almonry, with a dormitory above for the lower class of

guests. On the other side is a chapel (D). As soon as the

porter heard a stranger knock at the gate, he rose, saying,

Deo gratias, the opportunity for the exercise of hospitality

being regarded as a cause for thankfulness. On opening the

door he welcomed the new arrival with a blessing --Benedicite.

He fell on his knees before him, and then went to inform the

abbot. However important the abbot's occupations might

be, he at once hastened to receive him whom heaven had

sent. He also threw himself at his guest's feet, and

conducted him to the chapel (D) purposely built close to the

gate. After a short prayer, the abbot committed the guest

to the care of the brother hospitaller, whose duty it was

to provide for his wants and conduct the beast on which he

might be riding to the stable (F), built adjacent to the inner

gatehouse (E). This inner gate conducted into the base court

(T), round which were placed the barns, stables, cow-sheds, &c.

On the eastern side stood the dormitory of the lay brothers,

fratres conversi (G), detached from the cloister, with

cellars and storehouses below. At H, also outside the monastic

buildings proper, was the abbot's house, and annexed to it the

guest-house. For these buildings there was a separate door

of entrance into the church (S). The large cloister, with its

surrounding arcades, is seen at V. On the south end projects

the refectory (K), with its kitchen at I, accessible from

the base court. The long gabled building on the east side of

the cloister contained on the ground floor the chapter-house

and calefactory, with the monks' dormitory above (M),

communicating with the south transept of the church. At L

was the staircase to the dormitory. The small cloister is at

W, where were the carols or cells of the scribes, with the

library (P) over, reached by a turret staircase. At R we see

a portion of the infirmary. The whole precinct is surrounded

by a strong buttressed wall (XXX), pierced with arches,

FIG. 8.---Bird's-eye view of

A. Cross. H. Abbot's house. R. Infirmary.

B. Gate-house. I. Kitchen. S. Door to the church

C. Almonry. K. Refectory. for the lay brothers.

D. Chapel. L. Staircase to dormitory.

E. Inner gate-house. T. Base court.

F. Stable. M. Dormitory. V. Great cloister.

G. Dormitory of lay N. Church. W. Small cloister.

brethren. P. Library. X. Boundary wall.

through which streams of water are introduced. It will

be noticed that the choir of the church is short, and has

a square end instead of the usual apse. The tower, in

accordance with the Cistercian rule, is very low. The windows

throughout accord with the studied simplicity of the order.

Kirkstall Abbey.

The English Cistercian houses, of which there are such extensive

and beautiful remains at Fountains, Rievaulx, Kirkstall,

Tintern, Netley, &c., were mainly arranged after the same

plan, with slight local variations. As an example, we give

the groundplan of Kirkstall Abbey. which is one of the best

preserved. The church here is of the Cistercian type, with

a short chancel of two squares, and transepts with three

eastward chapels to each, divided by solid walls (2 2 2).

The whole is of the most studied plainness. The windows

are unornamented, and the nave has no triforium. The

cloister to the south (4) occupies the whole length of the

nave. On the east side stands the two-aisled chapter-house

(5), between which and the south transept is a small

sacristy (3), and on the other side two small apartments,

one of which was probably the parlour (6). Beyond this

stretches southward the calefactory or day-room of the monks

(14). Above this whole range of building runs the monks'

dormitory, opening by stairs into the south transept of the

church. At the other end were the necessaries. On thc south

side of the cloister we have the remains of the old refectory

(11), running, as in Benedictine houses, from east to west,

and the new refectory (12), which, with the increase of the

inmates of the house, superseded it, stretching, as is usual

in Cistercian houses, from north to south. Adjacent to this

apartment are the remains of the kitchen, pantry and buttery.

The arches of the lavatory are to be seen near the refectory

entrance. The western side of the cloister is, as usual,

occupied by vaulted cellars, supporting on the upper story

the dormitory of the lay brothers (8). Extending from the

FIG. 9 Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire

1. Church. 10. Common room.

2. Chapels. 11. Old refectory.

3. Sacristy. 12. New refectory.

4. Cloister. 13. Kitchen court.

5. Chapter-house. 14. Calefactory or day-room.

6. Parlour. 15. Kitchen and offices.

7. Punishment cell (?). 16-19. Uncertain; perhaps offices

8. Cellars, with dormitories for connected with the infirmary.

conversi over.

9. Guest-house. 20. Infirmary or abbot's house.

south-east angle of the main group of buildings are the

walls and foundations of a secondary group of considerable

extent. These have been identified either with the hospitium

or with the abbot's house, but they occupy the position in

which the infirmary is more usually found. The hall was

a very spacious apartment, measuring 83 ft. in length by

48 ft. 9 in. in breadth, and was divided by two rows of

columns. The fish-ponds lay between the monastery and

the river to the south. The abbey mill was situated

about 80 yards to the north-west. The millpool may be

distinctly traced, together with the gowt or mill stream.

Fountains Abbey.

Fountains Abbey, first founded A.D. 1132, is one of the

largest and best preserved Cistercian houses in England.

But the earlier buildings received considerable additions

and alterations in the later period of the order, causing

deviations from the strict Cistercian type. The church

stands a short distance to the north of the river Skell, the

buildings of the abbey stretching down to and even across the

stream. We have the cloister (H) to the south, with the

three-aisled chapter-house (I) and calefactory (L) opening from

its eastern walk, and the refectory (S), with the kitchen (Q)

and buttery (T) attached, at right angles to its southern walk.

FIG. 10.--Ground-plan of Fountains Abbey,

A. Nave of the church. N. Cellar. Z. Gate-house.

B. Transept. O. Brewhouse. ABBOT'S HOUSE.

C. Chapels. P. Prisons. 1. Passage

D. Tower. Q. Kitchen. 2. Great hall.

E. Sacristy. R. Offices. 3. Refectory.

F. Choir. S. Refectory. 4. Refectory.

G. Chapel of nine alters. T. Buttery. 5. Storehouse.

H. Cloister. U. Cellars and storehouses. 6. Chapel.

I. Chapter-house. V. Necessary. 7. Kitchen.

K. Base court. W. Infirmary (?). 8. Ashpit.

L. Calefactory. X. Guest-houses. 9. Yard.

M. Water-course. Y. Mill bridge. 10. Kitchen tank.

Parallel with the western walk is an immense vaulted substructure

(U), incorrectly styled the cloisters, serving as cellars and

store-rooms, and supporting the dormitory of the conversi

above. This building extended across the river. At its S.W.

corner were the necessaries (V), also built, as usual, above

the swiftly flowing stream. The monks' dormitory was in its

usual position above the chapter-house, to the south of the

transept. As peculiarities of arrangement may be noticed

the position of the kitchen (Q), between the refectory and

calefactory, and of the infirmary (W) (unless there is some

error in its designation) above the river to the west, adjoining

the guest-houses (XX). We may also call attention to the

greatly lengthened choir, commenced by Abbot John of York,

1203-1211, and carried on by his successor, terminating, like

Durham Cathedral, in an eastern transept, the work of Abbot

John of Kent, 1220-1247, and to the tower (D), added not long

before the dissolution by Abbot Huby, 1494-1526, in a very

unusual position at the northern end of the north transept.

The abbot's house, the largest and most remarkable example of

this class of buildings in the kingdom, stands south to the

east of the church and cloister, from which it is divided by

the kitchen court (R), surrounded by the ordinary domestic

offices. A considerable portion of this house was erected on

arches over the Skell. The size and character of this house,

probably, at the time of its erection, the most spacious

house of a subject in the kingdom, not a castle, bespeaks

the wide departure of the Cistercian order from the stern

simplicity of the original foundation. The hall (2) was one

of the most spacious and magnificent apartments in medieval

times, measuring 170 ft. by 70 ft. Like the hall in the

castle at Winchester, and Westminster Hall, as originally

built, it was divided by 18 pillars and arches, with 3

aisles. Among other apartments, for the designation of which

we must refer to the ground-plan, was a domestic oratory or

chapel, 46 1/2 ft. by 23 ft. and a kitchen (7), 50 ft. by 38

ft. The whole arrangements and character of the building

bespeak the rich and powerful feudal lord, not the humble

father of a body of hard-working brethren, bound by vows to a

life of poverty and self-denying toil. In the words of Dean

Milman, ``the superior, once a man bowed to the earth with

humility, care-worn, pale, emaciated, with a coarse habit

bound with a cord, with naked feet, had become an abbot

on his curvetting palfrey, in rich attire, with his silver

cross before him, travelling to take his place amid the

lordliest of the realm.'' --(Lat. Christ. vol. iii. p. 330.)

Austin Canons.

The buildings of the Austin canons or Black canons (so

called from the colour of their habit) present few distinctive

peculiarities. This order had its first seat in England at

Colchester, where a house for Austin canons was founded about

A.D. 1105, and it very soon spread widely. As an order

of regular clergy, holding a middle position between monks

and secular canons, almost resembling a community of parish

priests living under rule, they adopted naves of great length

to accommodate large congregations. The choir is usually

long, and is sometimes, as at Llanthony and Christ Church

(Twynham), shut off from the aisles, or, as at Bolton, Kirkham,

&c., is destitute of aisles altogether. The nave in the northern

houses, not unfrequently, had only a north aisle, as at Bolton,

Brinkburn and Lanercost. The arrangement of the monastic

buildings followed the ordinary type. The prior's lodge was

almost invariably attached to the S.W. angle of the nave.

Bristol Cathedral.

The annexed plan of the Abbey of St Augustine's at Bristol,

now the cathedral church of that city, shows the arrangement

of the buildings, which departs very little from the

ordinary Benedictine type. The Austin canons' house at

Thornton, in Lincolnshire, is remarkable for the size

and magnificence of its gate-house, the upper floors of

which formed the guest-house of the establishment, and for

possessing an octagonal chapter-house of Decorated date.

Premonstratensians.

The Premonstratensian regular canons, or White canons, had

as many as 35 houses in England, of which the most perfect

remaining are those of Easby. Yorkshire, and Bayham, Kent.

The head house of the order in England was Welbeck. This order

was a reformed branch of the Austin canons, founded, A.D.

1119, by Norbert (born at Xanten, on the Lower Rhine, c.

1080) at Premontre, a secluded marshy valley in the forest

of Coucy in the diocese of Laon. The order spread widely.

Even in the founder's lifetime it possessed houses in Syria and

Palestine. It long maintained its rigid austerity, till in

the course of years wealth impaired its discipline, and its

members sank into indolence and luxury. The Premonstratensians

were brought to England shortly after A.D. 1140, and were

first settled at Newhouse, in Lincolnshire, near the Humber.

The ground-plan of Easby Abbey, owing to its situation on the

edge of the steeply sloping banks of a river, is singularly

irregular. The cloister is duly placed on the south side of the

church, and the chief buildings occupy their usual positions

round it. But the cloister garth, as at Chichester, is not

rectangular, and all the surrounding buildings are thus made

to sprawl in a very awkward fashion. The church follows

the plan adopted by the Austin canons in their northern

abbeys, and has only one aisle to the nave--that to the

north; while the choir is long, narrow and aisleless. Each

transept has an aisle to the east, forming three chapels.

The church at Bayham was destitute of aisles either to nave or

choir. The latter terminated in a three-sided apse. This church

is remarkable for its exceeding narrowness in proportion to its

length. Extending in longitudinal dimensions 257 ft., it is

FIG. 11.--St Augustine's Abbey, Bristol (Bristol

A. Church. H. Kitchen. S. Friars' lodging.

B. Great cloister. I. Kitchen court. T. King's hall.

C. Little cloister. K. Cellars. V. Guest-house.

D. Chapter-house. L. Abbot's hall. W. Abbey gateway.

E. Calefactory. P. Abbot's gateway. X. Barns, stables, &c

F. Refectory. R. Infirmary. Y. Lavatory.

G. Parlour.

not more than 25 ft. broad. Stern Premonstratensian canons

wanted no congregations, and cared for no possessions;

therefore they built their church like a long room.

Carthusians.

The Carthusian order, on its establishment by St Bruno,

about A.D. 1084, developed a greatly modified form and

arrangement of a monastic institution. The principle of this

order, which combined the coenobitic with the solitary life,

demanded the erection of buildings on a novel plan. This

plan, which was first adopted by St Bruno and his twelve

companions at the original institution at Chartreux, near

Grenoble, was maintained in all the Carthusian establishments

throughout Europe, even after the ascetic severity of the order

had been to some extent relaxed, and the primitive simplicity

of their buildings had been exchanged for the magnificence

of decoration which characterizes such foundations as the

Certosas of Pavia and Florence. According to the rule of

St Bruno, all the members of a Carthusian brotherhood lived

in the most absolute solitude and silence. Each occupied a

small detached cottage, standing by itself in a small garden

surrounded by high walls and connected by a common corridor or

cloister. In these cottages or cells a Carthusian monk

passed his time in the strictest asceticism, only leaving

his solitary dwelling to attend the services of the Church,

except on certain days when the brotherhood assembled in the

refectory. The peculiarity of the arrangements of a Carthusian

monastery, or charter-house, as it was called in England,

from a corruption of the French chartreux, is exhibited

in the plan of that of Clermont, from Viollet-le-Duc.

Clermont.

The whole establishment is surrounded hy a wall, furnished

at intervals with watch towers (R) . The enclosure is divided

into two courts, of which the eastern court, surrounded by a

cloister, from from which the cottages of the monks (I) open,

is musch the larger. The two courts are divided by the main

buildings of the monastery, including the church, the sanctuary

(A), divided from B, the monks' choir, by a screen with two

altars, the smaller cloister to the south (S) surrounded by

the chapter-house (E), the refectory (X)---these buildings

occupying their normal position--and the chapel of Pontgibaud

(K). The kitchen with its offices (V) lies behind the

relectory, accessible ftom the outer court without entering the

cloister. To the north of the church, beyond the sacristy

(L), and the side chapels (M), we find the cell of the sub-prior

(a), with its garden. The lodgings of the prior (G) occupy

the centre of the outer court, immediately in front of the

west door of the church, and face the gateway of the convent

(O). A small raised court with a fountain (C) is before

it. This outer court also contains the guest-chambers (P),

the stables and lodgings of the lay brothers (N), the barns

and granaries (Q), the dovecot (H) and the bakehouse (T).

At Z is the prison. In this outer court, in all the earlier

foundations, as at Witham, there was a smaller church in

addition to the larger church of the monks.) The outer and

inner courts are connected by a long passage (F), wide enough

to admit a cart laden with wood to supply the cells of the

brethren with fuel. The number of cells surrounding the great

A. Church.

B. Monks' choir.

C. Prior's garden.

D. Great cloister.

E. Chapter-house.

F. Passage.

G. Prior's lodgings.

H. Dovecot.

I. Cells.

K. Chapel of Pontgibaud.

L. Sacristy.

M. Chapel.

N. Stables.

O. Gateway.

P. Guest-chambers.

Q. Barns and granaries.

R. Watch-tower.

S. Little cloister.

T. Bakehouse.

V. Kitchen.

X. Refectory.

Y. Cemetery.

Z. Prison.

a. Cell of subprior

b. Garden of do.

FIG. 12.--Carthusian monastery of Clermont.

cloister is 18. They are all arranged on a uniform plan.

Each little dwelling contains three rooms: a sitting-room

(C), warmed by a stove in winter; a sleeping-room (D),

furnished with a bed, a table, a bench, and a bookcase; and

a closet (E). Between the cell and the cloister gallery (A)

is a passage or corridor (B), cutting off the inmate of the

cell from all sound or movement which might interrupt his

meditations. The superior had free access to this corridor, and

through open niches was able to inspect the garden without being

seen. At I is the hatch or turn-table, in which the daily

allowance of food was deposited by a brother appointed for that

purpose, affording no view either inwards or outwards. H is the

garden, cultivated by the occupant of the cell. At K is the

wood-house. F is a covered walk, with the necessary at the end.

The above arrangements are found with scarcely any variation

in all the charter-houses of western Europe. The Yorkshire

Charter-house of Mount Grace, founded by Thomas Holland, the

young duke of Surrey, nephew of Richard II. and marshal of

England, during the revival of the popularity of the order,

about A.D. 1397, is the most perfect and best preserved English

example. It is characterized by all the simplicity of the

order. The church is a modest building, long, narrow and

aisleless. Within the wall of enclosure are two courts.

The smaller of the two, the south, presents the usual

arrangement of church, refectory, &c., opening out of a

cloister. The buildings are plain and solid. The northern

court contains the cells, 14 in number. It is surrotmded by a

double stone wall, the two walls being about 30 ft. or 40 ft.

apart. Between these, each in its own garden, stand the cells;

low-built two-storied cottages, of two or three rooms on the

ground-floor, lighted by a larger and a smaller window to the

side, and provided with a doorway to the court, and one at the

back, opposite to one in the outer wall, through which the

monk may have conveyed the sweepings of his cell and the refuse

of his garden to the ``eremus'' beyond. By the side of the

door to the court is a little hatch through which the daily

pittance of food was supplied, so contrived by turning at an

angle in the wall that no one could either look in or look

out. A very perfect example of this hatch---an arrangement

belonging to all Carthusian houses--exists at Miraflores, near

Burgos, which remains nearly as it was completed in 1480.

A. Cloister gallery.

B. Corridor.

C. Living-room.

D. Sleeping-room.

E. Closets.

F. Covered walk.

G. Necessary.

H. Garden.

I. Hatch.

K. Wood-house.

FIG. 13--Carthusian cell, Clermont.

There were only nine Carthusian houses in England. The

earliest was that at Witham in Somersetshire, founded

by Henry II., by whom the order was first brought into

England. The wealthiest and most magnificent was that of

Sheen or Richmond in Surrey, founded by Henry V. about A.D.

1414. The, dimensions of the buildings at Sheen are stated

to have been remarkably large. The great court measured

300 ft. by 250 ft.; the cloisters were a square of 500 ft.;

the hall was 110 ft. in length by 60 ft. in breadth. The

most celebrated historically is the Charter house of London,

founded by Sir Walter Manny A.D. 1371, the name of which

is preserved by the famous public school established on the

site by Thomas Sutton A.D. 1611, now removed to Godalming.

Mendicant Friars.

An article on monastic arrangements would be incomplete without

some account of the convents of the Mendicant or Preaching

Friars, including the Black Friars or Dominicans, the Grey

or Franciscans, the White or Carmelites, the Eremite or

Austin, Friars. These orders arose at the beginning of the

13th century, when the Benedictines, together with their

various reformed branches, had terminated their active

mission, and Christian Europe was ready for a new religious

revival. Planting themselves, as a rule, in large towns,

and by preference in the poorest and most densely populated

districts, the Preaching Friars were obliged to adapt their

buildings to the requirements of the site. Regularity of

arrangement, therefore, was not possible, even if they had

studied it. Their churches, built for the reception of

large congregations of hearers rather than worshippers, form

a class by themselves, totally unlike those of the elder

orders in ground-plan and character. They were usually long

parallelograms unbroken by transepts. The nave very usually

consisted of two equal bodies, one containing the stalls

of the brotherhood, the other left entirely free for the

congregation. The constructional choir is often wanting,

the whole church forming one uninterrupted structure, with

a continuous range of windows. The east end was usually

square, but the Friars Church at Winchelsea had a polygonal

apse. We not unfrequently find a single transept, sometimes of

great size, rivalling or exceeding the nave. This arrangement

is frequent in Ireland, where the numerous small friaries

afford admirable exemplifications of these peculiarities of

ground-plan. The friars' churches were at first destitute of

towers; but in the 14th and 15th centuries, tall, slender towers

were commonly inserted between the nave and the choir. The

Grey Friars at Lynn, where the tower is hexagonal, is a good

example. The arrangement of the monastic buildings is equally

peculiar and characteristic. We miss entirely the regularity

of the buildings of the earlier orders. At the Jacobins at

Paris, a cloister lay to the north of the long narrow church

of two parallel aisles, while the refectory--a room of immense

length, quite detached from the cloister--stretched across

the area before the west front of the church. At Toulouse the

nave also has two parallel aisles, but the choir is apsidal,

with radiating chapel. The refectory stretches northwards at

right angles to the cloister, which lies to the north of the

church, having the chapter-house and sacristy on the east.

Norwich. Gloucester.

As examples of English friaries, the Dominican house at

Norwich, and those of the Dominicans and Franciscans at

Gloucester, may be mentioned. The church of the Black

Friars of Norwich departs from the original type in the

nave (now St Andrew's Hall), in having regular aisles. In

this it resembles the earlier examples of the Grey Friars at

Reading. The choir is long and aisleless; an hexagonal tower

between the two, like that existing at Lynn, has perished. Thc

cloister and monastic buildings remain tolerably perfect to the

north. The Dominican convent at Gloucester still exhibits the

cloister-court, on the north side of which is the desecrated

church. The refectory is on the west side and on the south

the dormitory of the 13th century. This is a remarkably good

example. There were 18 cells or cubicles on each side, divided

by partitions, the bases of which remain. On the east side

was the prior's house, a building of later date. At the Grey

or Franciscan Friars, the church followed the ordinary type in

having two equal bodies, each gabled, with a continuous range of

windows. There was a slender tower between the nave and the choir.

Hulne.

Of the convents of the Carmelite or White Friars we have a

good example in the Abbey of Hulne, near Alnwick, the first

of the order in England, founded A.D. 1240. The church

is a narrow oblong, destitute of aisles, 123 ft. long by

only 26 ft. wide. The cloisters are to the south, with

the chapter-house, &c., to the east, with the dormitory

over. The prior's lodge is placed to the west of the

cloister. The guest-houses adjoin the entrance gateway, to

which a chapel was annexed on the south side of the conventual

area. The nave of the church of the Austin Friars or Eremites

in London is still standing. It is of Decorated date, and

has wide centre and side aisles, divided by a very light and

graceful arcade. Some fragments of the south walk of the

cloister of the Grey Friars remained among the buildings of

Christ's Hospital (the Blue-Coat School), while they were still

standing. Of the Black Friars all has perished but the

name. Taken as a whole, the remains of the establishments of

the friars afford little warrant for the bitter invective of

the Benedictine of St Alban's, Matthew Paris:---``The friars

who have been founded hardly 40 years have built residences

as the palaces of kings. These are they who, enlarging day

by day their sumptuous edifices, encircling them with lofty

walls, lay up in them their incalculable treasures, imprudently

transgressing the bounds of poverty and violating the very

fundamental rules of their profession.'' Allowance must here be

made for jealousy of a rival order just rising in popularity.

Cells.

Every large monastery had depending upon it one or more smaller

establishments known as cells. These cells were monastic

colonies, sent forth by the parent house, and planted on some

outlying estate. As an example, we may refer to the small

religious house of St Mary Magdalene's, a cell of the great

Benedictine house of St Mary's, York, in the valley of the

Witham, to the south-east of the city of Lincoln. This consists

of one long narrow range of building, of which the eastern part

formed the chapel and the western contained the apartments of

the handful of monks of which it was the home. To the east

may be traced the site of the abbey mill, with its dam and

mill-lead. These cells, when belonging to a Cluniac house,

were called Obedientiae. The plan given by Viollet-le-Duc

of the Priory of St Jean des Bons Hommes, a Cluniac cell,

situated between the town of Avallon and the village of

Savigny, shows that these diminutive establishments comprised

every essential feature of a monastery,---chapel, cloister,

chapter-room, refectory, dormitory, all grouped according to the

recognized arrangement. These Cluniac obedientiae differed

from the ordinary Benedictine cells in being also places of

punishment, to which monks who had been guilty of any grave

infringement of the rules were relegated as to a kind of

penitentiary. Here they were placed under the authority of a

prior, and were condemned to severe manual labour, fulfilling

the duties usually executed by the lay brothers, who acted as

farmservants. The outlying farming establishments belonging to

the monastic foundations were known as villae or granges.

They gave employment to a body of conversi and labourers

under the management of a monk, who bore the title of Brother

Hospitaller ---the granges, like their parent institutions,

affording shelter and hospitality to belated travellers.

AUTHORITIES.--Dugdale, Monasticon; Lenoir,

Architecture monastique (1852--1856); Veollet-le-Duc,

Dictionnaire raisonnee de l'architecture francaise;

Springer, Klosterleben und Klosterkunst (1886); Kraus,

Geschichte der christlichen Kunst (1896). (E. V.)

ABBON OF FLEURY, or ABBO FLORIACENSIS (c. 945-1004), a

learned Frenchman, born near Orleans about 945. He distinguished

himself in the schools of Paris and Reims, and was especially

proficient in science as known in his time. He spent two

years in England, assisting Archbishop Oswald of York in

restoring the monastic system, and was abbot of Romsey. After

his return to France he was made abbot of Fleury on the Loire

(988). He was twice sent to Rome by King Robert the Pious

(986, 996), and on each occasion succeeded in warding off a

threatened papal interdict. He was killed at La Reole in

1004, in endeavouring to quell a monkish revolt. He wrote an

Epitomie de vitis Romanorum pontificum, besides controversial

treatises, letters, &c. (see Migne, Patrologia Latina, vol.

139). His life, written by his disciple Aimoin of Fleury, in

which much of Abbon's correspondence was reproduced, is of great

importance as a source for the reign of Robert II., especially

with reference to the papacy (cf. Migne, op. cit. vol. 139).

See Ch. Pfister, Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux (1885);

Cuissard-Gaucheron, ``L'Ecole de Fleury-sur-Loire a la fin du 10

siecle,'' in Memoires de la societe de l'Orleanais, xiv.

(Orleans, 1875); A. Molinier, Sources de l'histoire de France.

ABBOT, EZRA (1819--1884), American biblical scholar, was

born at Jackson, Waldo county, Maine, on the 28th of April

1819. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1840; and in

1847, at the request of Prof. Andrews Norton, went to

Cambridge, where he was principal of a public school until

1856. He was assistant librarian of Harvard University from

1856 to 1872, and planned and perfected an alphabetical card

catalogue, combining many of the advantages of the ordinary

dictionary catalogues with the grouping of the minor topics

under more general heads, which is characteristic of a systematic

catalogue. From 1872 until his death he was Bussey Professor

of New Testament Criticism and Interpretation in the Harvard

Divinity School. His studies were chiefly in Oriental languages

and the textual criticism of the New Testament, thoygh his

work as a bibliographer showed such results as the exhaustive

list of writings (5300 in all) on the doctrine of the future

life, appended to W. R. Alger's History of the Doctrine of

a Future Life, as it has prevailed in all Nations and Ages

(1862), and published separately in 1864. His publications,

though always of the most thorough and scholarly character,

were to a large extent dispersed in the pages of reviews,

dictionaries, concordances, texts edited by others, Unitarian

controversial treatises, &c.; but he took a more conspicuous

and more personal part in the preparation (with the Baptist

scholar, Horatio B. Hackett) of the enlarged American edition

of Dr (afterwards Sir) William Smith's Dictionary of the

Bible (1867-1870), to which he contributed more than 400

articles besides greatly improving the bibliographical

completeness of the work; was an efficient member of the

American revision committee employed in connexion with the

Revised Version (1881-1885) of the King James Bible; and aided

in the preparation of Caspar Rene Gregory's Prolegomena to

the revised Greek New Testament of Tischendorf. His principal

single production, representing his scholarly method and

conservative conclusions, was The Authorship af the Fourth

Gospel: External Evidences (1880; second edition, by J. H.

Thayer, with other essays, 1889), originally a lecture, and

in spite of the compression due to its form, up to that time

probably the ablest defence, based on external evidence,

of the Johannine authorship, and certainly the completest

treatment of the relation of Justin Martyr to this gospel.

Abbot, though a layman, received the degree of S. T. D. from

Harvard in 1872, and that of D.D. from Edinburgh in 1884. . He

died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 21st of March 1884.

See S. J. Barrows, Ezra Abbot (Cambridge, Mass., 1884).

ABBOT, GEORGE (1562-1633), English divine, archbishop of

Canterbury, was born on the 19th of October 1562, at Guildford in

Surrey, where his father was a cloth-worker. He studied, and

then taught, at Balliol College, Oxford, was chosen master of

University College in 1597, and appointed dean of Winchester in

1600. He was three times vice-chancellor of the university,

and took a leading part in preparing the authorized version

of the New Testament. In 1608 he went to Scotland with the

earl of Dunbar to arrange for a union between the churches

of England and Scotland. He so pleased the king (James

I.) in this affair that he was made bishop of Lichfield and

Coventry in 1609, was translated to the see of London a month

afterwards, and in less than a year was raised to that of

Canterbury. His puritan instincts frequently led him not

only into harsh treatment of Roman Catholics, but also into

courageous resistance to the royal will, e.g. when he

opposed the scandalous divorce suit of the Lady Frances Howard

against the earl of Essex, and again in 1618 when, at Croydon,

he forbade the reading of the declaration permitting Sunday

sports. He was naturally, therefore, a promoter of the match

between the elector palatine and the Princess Elizabeth,

and a firm opponent of the projected marriage of the prince

of Wales with the infanta of Spain. This policy brought

upon him the hatred of Laud (with whom he had previously

come into collision at Oxford) and the court, though the

king himself never forsook him. In 1622, while hunting in

Lord Zouch's park at Bramshill, Hampshire, a bolt from his

cross-bow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of the

keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so greatly

distressed by the event that he fell into a state of settled

melancholy. His enemies maintained that the fatal issue of

this accident disqualified him for his office, and argued

that, though the homicide was involuntary, the sport of

hunting which had led to it was one in which no clerical

person could lawfully indulge. The king had to refer the

matter to a commission of ten, though he said that ``an angel

might have miscarried after this sort.'' The commission was

equally divided, and the king gave a casting vote in the

archbishop's favour, though signing also a formal pardon or

dispensation. After this the archbishop seldom appeared

at the council, chiefly on account of his infirmities. He

attended the king constantly, however, in his last illness,

and performed the ceremony of the coronation of Charles I.

His refusal to license the assize sermon preached by Dr Robert

Sibthorp at Northampton on the 22nd of February 1626-1627, in

which cheerful obedience was urged to the king's demand for a

general loan, and the duty proclaimed of absolute non-resistance

even to the most arbitrary royal commands, led Charles to

deprive him of his functions as primate, putting them in

commission. The need of summoning parliament, however,

soon brought about a nominal restoration of the archbishop's

powers. His presence being unwelcome at court, he lived

from that time in retirement, leaving Laud and his party in

undisputed ascendancy. He died at Croydon on the 5th of August

1633, and was buried at Guildford, his native place, where

he had endowed a hospital with lands to the value of L. 300 a

year. Abbot was a conscientious prelate, though narrow in view

and often harsh towards both separatists and Romanists. He

wrote a large number of works, the most interesting being his

discursive Exposition on the Prophet Jonah (1600), which was

reprinted in 1845. His Geography, or a Brief Description

of the Whole World (1599), passed through numerous editions.

The best account of him is in S. R. Gardiner's History of England.

ABBOT, GEORGE (1603-1648), English writer, known as ``The

Puritan,'' has been oddly and persistently mistaken for

others. He has been described as a clergyman, which he never

was, and as son of Sir Morris (or Maurice) Abbot, and his

writings accordingly entered in the bibliographical authorities

as by the nephew of the archbishop of Canterbury. One of the

sons of Sir Morris Abbot was, indeed, named George, and he

was a man of mark, but the more famous George Abbot was of a

different family altogether. He was son or grandson (it is

not clear which) of Sir Thomas Abbot, knight of Easington,

East Yorkshire, having been born there in 1603--1604,

his mother (or grandmother) being of the ancient house of

Pickering. Of his early life and training nothing is

known. He married a daughter of Colonel Purefoy of Caldecote,

Warwickshire, and as his monument, which may still be seen

in the church there, tells, he bravely held the manor house

against Princes Rupert and Maurice during the civil war. As

a layman, and nevertheless a theologian and scholar of rare

ripeness and critical ability, he holds an almost unique

place in the literature of the period. The terseness of his

Whole Booke of Job Paraphrased, or made easy for any to

understand (1640, 4to), contrasts favourably with the usual

prolixity of the Puritan expositors and commentators. His

Vindiciae Sabbathi (1641, 8vo) had a profound and lasting

influence in the long Sabbatarian controversy. His Brief

Notes upon the Whole Book of Psalms (1651, 4to), as its date

shows, was posthumous. He died on the 2nd of February 1648.

AUTHORITIES--MS.collections at Abbeyville for history of all

of the name of Abbot, by J. T. Abbot, Esq., F.S.A., Darlington;

Dugdale's Antiquities of Warwickshire, 1730 p. 1099; Wood's

Athenae (Bliss), ii.141, 594; Cox's Literature of the Sabbath.

ABBOT, ROBERT (1588?-1662?), English Puritan divine. Noted

as this worthy was in his own time, and representative in

various ways, he has often since been confounded with others,

e.g. Robert Abbot, bishop of Salisbury. He is also wrongly

described as a relative of Archbishop Abbot, from whom he

acknowledges very gratefully, in the first of his epistles

dedicatory of A Hand of Fellowship to Helpe Keepe out Sinne

and Antichrist (1623, 4to), that he had ``received all'' his

``worldly maintenance,'' as well as ``best earthly countenance',

and ``fatherly incouragements.', The worldly maintenance

was the presentation in 1616 to the vicarage of Cranbrook in

Kent. He had received his education at Cambridge, where he

proceeded M.A., and was afterwards incorporated at Oxford. In

1639, in the epistle to the reader of his most noticeable book

historically, his Triall of our Church-Forsakers, he tells

us, ``I have lived now, by God's gratious dispensation, above

fifty years, and in the place of my allotment two and twenty

full.'' The former date carries us back to 1588-1589, or

perhaps 1587-1588 ---the ``Armada'' year---as his birth-time;

the latter to 1616-1617 (ut supra). In his Bee Thankfull

London and her Sisters (1626), he describes himself as

formerly ``assistant to a reverend divine . . . now with

God,'' and the name on the margin is ``Master Haiward of Wool

Church (Dorset).'' This was doubtless previous to his going to

Cranbrook. Very remarkable and effective was Abbot's

ministry at Cranbrook, where his parishioners were as his

own ``sons and daughters'' to him. Yet, Puritan though he

was, he was extremely and often unfairly antagonistic to

Nonconformists. He remained at Cranbrook until 1643, when,

Parliament deciding against pluralities of ecclesiastical

offices, he chose the very inferior living of Southwick,

Hants, as between the one and the other. He afterwards

succeeded the ``extruded'' Udall of St Austin's, London,

where according to the Warning-piece he was still pastor in

1657. He disappears silently between 1657-1658 and 1662.

Robert Abbot's books are conspicuous amongst the productions

of his time by their terseness and variety. In addition to

those mentioned above he wrote Milk for Babes, or a Mother's

Catechism for her Children (1646), and A Christian Family

builded by God, or Directions for Governors of Families (1653).

AUTHORITIES.--.Brook's Puritans, iii. 182, 3; Walker's

Sufferings, ii. 183; Wood's Athenae (Bliss), i. 323;

Palmer's Nonconf. Mem. ii. 218, which confuses him most

oddly of all with one of the ejected ministers of 1662.

ABBOT, WILLIAM (1798--1843), English actor, was born in

Chelsea, and made his first appearance on the stage at Bath

in 1806, and his first London appearance in 1808. At Covent

Garden in 1813, in light comedy and melodrama, he made his

first decided success. He Was Pylades to Macready's Orestes

in Ambrose Philips's Distressed Mother when Macready made

his first appearance at that theatre (1816). He created the

parts of Appius Claudius in Sheridan Knowles's Virginius

(1820) and of Modus in his Hunchback (1832). In 1827 he

organized the company, including Macready and Miss Smithson,

which acted Shakespeare in Paris. On his return to London

he played Romeo to Fanny Kemble's Juliet (1830). Two of

Abbot's melodramas, The Youthful Days of Frederick the Great

(1817) and Swedish Patriotism (1819), were produced at

Covent Garden. He died in poverty at Baltimore, Maryland.

ABBOT (from the Hebrew ab, a father, through the Syriac

abba, Lat. abbas, gen. abbatis, O.E. abbad, fr. late

Lat. form abbad-em changed in 13th century under influence

of the Lat. form to abbat, used abternatively till the end

of the 17th century; Ger. Abt; Fr. abbe), the head and

chief governor of a community of monks, called also in the

East hegumenos or archimandrite. The title had its origin

in the monasteries of Syria, whence it spread through the

East, and soon became accepted generally in all languages as

the designation of the head of a monastery. At first it was

employed as a respectful title for any monk, as we learn from St

Jerome, who denounced the custom on the ground that Christ had

said, ``Call no man father on earth'' (in Epist. ad Gal.

iv. 6, in Matt. xxiii. 9), but it was soon restricted to the

superior. The name ``abbot,'' though general in the West,

was never universal. Among the Dominicans, Carmelites,

Augustinians, &c., the superior was called Praepositus,

``provost,'' and Prior; among the Franciscans, Custos,

``guardian''; and by the monks of Camaldoi, Major.

In Egypt, the first home of monasticism, the jurisdiction

of the abbot, or archimandrite, was but loosely defined.

Sometimes he ruled over only one community, sometimes over

several, each of which had its own abbot as well. Cassian

speaks of an abbot of the Thebaid who had 500 monks under

him, a number exceeded in other cases. By the rule of St

Benedict, which, until the reform of Cluny, was the norm

in the West, the abbot has jurisdiction over only one

community. The rule, as was inevitable, was subject to

frequent violations; but it was not until the foundation of

the Cluniac Order that the idea of a supreme abbot, exercising

jurisdiction over all the houses of an order, was definitely

recognized. New styles were devised to express this new

relation; thus the abbot of Monte Cassino was called abbas

abbatum, while the chiefs of other orders had the tities

abbas generails, or magister or minister generalis.

Monks, as a rule, were laymen, nor at the outset was the abbot

any exception. All orders of clergy, therefore, even the

``doorkeeper,', took precedence of him. For the reception

of the sacraments, and for other religious offices, the

abbot and his monks were commanded to attend the nearest

church (Nocellae, 133, c. ii.). This rule naturally proved

inconvenient when a monastery was situated in a desert or at

a distance from a city, and necessity compelled the ordination

of abbots. This innovation was not introduced without a

struggle, ecclesiastical dignity being regarded as inconsistent

with the higher spiritual life, but, before the close of

the 5th century, at least in the East, abbots seem almost

universally to have become deacons, if not presbyters. The

change spread more slowly in the West, where the office of

abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of the 7th

century, and partially so up to the 11th. Ecclesiastical

councils were, however, attended by abbots. Thus at that

held at Constantinople, A.D. 448, for the condemnation of

Eutyches, 23 archimandrites or abbots sign, with 30 bishops,

and, c A.D. 690, Archbishop Theodore promulgated a

canon, inhibiting bishops from compelling abbots to attend

councils. Examples are not uncommon in Spain and in England

in Saxon times. Abbots were permitted by the second council

of Nicaea, A.D. 787, to ordain their monks to the inferior

orders. This rule was adopted in the West, and the strong

prejudice against clerical monks having gradually broken down,

eventually monks, almost without exception, took holy orders.

Abbots were originally subject to episcopal jurisdiction, and

continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the 11th

century. The Code of Justinian (lib. i. tit. iii. de Ep. leg.

xl.) expressly subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight.

The first case recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot

from episcopal control is that of Faustus, abbot of Lerins,

at the council of Arles, A.D. 456; but the exorbitant claims

and exactions of bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal

control is to be traced, far more than to the arrogance of

abbots, rendered it increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th

century, the practice of exempting religious houses partly or

altogether from episcopal control, and making them responsible

to the pope alone, received an impulse from Gregory the

Great. These exceptions, introduced with a good object, had

grown into a widespread evil by the 12th century, virtually

creating an imperium in imperio, and depriving the bishop

of all authority over the chief centres of influence in his

diocese. In the 12th century the abbots of Fulda claimed

precedence of the archbishop of Cologne. Abbots more and

more assumed almost episcopal state, and in defiance of the

prohibition of early councils and the protests of St Bernard and

others, adopted the episcopal insignia of mitre, ring, gloves and

sandals. It has been maintained that the right to wear mitres

was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the 11th

century, but the documents on which this claim is based are

not genuine (J. Braun, Liturgische Gewandung, p. 453). The

first undoubted instance is the bull by which Alexander II.

in 1063 granted the use of the mitre to Egelsinus, abbot of

the monastery of St Augustine at Canterbury (see MITRE). The

mitred abbots in England were those of Abingdon, St Alban's,

Bardney, Battle, Bury St Edmund's, St Augustine's Canterbury,

Colchester, Croyland, Evesham, Glastonbury, Gloucester,

St Benet's Hulme, Hyde, Malmesbury, Peterborough, Ramsey,

Reading, Selby, Shrewsbury, Tavistock, Thorney, Westminster,

Winchcombe, St Mary's York. Of these the precedence was

originally yielded to the abbot of Glastonbury, until in

A.D. 1154 Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the

abbot of St Alban's, in which monastery he had been brought

up. Next after the abbot of St Alban's ranked the abbot of

Westminster. To distinguish abbots from bishops, it was ordained

that their mitre should be made of less costly materials,

and should not be ornamented with gold, a rule which was soon

entirely disregarded, and that the crook of their pastoral

staff should turn inwards instead of outwards, indicating

that their jurisdiction was limited to their own house.

The adoption of episcopal insignia by abbots was followed

by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to be

specially but ineffectually guarded against by the Lateran

council, A.D. 1123. In the East, abbots, if in priests'

orders, with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have

seen, permitted by the second Nicene council, A.D. 787,

to confer the tonsure and admit to the order of reader; but

gradually abbots, in the West also, advanced higher claims,

until we find them in A.D. 1489 permitted by Innocent

IV. to confer both the subdiaconate and diaconate. Of

course, they always and everywhere had the power of admitting

their own monks and vesting them with the religious habit.

When a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese chose

the abbot out of the monks of the convent, but the right

of election was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks

themselves, reserving to the bishop the confirmation of the

election and the benediction of the new abbot. In abbeys

exempt from episcopal jurisdiction, the confirmation and

benediction had to be conferred by the pope in person, the house

being taxed with the expenses of the new abbot's journey to

Rome. By the rule of St Benedict, the consent of the laity

was in some undefined way required; but this seems never

to have been practically enforced. It was necessary that

an abbot should be at least 25 years of age, of legitimate

birth, a monk of the house, unless it furnished no suitable

candidate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from another

convent, well instructed himself, and able to instruct others,

one also who had learned how to command by having practised

obedience. In some exceptional cases an abbot was allowed

to name his own successor. Cassian speaks of an abbot in

Egypt doing this; and in later times we have another example

in the case of St Bruno. Popes and sovereigns gradually

encroached on the rights of the monks, until in Italy the

pope had usurped the nomination of all abbots, and the king in

France, with the exception of Cluny, Premontre and other

houses, chiefs of their order. The election was for life,

unless the abbot was canonically deprived by the chiefs of

his order, or when he was directly subject to them, by the

pope or the bishop. The ceremony of the formal admission of

a Benedictine abbot in medieval times is thus prescribed by

the consuetudinary of Abingdon. The newly elected abbot was

to put off his shoes at the door of the church, and proceed

barefoot to meet the members of the house advancing in a

procession. After proceeding up the nave, he was to kneel

and pray at the topmost step of the entrance of the choir,

into which he was to be introduced by the bishop or his

commissary, and placed in his stall. The monks, then kneeling,

gave him the kiss of peace on the hand, and rising, on the

mouth, the abbot holding his staff of office. He then put

on his shoes in the vestry, and a chapter was held, and

the bishop or his commissary preached a suitable sermon.

The power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, limited,

however, by the canons of the church, and, until the general

establishment of exemptions, by episcopal control. As a

rule, however, implicit obedience was enforced; to act

without his orders was culpable; while it was a sacred duty

to execute his orders, however unreasonable, until they were

withdrawn. Examples among the Egyptian monks of this blind

submission to the commands of the superiors, exalted into

a virtue by those who regarded the entire crushing of the

individual will as the highest excellence, are detailed by

Cassian and others,--- e.g. a monk watering a dry stick,

day after day, for months, or endeavouring to remove a huge

rock immensely exceeding his powers. St Jerome, indeed, lays

down, as the principle of the compact between the abbot and his

monks, that they should obey their superiors in all things,

and perform whatever they commanded (Ep. 2, ad Eustoch. de

custod. virgin.). So despotic did the tyranny become in the

West, that in the time of Charlemagne it was necessary to

restrain abbots by legal enactments from mutilating their

monks and putting out their eyes; while the rule of St

Columban ordained 100 lashes as the punishment for very slight

offences. An abbot also had the power of excommunicating

refractory nuns, which he might use if desired by their abbess.

The abbot was treated with the utmost submission and reverence

by the brethren of his house. When he appeared either in

church or chapter all present rose and bowed. His letters

were received kneeling, like those of the pope and the

king. If he gave a command, the monk receiving it was also to

kneel. No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it without his

permission. The highest place was naturally assigned to him,

both in church and at table. In the East he was commanded to

eat with the other monks. In the West the rule of St Benedict

appointed him a separate table, at which he might entertain

guests and strangers. This permission opening the door to

luxurious living, the council of Aix, A.D. 817, decreed that

the abbot should dine in the refectory, and be content with

the ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a

guest. These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual

to secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature

abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the

inordinate extravagance of the tables of the abbots. When the

abbot condescended to dine in the refectory, his chaplains waited

upon him with the dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting

them. At St Alban's the abbot took the lord's seat, in the

centre of the high table, and was served on silver plate, and

sumptuously entertained noblemen, ambassadors and strangers of

quality. When abbots dined in their own private hall, the rule

of St Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table,

provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were

to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping.

The ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be

the same as that of the monks. But by the 10th century the

rule was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints of

abbots dressing in silk, and adopting sumptuous attire. They

sometimes even laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and

assumed a secular dress.1 This was a necessary consequence of

their following the chase, which was quite usual, and indeed at

that time only natural. With the increase of wealth and power,

abbots had lost much of their special religious character, and

become great lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by

celibacy. Thus we hear of abbots going out to sport, with

their men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, dogs and

huntsmen; and special mention is made of an abbot of Leicester,

c. 1360, who was the most skilled of all the nobility in

harehunting. In magnificence of equipage and retinue the

abbots vied with the first nobles of the realm. They rode

on mules with gilded bridles, rich saddles and housings,

carrying hawks on their wrist, followed by an immense train of

attendants. The bells of the churches were rung as they

passed. They associated on equal terms with laymen of the

highest distinction, and shared all their pleasures and

pursuits. This rank and power was, however, often used most

beneficially. For instance, we read of Whiting, the last

abbot of Glastonbury, judicially murdered by Henry VIII.,

that his house was a kind of well-ordered court, where as

many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen, who had been sent

to him for virtuous education, had been brought up, besides

others of a meaner rank, whom he fitted for the universities.

His table, attendance and officers were an honour to the

nation. He would entertain as many as 500 persons of rank at

one time, besides relieving the poor of the vicinity twice a

week. He had his country houses and fisheries, and when

he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted to

upwards of 100 persons. The abbots of Cluny and Vendome

were, by virtue of their office, cardinals of the Roman church.

In process of time the title abbot was improperly transferred

to clerics who had no connexion with the monastic system,

as to the principal of a body of parochial clergy; and

under the Carolingians to the chief chaplain of the king,

Abbas Curiae, or military chaplain of the emperor, Abbas

Castrensis. It even came to be adopted by purely secular

officials. Thus the chief magistrate of the republic at Genoa

was called Abbas Populi. Du Cange, in his glossary, also gives

us Abbas Campanilis, Clocherii, Palatii, Scholaris, &c.

Lay abbots (M. Lat. defensores, abbacomites, abbates laici,

abbates milites, abbates saeculares or irreligiosi,

abbatiarii, or sometimes simply abbates) were the outcome

of the growth of the feudal system from the 8th century

onwards. The practice of commendation, by which---to meet

a contemporary emergency--the revenues of the community were

handed over to a lay lord, in return for his protection,

early suggested to the emperors and kings the expedient of

rewarding their warriors with rich abbeys held in commendam.

During the Carolingian epoch the custom grew up of granting

these as regular heritable fiefs or benefices, and by the 10th

century, before the great Cluniac reform, the system was firmly

established. Even the abbey of St Denis was held in commendam

by Hugh Capet. The example of the kings was followed by the

feudal nobles, sometimes by making a temporary concession

permanent, sometimes without any form of commendation

whatever. In England the abuse was rife in the 8th

century, as may be gathered from the acts of the council of

Cloveshoe. These lay abbacies were not merely a question of

overlordship, but implied the concentration in lay hands

of all the rights, immunities and jurisdiction of the

foundations, i.e. the more or less complete secularization of

1 Walworth, the fourth abbot of St Alban's, c. 930, is

charged by Matthew Paris with adopting the attire of a sportsman.

spiritual institutions. The lay abbot took his recognized

rank in the feudal hierarchy, and was free to dispose of

his fief as in the case of any other. The enfeoffment of

abbeys differed in form and degree. Sometimes the monks were

directly subject to the lay abbot; sometimes he appointed a

substitute to perform the spirtual functions, known usually

as dean (decanus), but also as abbot (abbas legitimas,

monasticus, regularis). When the great reform of the 11th

century had put an end to the direct jurisdiction of the lay

abbots, the honorary title of abbot continued to be held by

certain of the great feudal famines, as late as the 13th century

and later, the actual head of the community retaining that of

dean. The connexion of the lesser lay abbots with the

abbeys, especially in the south of France, lasted longer;

and certain feudal families retained the title of abbes

chevaliers (abbates milltes) for centuries, together with

certain rights over the abbey lands or revenues. The abuse was

not confined to the West. John, patriarch of Antioch, at the

beginning of the 12th Century, informs us that in his time most

monasteries had been handed over to laymen, bencficiarii,

for life, or for part of their lives, by the emperors.

In conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied the

place of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on

the superior of the monastery were performed by a prior.

The title abbe (Ital. abbate), as commonly used in the

Catholic church on the European continent, is the equivalent

of the English ``Father,'' being loosely applied to all who

have received the tonsure. This use of the title is said to

have originated in the right conceded to the king of France,

by the concordat between Pope Leo X. and Francis I. (1516),

to appoint abbes commendataires to most of the abbeys in

France. The expectation of obtaining these sinecures drew

young men towards the church in considerable numbers, and

the class of abbes so formed ---abbes de cour they were

sometimes called, and sometimes (ironically) abbes de sainte

esperance, abbes of St Hope---came to hold a recognized

position. The connexion many of them had with the church

was of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly in adopting

the name of abbe, after a remarkably moderate course of

theological study, practising celibacy and wearing a distinctive

dress--a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar. Being

men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many of the

class found admission to the houses of the French nobility

as tutors or advisers. Nearly every great family had its

abbe. The class did not survive the Revolution; but the

courtesy title of abbe, having long lost all connexion in

people's minds with any special ecclesiastical function, remained

as a convenient general term applicable to any clergyman.

In the German Evangelical church the title of abbot (Abt) is

sometimes bestowed, like abbe, as an honorary distinction,

and sometimes survives to designate the heads of monasteries

converted at the Reformation into collegiate foundations. Of

these the most noteworthy is the abbey of Lokkum in Hanover,

founded as a Cistercian house in 1163 by Count Wilbrand of

Hallermund, and reformed in 1593. The abbot of Lokkum, who

still carries a pastoral staff, takes precedence of all the

clergy of Hanover, and is ex officio a member of the consistory

of the kingdom. The governing body of the abbey consists of

abbot, prior and the ``convent'' of canons (Stiftsherren).

See Joseph Bingham, Origines ecclesiasticae (1840); Du

Cange, Glossarium med. et inf. Lat. (ed. 1883); J. Craigie

Robertson, Hist. of the Christian Church (1858-1873); Edmond

Martene, De antiquis ecclesiae ritibus (Venice, 1783); C.

F. R. de Montalembert, Les moines d'occident depuis S. Benoit

jusqu'a S. Bernard (1860--1877); Achille Luchaire, Manuel

des institutions francaises (Par. 1892). (E.V.; W.A.P.)

1 The Architectural History of the Conventual Buildings of

the Monastery of Christ Church in Canterbury. By the Rev. Robert

Willis. Printed for the Kent Archaeological Society, 1869.

ABBOTSFORD, formerly the residence of Sir Walter Scott,

situated on the S. bank of the Tweed, about 3 m. W. of Melrose,

Roxburghshire, Scotland, and nearly 1 m. from Abbotsford Ferry

station on the North British railway, connecting Selkirk and

Galashiels. The nucleus of the estate was a small farm of 100

acres, called Cartleyhole, nicknamed Clarty (i.e. muddy)

Hole, and bought by Scott on the lapse of his lease (1811)

of the neighbouring house of Ashestiel. It was added to

from time to time, the last and principal acquisition being

that of Toftfield (afterwards named Huntlyburn), purchased in

1817. The new house was then begun and completed in 1824.

The general ground-plan is a parallelogram, with irregular

outlines, one side overlooking the Tweed; and the style is

mainly the Scottish Baronial. Into various parts of the fabric

were built relics and curiosities from historical structures,

such as the doorway of the old Tolbooth in Edinburgh. Scott

had only enjoyed his residence one year when (1825) he met

with that reverse of fortune which involved the estate in

debt. In 1830 the library and museum were presented to him

as a free gift by the creditors. The property was wholly

disencumbered in 1847 by Robert Cadell, the publisher, who

cancelled the bond upon it in exchange for the family's share

in the copyright of Sir Walter's works. Scott's only son Walter

did not live to enjoy the property, having died on his way

from India in 1847. Among subsequent possessors were Scott's

son-in-law, J. G. Lockhart, J. R. Hope Scott, Q.C., and his

daughter (Scott's great-granddaughter), the Hon. Mrs Maxwell

Scott. Abbotsford gave its name to the ``Abbotsford Club,''

a successor of the Bannatyne and Maitland clubs, founded

by W. B. D. D. Turnbull in 1834 in Scott's honour, for

printing and publishing historical works connected with his

writings. Its publications extended from 1835 to 1864.

See Lockhart, Life of Scott; Washington Irving, Abbotsford

and Newstead Abbey; W. S. Crockett, The Scott Country.

ABBOTT, EDWIN ARROTT (1838- ), English schoolmaster and

theologian, was born on the 20th of December 1838. He

was educated at the City of London school and at St John's

College, Cambridge, where he took the highest honours in the

classical, mathematical and theological triposes, and became

fellow of his college. In 1862 he took orders. After holding

masterships at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and at

Clifton College, he succeeded G. F. Mortimer as headmaster

of the City of London school in 1865 at the early age of

twenty-six. He was Hulsean lecturer in 1876. He retired

in 1889, and devoted himself to literary and theological

pursuits. Dr Abbott's liberal inclinations in theology

were prominent both in his educational views and in his

books. His Shakespearian Grammar (1870) is a permanent

contribution to English philology. In 1885 he published a

life of Francis Bacon. His theological writings include three

anonymously published religious romances--Philochristus

(1878), Onesimus (1882), Sitanus (1906). More weighty

contributions are the anonymous theological discussion The

Kernel and the Husk (1886), Philomythus (1891), his book

on Cardinal Newman as an Anglican (1892), and his article

``The Gospels'' in the ninth edition of the Encyclopaedia

Britannica, embodying a critical view which caused considerable

stir in the English theological world; he also wrote St

Thomas of Canterbury, his Death and Miracles (1898),

Johannine Vocabulary (1905), Johannine Grammar (1906).

His brother, Evelyn Abbott (1843-1901), was a well-known tutor of

Balliol, Oxford, and author of a scholarly History of Greece.

ABBOTT, EMMA (1849-1891), American singer, was born at

Chicago and studied in Milan and Paris. She had a fine soprano

voice, and appeared first in opera in London under Colonel

Mapleson's direction at Covent Garden, also singing at important

concerts. She organized an opera company known by her name,

and toured extensively in the United States, where she had

a great reputation. In 1873 she married E. J. Wethereil.

She died at Salt Lake City on the 5th of January 1891.

ABBOTT, JACOB (1803-1879), American writer of books for the

young, was born at Hallowell, Maine, on the 14th of November

1803. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1820; studied at

Andover Theological Seminary in 1821, 1822, and 1824; was

tutor in 1824-1825, and from 1825 to 1829 was professor of

mathematics and natural philosophy in Amherst College; was

licensed to preach by the Hampshire Association in 1826;

founded the Mount Vernon School for young ladies in Boston in

1829, and was principal of it in 1829--1833; was pastor of

Eliot Congregational Church (which he founded), at Roxbury,

Mass., in 1834-1835; and was, with his brothers, a founder,

and in 1843--1851 a principal of Abbott's Institute, and in

1845--1848 of the Mount Vernon School for boys, in New York

City. He was a prolific author, writing juvenile stories,

brief histories and biographies, and religious books for

the general reader, and a few works in popular science.

He died on the 31st of October 1879 at Farmington, Maine,

where he had spent part of his time since 1839, and where

his brother Samuel Phillips Abbott founded in 1844 the Abbott

School, popularly cailed ``Little Blue.'' Jacob Abbott's

``Rollo Books''-Rollo at Work, Rollo at Play, Rollo in

Europe, &c. (28 vols.)---are the best known of his writings,

having as their chief characters a representative boy and his

associates. In them Abbott did for one or two generations

of young American readers a service not unlike that performed

earlier, in England and America, by the authors of Evenings at

Home, Sandford and Merton, and the Parent's Assistant. Of

his other writings (he produced more than two hundred volumes

in all), the best are the Franconia Stories (10 vols.),

twenty-two volumes of biographical histories in a series of

thirty-two volumes (with his brother John S. C. Abbott), and

the Young Christian,---all of which had enormous circulations.

His sons, Benjamin Vaughan Abbott (1830-1890), Austin Abbott

(1831-1896), both eminent lawyers, Lyman Abbott (q.v.), and

Edward Abbott (1841-1908), a clergyman, were also well-known

authors. See his Young Christian, Memorial Edition, with

a Sketch of the Author by one of his sons, i.e. Edward

Abbott (New York, 1882), with a bibliography of his works.

ABBOTT, JOHN STEVENS CABOT (1805-1877), American writer,

was born in Brunswick, Maine, on the 18th of September

1805. He was a brother of Jacob Abbott, and was associated

with him in the management of Abbott's Institute, New York

City, and in the preparation of his series of brief historical

biographies. He is best known, however, as the author of

a partisan and unscholarly, but widely popular and very

readable History of Napoleon Bonaparte (1855), in which

the various elements and episodes in Napoleon's career are

treated with some skill in arrangement, but with unfailing

adulation. Dr Abbott graduated at Bowdoin College in 1825,

prepared for the ministry at Andover Theological Seminary,

and between 1830 and 1844, when he retired from the ministry,

preached successively at Worcester, Roxbury and Nantucket,

Massachusetts. He died at Fair Haven, Connecticut, on the 17th

of June 1877. He was a voluminous writer of books on Christian

ethics, and of histories, which now seem unscholarly and

untrustworthy, but were valuable in their time in cultivating

a popular interest in history. In general, except that

he did not write juvenile fiction, his work in subject and

style closely resembles that of his brother, Jacob Abbott.

ABBOTT, LYMAN (1835- ), American divine and author, was

born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the 18th of December 1835,

the son of Jacob Abbott. He graduated at the University

of New York in 1853, studied law, and was admitted to the

bar in 1856; but soon abandoned the legal profession, and,

after studying theology with his uncle, J. S. C. Abbott,

was ordained a minister of the Congregational Church in

1860. He was pastor of a church in Terre Haute, Indiana, in

1860-1865, and of the New England Church in New York City in

1865--1869. From 1865 to 1868 he was secretary of the American

Union (Freedman's) Commission. In 1869 he resigned his pastorate

to devote himself to literature. He was an associate editor of

Harper's Magazine, was editor of the Illustrated Christian

Weekly, and was co-editor (1876-1881) of The Christian

Union with Henry Ward Beecher, whom he succeeded in 1888 as

pastor of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn. From this pastorate he

resigned ten years later. From 1881 he was editor-in-chief

of The Christian Union, renamed The Outlook in 1893; this

periodical reflected his efforts toward social reform, and, in

theology, a liberality, humanitarian and nearly unitarian.

The latter characteristics marked his published works also.

His works include Jesus of Nazareth (1869); Illustrated

Commentary on the New Testament (4 vols., 1875); A Study

in Human Nature (1885); Life of Christ (1894); Evolution

of Christianity (Lowell Lectures, 1896); The Theology of

an Evolutionist (1897); Christianity and Social Problems

(1897); Life and Letters of Paul, (1898); The Life that

Really is (1899); Problems of Life (1900); The Rights

of Man (1901); Henry Ward Beecher (1903); The Christian

Ministry (1905); The Personality of God (1905); Industrial

Problems (1905); and Christ's Secret of Happiness (1907).

He edited Sermons of Henry Ward Beecher (2 vols., 1868).

ABBOTTADAD, a town of British India, 4120 ft. above

sealevel, 63 m. from Rawalpindi, the headquarters of the

Hazara district in the N.W. Frontier Province, called after

its founder, Sir James Abbott, who settled this wild district

after the annexation of the Punjab. It is an important

military cantonment and sanatorium, being the headquarters of

a brigade in the second division of the northern army corps.

In 1901 the population of the town and cantonment was 7764.

ABBREVIATION (Lat. brevis, short), strictly a shortening;

more particularly, an ``abbreviation'' is a letter or group

of letters, taken from a word or words, and employed to

represent them for the sake of brevity. Abbreviations, both

of single words and of phrases, having a meaning more or

less fixed and recognized, are common in ancient writings

and inscriptions (see PALAEOGRAPHY and DIPLOMATIC), and

very many are in use at the present time. A distinction is

to be observed between abbreviations and the contractions

that are frequently to be met with in old manuscripts, and

even in early printed books, whereby letters are dropped

out here and there, or particular collocations of letters

represented by somewhat arbitrary symbols. The commonest

form of abbreviation is the substitution for a word of its

initial letter; but, with a view to prevent ambiguity, one

or more of the other letters are frequently added. Letters

are often doubled to indicate a plural or a superlative.

I. CLASSICAL ABBREVIATIONS.---The following list

contains a selection from the abbreviations that occur

in the writings and inscriptions of the Romans:--

A.

A. Absolvo, Aedilis, Aes, Ager, Ago, Aio, Amicus, Annus, Antiquo,

Auctor, Auditor, Augustus, Aulus, Aurum, Aut.

A.A. Aes alienum, Ante audita, Apud agrum, Aurum argentum.

AA. Augusti. AAA. Augusti tres.

A.A.A.F.F. Auro argento acre flando feriundo.1

A.A.V. Alter ambove.

A.C. Acta causa, Alins civis.

A.D. Ante diem; e.g. A.D.V. Ante diem quintum.

A.D.A. Ad dandos agros.

AEO. Aedes, Aedilis, Aedilitas.

AEM. and AIM. Aemilius, Aemilia.

AER. Aerarium. AER.P. Aere publico.

A.F. Acture fide, Auli filius.

AG. Ager, Ago, Agrippa.

A.G. Ammo grato, Aulus Gellius.

A.L.AE. and A.L.E. Arbitrium litis aestimandae.

A.M. and A.MILL. Ad milliarium.

AN. Aniensis, Annus, Ante.

ANN. Annales, Anni, Annona.

ANT. Ante, Antonius.

A.O. Alii omnes, Amico optimo.

AP. Atppius, Apud.

A.P. Ad pedes, Aedilitia potestate.

A.P.F. Auro (or argento) publico feriundo.

A.P.M. Amico posuit monumentum, Annorum plus minus.

A.P.R.C. Anno post Romam conditam.

ARG. Argentum.

AR.V.V.D.D.Aram votam volens dedicavit, Arma votiva dono dedit.

AT A tergo. Also A TE. and A TER.

A.T.M.D.O. Aio te mihi dare oportere.

AV. Augur, Augustus, Aurelius.

A.V. Annos vixit.

A.V.C. Ab urbe condita.

AVG. Augur, Augustus.

AVGG. Augusti (generally of two). AVGGG. Augusti tres.

AVT.PR.R. Auctoritas provinciae Romanorum.

B.

B. Balbius, Balbus, Beatus, Bene, Beneficiarius, Beneficium,

Bonus, Brutus, Bustum.

B.for V. Berna Bivus, Bixit.

B.A. Bixit anos, Bonis auguriis, Bonus amabilis.

BB.or B.B. Bene bene, i.e. optime, Optimus.

B.D. Bonae deae, Bonum datum.

B.DD. Bonis deabus.

B.D.S.M. Bene de se merenti.

B.F. Bona femina, Bona fides, Bona fortuna, Bonum factum.

B.F. Bona femina, Bona filia.

B.H. Bona hereditaria, Bonorum heres.

B.I. Bonum judicium. B.I.I. Boni judicis judicium.

B.M. Beatae memoriae, Bene merenti.

B.N. Bona nostra, Bonum nomen.

BN.H.I. Bona hic invenies.

B.P. Bona paterna, Bonorum potestas, Bonum publicum.

B.Q. Bene quiescat, Bona quaesita.

B.RP.N. Boho reipublicae natus.

BRT. Britannicus.

B.T. Bonorum tutor, Brevi tempore.

B.V. Bene vale, Bene vixit, Bonus vir.

B.V.V. Balnea vina Venus.

BX. Bixit, for vixit.

C.

C. Caesar, Cains, Caput, Causa, Censor, Civis, Conors, Colonia,

Comitialis (dies), Condemno, Consul, Cum, Curo, Custos.

C. Caia, Centuria, Cum, the prefix Con.

C.B. Civis bonus, Commune bonum, Conjugi benemerenti, Cui bono.

C.C. Calumniae causa, Causa cognita, Conjugi carissimae, Consilium

cepit, Curiae consulto.

C.C.C. Calumniae cavendae causa.

C.C.F. Caesar (or Caius) curavit faciendum, Cains Caii filius.

CC.VV. Clarissimi viri.

C.D. Caesaris decreto, Cains Decius, Comitialibus diebus.

CES. Censor, Censores. CESS. Censores.

C.F. Causa fiduciae, Conjugi fecit, Curavit faciendum.

C.H. Custos heredum, Custos hortorum.

C.I. Caius Julius, Consul jussit, Curavit judex. .

CL. Clarissimus, Claudius, Clodius, Colonia.

CL.V. Clarissimus vir, Clypeum vovit.

C.M. Caius Marius, Causa mortis.

CN. Cnaeus.

COH. Coheres, Conors.

COL. Collega, Collegium, Colonia, Columna.

COLL. Collega, Coloni, Coloniae.

COM. Comes, Comitium, Comparatum.

CON. Conjux, Consensus, Consiliarius, Consul, Consularis.

COR. Cornelia (tribus), Cornelius, Corona, Corpus.

COS. Consiliarius, Consul, Consulares. COSS. Consules.

C.P. Carissimus or Clarissimus puer, Civis publicus, Curavit

ponendum.

C.R. Cains Rufus, Civis Romanus, Curavit reficiendum.

CS. Caesar, Communis, Consul.

C.V. Clarissimus or Consularis vir.

CVR. Cura, Curator, Curavit, Curia.

D.

D. Dat, Dedit, &c., De, Decimus, Decius, Decretum, Decurio,

Deus, Dicit, &c., Dies, Divus, Dominus, Domus, Donum.

D.C. Decurio coloniae, Diebus comitialibus, Divus Caesar.

D.D. Dea Dia, Decurionum decreto, Dedicavit, Deo dedit, Dono dedit.

D.D.D. Datum decreto decurionum, Dono dedit dedicavit.

D.E.R. De ea re.

DES. Designatus.

D.I. Dedit imperator, Diis immortalibus, Diis inferis.

D.l.M. Deo invicto Mithrae, Diis inferis Manibus.

D.M. Deo Magno, Dignus memoria, Diis Manibus, Dolo malo.

D.O.M. Deo Optimo Maximo.

D.P.S. Dedit proprio sumptu, Deo perpetuo sacrum, De pecunia

sua.

E.

E. Ejus, Eques, Erexft, Ergo, Est, Et, Etiam, Ex.

EG. Aeger, Egit, Egregius.

E.M. Egregiae memoriae, Ejusmodi, Erexit monumentum.

EQ.M. Equitum magister.

E.R.A. Ea res agitur.

F.

F. Fabius, Facere, Fecit, &c., Familia, Fastus (dies), Felix,

Femina, Fides, Filius, Flamen, Fortuna, Frater, Fuit, Functus.

F.C. Faciendum curavit, Fidei commissume, Fiduciae causa.

F.D. Fidem dedit, Flamen Dialis, Fraude donavit.

F.F.F. Ferro flamma fame, Fortior fortuna fato.

FL. Filius, Flamen, Flaminius, Flavius.

F.L. Favete linguis, Fecit libens, Felix liber.

FR. Forum, Fronte, Frumentarius.

F.R. Forum Romanum.

G.

G. Gaius (=Caius), Gallia, Gaudium, Gellius, Gemma, Gens,

Gesta, Gratia.

G.F. Gemma fidelis (applied to a legion). So G.P.F. Gemma

pia fidelis.

GL. Gloria.

GN. Genius, Gens, Genus, Gnaeus (=Cnaeus).

G.P.R. Genro populi Romani.

H.

H. Habet, Heres, Hic, Homo, Honor, Hora.

HER. Heres, Herennius. HER. and HERC. Hercules.

H.L. Hac lege, Hoc loco, Honesto loco.

H.M. Hoc monumentum, Honesta mulier, Hora mala.

H.S.E. Hic sepultus est, Hic situs est.

H.V. Haec urbs, Hic vivit, Honeste vixit, Honestus vir.

I.

I. Immortalis, Imperator, In, Infra, Inter, Invictus, Ipse, Isis,

Judex, Julius, Junius, Jupiter, Justus.

IA. Jam, Intra.

I.C. Julius Caesar, Juris Consultum, Jus civile.

ID. Idem, Idus, Interdum.

l.D. Inferis diis, Jovi dedicatnm, Jus dicendum, Jussu Dei.

I.D.M. Jovi deo magno.

I.F. In foro, In fronte.

I.H. Jacet hic, In honestatem, Justus homo.

IM. Imago, Immortalis, Immunis, Impensa.

IMP. Imperator, Imperium.

I.O.M. Jovi optimo maximo.

I.P. In publico, Intra provinciam, Justa persona.

I.S.V.P. Impensa sua vivus posuit.

K.

K. Kaeso, Caia, Calumnia, Caput, Carus, Castra.

K., KAL. and KL. Kalendae.

L.

L. Laelius, Legio, Lex, Libens, Liber, Libra, Locus, Lollius,

Lucius, Ludus.

LB. Libens, Liberi, Libertus.

L.D.D.D. Locus datus decreto decurionum.

LEG. Legatus, Legio.

LIB. Liber, Liberalitas, Libertas, Libertus, Librarius.

LL. Leges, Libentissime, Liberti.

L.M. Libens merito, Locus monumenti.

L.S. Laribus sacrum, Libens solvit, Locus sacer.

LVD. Ludus.

LV.P.F. Ludos publicos fecit.

M.

M. Magister, Magistratus, Magnus, Manes, Marcus, Marins,

Marti, Mater, Memoria, Mensis, Miles, Monumentum, Mortuus,

Mucius, Mulier.

M'. Manius.

M.D. Magno Deo, Manibus diis, Matri deum, Merenti dedit.

MES. Mensis. MESS. Menses.

M.F. Mala fides, Marci filius, Monumentum fecit.

M.I. Matri Idaeae, Matii Isidi, Maximo Jovi.

MNT. and MON. Moneta.

M.P. Male positus, Monumentum posuit.

M.S. Manibus sacrum, Memoriae sacrum, Manu scriptum.

MVN. Municeps, or municipium; so also MN., MV. and MVNIC.

M.V.S. Marti ultori sacrum, Merito votum solvit.

N.

N. Natio, Natus, Nefastus (dies), Nepos, Neptunus, Nero,

Nomen, Non, Nonae, Noster, Novus, Numen, Numerius,

Numerus, Nummus.

NEP. Nepos, Neptunus.

N.F.C. Nostrae fidei commissum.

N.L. Non licet, Non liquet, Non longe.

N.M.V. Nobilis memoriae vir.

NN. Nostri. NN., NNO. and NNR. Nostrorum.

NOB. Nobilis. NOB., NOBR. and NOV. Novembris.

N.P. Nefastus primo (i.e. priore parto diei), Non potest.

O.

O. Ob, Officium, Omnis, Oportet, Optimus, Opus, Ossa.

OB. Obiit, Obiter, Orbis.

O.C.S. Ob cives servatos.

O.H.F. Omnibus honoribus functus.

O.H.S.S. Ossa hic sita sunt.

OR. Hora, Ordo, Ornamentum.

O.T.B.Q. Ossa tua bene quiescant.

P.

P. Pars, Passus, Pater, Patronus, Pax, Perpetuus, Pes, Pius,

Plebs, Pondo, Populus, Post, Posuit, Praeses, Praetor,

Primus, Pro, Provincia, Publicus, Publius, Puer.

P.C. Pactum conventum, Patres conscripti, Pecunia constituta,

Ponendum curavit, Post consulatum, Potestate censoria.

P.F. Pia fidelis, Pius felix, Promissa fides, Publii filius.

P.M. Piae memoriae, Pius minus, Pontifex maximus.

P.P. Pater patratus, Pater patriae, Pecunia publica, Praepositus,

Primipilus, Propraetor.

PR. Praeses, Praetor, Pridie, Princeps.

P.R. Permissu reipublicae, Populus Romanus.

P.R.C. Post Romam conditam.

PR.PR. Praefectus praetorii, Propraetor.

P.S. Pecunia sua, Plebiscitum, Proprio sumptu, Publicae saluti.

P.V. Pia victrix, praefectus urbi, Praestantissimus vir.

Q.

Q. Quaestor, Quando, Quantus, Que, Qui, Quinquennalis,

Quintus, Quirites.

Q.D.R. Qua de re.

Q.I.S.S. Quae infra scripta sunt; so Q.S.S.S. Quae supra, &c.

QQ. Quaecunque, Quinquennalis, Quoque.

Q.R. Quaestor reipublicae.

R.

R. Recte, Res, Respublica, Retro, Rex, Ripa, Roma, Romanus,

Rufus, Rursus.

R.C. Romana civitas, Romanus civis.

RESP. and RP. Respublica.

RET.P. and RP. Retro pedes.

S.

S. Sacrum, Scriptus, Semis, Senatus, Sepultus, Servius,

Servus, Sextus, Sibi, Sine, Situs, Solus, Solvit, Sub, Suus.

SAC. Sacerdos, Sacrificium, Sacrum.

S.C. Senatus consultum.

S.D. Sacrum diis, Salutem dicit, Senatus decreto, Sententiam

S.D.M. Sacrum diis Manibus, Sine dolo malo.

SER. Servius, Servus.

S.E.T.L. Sit ei terra levis.

SN. Senatus, Sententia, Sine.

S.P. Sacerdos perpetua, Sine pecunia, Sua pecunia.

S.P.Q.R. Senatus populusque Romanus.

S.S. Sanctissimus senatus, Supra scripture.

S.V.B.E.E.Q.V. Si vales bene est, ego quidem valeo.

T.

T. Terminus, Testamentum, Titus, Tribunus, Tu, Turma, Tutor.

TB., TI. and TIB. Tiberius.

TB., TR. and TRB. Tribunus.

T.F. Testamentum fecit, Titi filius, Titulum fecit, Titus Flavius.

TM. Terminus, Testamentum, Thermae.

T.P. Terminum posuit, Tribunicia potestate, Tribunus plebis.

TVL. Tullius, Tunus.

V.

V. Urbs, Usus, Uxor, Vale, Verba, Vestalis, Vester, Vir, Vivus,

Vixit, Volo, Votum.

VA. Veterano assignatus, Vixit annos.

V.C. Vale conjux, Vir clarissimus, Vir consularis.

V.E. Verum etiam, Vir egregius, Visum est.

V.F. Usus fructus, Verba fecit, Vivus fecit.

V.P. Urbis praefectus, Vir perfectissimus, Vivus posuit.

V.R. Urbs Roma, Uti rogas, Votum reddidit.

II. MEDIEVAL ABBREVIATIONS.--Of the different kinds of

abbreviations in use in the middle ages, the following are

examples:--

A.M. Ave Maria.

B.P. Beatus Paulus, Beatus Petrus. .

CC. Carissimus (atso plur. Carissimi), Clarissimus, Circum.

D. Deus, Dominicus, Dux.

D.N.PP. Dominus hoster Papa.

U.F. Felicissimus, Fratres, Pandectae (prob. for Gr. II).

I.C. or I.X. Jesus Christus.

I.D.N. In Dei nomine.

KK. Karissimus (or-mi).

MM. Magistri, Martyres, Matrimonium, Meritissimus.

O.S.B. Ordinis Sancti Benedicti.

PP. Papa, Patres, Piissimus.

R.F. Rex Francorum.

R.P.D. Reverendissimus Pater Dominus.

S.C.M. Sacra Caesarea Majestas.

S.M.E. Sancta Mater Ecclesia.

S.M.M. Sancta Mater Maria.

S.R.I. Sanctum Romanum Imperium.

S.V. Sanctitas Vestra, Sancta Virgo.

V. Venerabilis, Venerandus. .

V.R.P. Vestra Reverendissima Paternitas.

III. ABBREVIATIONS NOW IN USE.--The import of these

will often be readily understood from the connexion in which

they occur. There is no occasion to explain here the common

abbreviations used for Christian names, books of Scripture,

months of the year, points of the compass, grammatical and

mathematical terms, or familiar titles, like ``Mr,'' &c.

The ordinary abbreviations, now or recently in use, may

be conveniently classified under the following headings:-

I. ABBREVIATED TITLES AND DESIGNATIONS.

A.A. Associate of Arts.

A.B. Able-bodied seaman; (in America) Bachelor of Arts.

A.D.C. Aide-de-Camp.

A.M. (Artium Magister), Master of Arts.

A.R.A. Associate of the Royal Academy.

A.R.I.B.A. Associate of the Royal Institution of British Architects.

A.R.S.A. Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy.

B.A. Bachelor of Arts.

Bart. Baronet.

B.C.L. Bachelor of Civil Law.

B.D. Bachelor of Divinty.

B.LL. Bachelor of Laws.

B.Sc. Bachelor of Science.

C. Chairman.

C.A. Chartered Accountant.

C.B. Companion of the Bath.

C.E. Civil Engineer.

C.I.E. Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire.

C.M. (Chirurgiae Magister), Master in Surgery.

C.M.G. Companion of St Michael and St George.

C.S.I. Companion of the Star of India.

D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law.

D.D. Doctor of Divinity.

D.Lit. or Litt. D. Doctor of Literature.

D.M. Doctor of Medicine (Oxford).

D.Sc. Doctor of Science.

D.S.O. Distinguished Service Order.

Ebor. (Eboracensis) of York.2

F.C.S. Fellow of the Chemical Society.

F.D. (Fidei Defensor), Defender of the Faith.

F.F.P.S. Fellow of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons (Glasgow)

F.G.S. Fellow of the Geological Society.

F.K.Q.C.P.I. Fellow of King and Queen's College of Physicians

in Ireland.

F.L.S. Fellow of the Linnaean Society.

F.M. Field Marshal.

F.P.S. Fellow of the Philological Society.

F.R.A.S. Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society.

F.R C.P. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians.

F.R.C.P.E. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh.

F.R.C.S. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons.

F.R.G.S. Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society.

F.R.H.S. Fellow of the Royal Horticultural Society.

F.R.Hist.Soc. Fellow of the Royal Historical Society.

F.R.I.B.A. Fellow of the Royal Institution of British Architects.

F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal Society.

F.R.S.E. Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

F.R.S.L. Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature.

F.S.A. Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries.

F.S.S. Fellow of the Statistical Society.

F.Z.S. Fellow of the Zoological Society.

G.C.B. Knight Grand Cross of the Bath.

G.C.H. Knight Grand Cross of Hanover.

G.C.I.E. Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian

Empire.

G.C.M.G. Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St George.

G.C.S.I. Knight Grand Commander of the Star of india.

G.C.V.O. Knight Grand Commander of the Victorian Order.

H.H. His or Her Highness.

H.I.H. His or Her Imperial Highness.

H.I.M. His or Her Imperial Majesty.

H.M. His or Her Majesty.

H.R.H. His or Her Royal Highness.

H.S.H. His or Her Serene Highness.

J. Judge.

J.C.D. (Juris Canonici Doctor, or Juris Civilis Doctor),

Doctor of Canon or Civil Law.

J.D. (Juris utriusque Doctor), Doctor of Civil and Canon Law.

J.P. Justice of the Peace.

K.C. King's Counsel.

K.C.B. Knight Commander of the Bath.

K.C.I.E. Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire.

K.C.M.G. Knight Commander of St Michael and St George.

K.C.S.I. Knight Commander of the Star of India.

K.C.V.O. Knight Commander of the Victorian Order.

K.G. Knight of the Garter.

K.P. Knight of St Patrick.

K.T. Knight of the Thistle.

L.A.H. Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Hall.

L.C.C. London County Council, or Councillor.

L.C.J. Lord Chief Justice

L.J. Lord Justice.

L.L.A. Lady Literate in Arts.

LL.B. (Legum Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Laws.

LL.D. (Legum Doctor), Doctor of Laws.

LL.M. (Legum Magister), Master of Laws.

L.R.C.P. Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians.

L.R.C.S. Licentiate of the Royal College of Surgeons.

L.S.A. Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Society.

M.A. Master of Arts.

M.B. (Medicinae Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Medicine

M.C. Member of Congress.

M.D. (Medicinae Doctor), Doctor of Medicine.

M.Inst.C.E. Member of the Institute of Civil Engineers.

M.P. Member of Parliament.

M.R. Master of the Rolls.

M.R.C.P. Member of the Royal College of Physicians.

M.R.C.S. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons.

M.R.I.A. Member of the Royal Irish Academy.

Mus.B. Bachelor of Music.

Mus.D. Doctor of Music.

M.V.O. Member of the Victorian Order.

N.P. Notary Public.

O.M. Order of Merit.

P.C. Privy Councillor.

Ph.D. (Philosophiae Doctor), Doctor of Philosophy.

P.P. Parish Priest.

P.R.A. President of the Royal Academy.

R. (Rex, Regina), King, Queen.

R. & I. Rex et Imperator.

R.A. Royal Academician, Royal Artillery.

R.A.M. Royal Academy of Music.

R.E. Royal Engineers.

Reg. Prof. Regius Professor.

R.M. Royal Marines, Resident Magistrate.

R.N. Royal Navy.

S. or St. Saint.

S.S.C. Solicitor before the Supreme Courts of Scotland.

S.T.P. (Sacrosanctae Theologiae Professor), Professor of Sacred

Theology.

V.C. Vice-Chancellor, Victoria Cross.

V.G. Vicar-General.

V.S. Veterinary Surgeon.

W.S. Writer to the Signet [in Scotland]. Equivalent to Attorney

2. ABBREVIATIONS DENOTING MONIES, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES.

ac. acre. lb. or lb. (libra), pound (weight).

bar. barrel. m. or mi. mile, minute.

bus. bushel. m. minim.

c. cent. mo. month.

c. (or cub.) ft. &c. cubic foot,&c. na. nail.

cwt. hundredweight. oz. ounce.

d. (denarius), penny. pk. peck.

deg. degree. po. pole.

dr. drachm or dram. pt. pint.

dwt. pennyweight. q. (quadrans), farthing.

f. franc. qr. quarter.

fl. florin. qt. quart.

ft. foot. ro. rood.

fur. furlong. Rs.4 rupees.

gal. gallon. s. or / (solidus), shilling.

gr. grain. s. or sec. second.

h. or hr. hour. sc. or scr. scruple.

hhd. hogshead. sq. ft. &c, square foot, &c.

in. inch. st. stone.

kilo. kilometre. yd. yard.

L.,3 L. ,2 or l. (libra), pound (money).

3. MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS.

A. Accepted.

A.C. (Ante Christum), Before Christ.

acc., a/c. or acct. Account.

A.D. (Anno Domini), In the year of our Lord.

A.E.I.O.U. Austriae est imperare orbi universo,5 or

Alles Erdreich Ist Oesterreich Unterthan.

Aet. or Aetat. (Aetatis, [anno]), In the year of his age.

A.H. (Anno Hegirae), In the year of the Hegira (the Mohammedan

era).

A.M. (Anno Mundi), In the year of the world.

A.M. (Ante meridiem), Forenoon.

Anon. Anonymous.

A.U.C. (Anno urbis conditae), In the year from the building

of the city (i.e. Rome).

A.V. Authorized version of the Bible.

b. born.

B.V.M. The Blessed Virgin Mary.

B.C. Before Christ.

c. circa, about.

C. or Cap. (Caput), Chapter.

C. Centigrade (or Celsius's) Thermometer.

cent.6 (Centnim), A hundred, frequently L. 100.

Cf. or cp. (Confer), Compare.

Ch. or Chap. Chapter.

C.M.S. Church Missionary Society.

Co. Company, County.

C.O.D. Cash on Delivery.

Cr. Creditor.

curt. Current, the present month.

d. died.

D.G. (Dei gratia), By the grace of God.

Do. Ditto, the same.

D.O.M. (Deo Optimo Maximo), To God the Best and Greatest.

Dr. Debtor.

D.V. (Deo volente), God willing.

E.& O.E. Errors and omissions excepted.

e.g. (Exempti gratia), For example.

etc. or &c. (Et caetera), And the rest; and so forth.

Ex. Example.

F. or Fahr. Fahrenheit's Thermometer.

fec. (Fecit), He made (or did) it.

fl. Flourished.

Fo. or Fol. Folio.

f.o.b. Free on board.

G.P.O. General Post Office.

H.M.S. His Majesty's Ship, or Service.

Ib. or Ibid. (Ibidem), In the same place.

Id. (Idem), The same.

ie. (Id est), That is.

I.H.S. A symbol for ``Jesus,', derived from the first three letters

of the Greek (I E S); the correct origin was lost

sight of, and the Romanized letters were then interpreted

erroneously as standing for Jesus, Hominum Salvator,

the Latin ``h'' and Greek long ``e'' being confused.

I.M.D.G. (In majorem Dei gloriam), To the greater glory of God.

Inf. (Infra), Below.

Inst. Instant, the present month.

I.O.U. I owe you.

i.q. (Idem quod), The same as.

k.t.l. (gr kai ta loipa) Et caetera, and the rest.

L. or Lib. (Liber), Book.

Lat. Latitude.

l.c. (Loco citato), In the place cited.

Lon. or Long. Longitude.

L.S. (Locus sigilli), The place of the seal.

Mem. (Memento), Remember, Memorandum.

MS. Manuscript. MSS. Manuscripts.

N.B. (Nota bene), Mark well; take notice.

N.B. North Britain (i.e. Scotland).

N.D. No date.

nem. con. (Nemine contradicente), No one contradicting.

No. (Numero), Number.

N.S. New Style.

N.T. New Testament.

ob. (Obiit), Died.

Obs. Obsolete.

O.H.M.S. On His Majesty's Service.

O.S. Old Style.

O.S.B. Ordo Sancti Benedicti (Benedictines).

O.T. Old Testament.

P. Page. Pp. Pages.

@ (Per), For; e.g. @ lb., For one pound.

Pinx. (Pinxit), He painted it.

P.M. (Post Meridiem), Afternoon.

P.O. Post Office, Postal Order.

P.O.O. Post Office Order.

P.P.C. (Pour prendre conge), To take leave.

P.R. Prize-ring.

prox. (Proximo [mense]), Next month.

P.S. Postscript.

Pt. Part.

p.t. or pro tem. (Pro tempore), For the time.

P.T.O. Please turn over.

Q., Qu., or Qy. Query; Question.

q.d. (Quasi dicat), As if he should say: as much as to say.

Q.E.D. (Quod erot demonstrandum), Which was to be demonstrated.

Q.E.F. (Quod erat faciendum), Which was to be done.

q.s. or quant. suff. (Quantum sufficit), As much as is

sufficient.

q.v. (Quod vide), Which see.

R. or @. (Recipe), Take.

sqrt. (=r. for radix), The sign of the square root.

R.I.P. (Requiescat in pace!), May he rest in peace!

R.S.V.P. (i Respondes s'il vous plait), please reply.

sc. (Scilicet), Namely; that is to say.

Sc. or Sculp. (Sculpsit), He engraved it.

S.D.U.K. Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.

seq. or sq., seqq. or sqq. (Sequens, sequenitia), The following.

S.J. Society of Jesus.

sp. (Sine prole), Without offspring.

S.P.C.K. Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge

S.P.G. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel.

S.T.D. }

S.T.B. }Doctor, Bachelor, Licentiate of Theology.

S.T.L. }

Sup. (Supra), Above.

s.v. (Sub voce), Under the word (or heading).

T.C.D. Trinity College, Dublin.

ult. (Ultimo [mense]), Last month.

U.S. United States.

U.S.A. United States of America.

v. (versus), Against.

v. or vid: (Vide), See.

viz. (Videlicet), Namely.

Xmas. Christmas. This X is a Greek letter, corresponding to Ch.

See also Graevius's Thesaurus Antiquitatum (1694, sqq.);

Nicolai's Tractatus de Sigils Veterum; Mommsen's Corpus

Inscriptionum Latinarum (1863, sqq.); Natalis de Wailly's

Paleographie (Paris, 1838); Alph. Chassant's Paleographie

(1854), and Dictionnaire des Abreviations (3rd ed.

1866); Campelli, Duzionario di Abbreviature (1899).

1 Describing the function of the triumviri monetales.

2 An archbishop or bishop, in writing his signature, substitutes

for his surname the name of his see; thus the prelates of

Canterbury, York, Oxford, London, &c., subscribe themselves

with their initials (Christian names only), followed by

Cantuar., Ebor., Oxon., Londin. (sometimes London.), &c.

3 Characters, not properly abbreviations, are used in the same

way; e.g. `` deg. '' for ``degrees, minutes, seconds'' (circular

measure); @, @, @ for ``ounces, drachms, scruples.'' @ is

probably to be traced to the written form of the z in ``oz.''

4 These forms (as well as $, the symbol for the

American dollar) are placed before the amounts.

5It is given to Austria to rule the whole earth.

The device of Austria, first adopted by Frederick III.

6``Per cent.'' is often signified by %, a form traceable to "100."

ABBREVIATORS, a body of writers in the papal chancery,

whose business was to sketch out and prepare in due form the

pope's bulls, briefs and consistorial decrees before these are

written out in extenso by the scriptores. They are first

mentioned in Extravagantes of John XXII. and of Benedict

XII. Their number was fixed at seventy-two by Sixtus IV.

From the time of Benedict XII. (1334-1342) they were classed

as de Parco majori or Praesidentiae majoris, and de

Parco minnori. The name was derived from a space in the

chancery, surrounded by a grating, in which the officials sat,

which is called higher or lower (major or minor) according to

the proximity of the seats to that of the vice-chancellor.

After the protonotaries left the sketching of the minutes

to the abbreviators, those de Parco majori, who ranked as

prelates, were the most important officers of the apostolic

chancery. By Martin V. their signature was made essential to

the validity of the acts of the chancery; and they obtained in

course of time many important privileges. They were suppressed

in 1908 by Pius X. and their duties were transferred to the

protonotarii apostolici participantes. (See CURIA ROMANA.)

ABDALLATIF, or ABD-UL-LATIF (1162-1231), a celebrated

physician and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers

of the East, was born at Bagdad in 1162. An interesting

memoir of Abdallatif, written by himself, has been preserved

with additions by Ibn-Abu-Osaiba (Ibn abi Usaibia), a

contemporary. From that work we learn that the higher education

of the youth of Bagdad consisted principally in a minute and

careful study of the rules and principles of grammar, and in

their committing to memory the whole of the Koran, a treatise

or two on philology and jurisprudence, and the choicest Arabian

poetry. After attaining to great proficiency in that kind of

learning, Abdallatif applied himself to natural philosophy and

medicine. To enjoythe society of the learned, he went first

to Mosul (1189), and afterwards to Damascus. With letters of

recommendation from Saladin's vizier, he visited Egypt, where

the wish he had long cherished to converse with Maimonides,

``the Eagle of the Doctors,'' was gratified. He afterwards

formed one of the circle of learned men whom Saladin gathered

around him at Jerusalem. He taught medicine and philosophy at

Cairo and at Damascus for a number of years, and afterwards,

for a shorter period, at Aleppo. His love of travel led him

in his old age to visit different parts of Armenia and Asia

Minor, and he was setting out on a pilgrimage to Mecca when

he died at Bagdad in 1231. Abdallatif was undoubtedly a

man of great knowledge and of an inquisitive and penetrating

mind. Of the numerous works--mostly on medicine---which

Osaiba ascribes to bim, one only, his graphic and detailed

Account of Egypt (in two parts), appears to be known in

Europe. The manuscript, discovered by Edward Pococke the

Orientalist, and preserved in the Bodleian Library, contains

a vivid description of a famine caused, during the author's

residence in Egypt, by the Nile failing to overflow its banks.

It was translated into Latin by Professor White of Oxford in

1800, and into French, with valuable notes, by De Sacy in 1810.

ABD-AR-RAHMAN, the name borne by five princes of the Omayyad dynasty,

amirs and caliphs of Cordova, two of them being rulers of great capacity.

ABD-AR-RAHMAN I. (756-788) was the founder of the branch of

the family which ruled for nearly three centuries in Mahommedan

Spain. When the Omayyads were overthrown in the East by the

Abbasids he was a young man of about twenty years of age.

together with his brother Yahya, he took refuge with Bedouin

tribes in the desert. The Abbasids hunted their enemies

down without mercy. Their soldiers overtook the brothers;

Yahya was slain, and Abd-ar-rahman saved himself by fleeing

first to Syria and thence to northern Africa, the common

refuge of all who endeavoured to get beyond the reach of the

Abbasids. In the general confusion of the caliphate produced

by the change of dynasty, Africa had fallen into the hands

of local rulers, formerly amirs or lieutenants of the Omayyad

caliphs, but now aiming at independence. After a time

Abd-ar-rahman found that his life was threatened, and he

fled farther west, taking refuge among the Berber tribes of

Mauritania. In the midst of all his perils, which read like

stories from the Arabian Nights, Abd-ar-rahman had been

encouraged by reliance on a prophecy of his great-uncle Maslama

that he would restore the fortune of the family. He was

followed in all his wanderings by a few faithful clients of the

Omayyads. In 755 he was in hiding near Ceuta, and thence

he sent an agent over to Spain to ask for the support of

other clients of the family, descendants of the conquerors of

Spain, who were numerous in the province of Elvira, the modern

Granada. The country was in a state of confusion under the

weak rule of the amir Yusef, a mere puppet in the hands of a

faction, and was torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs

and by race conflicts between the Arabs and Berbers. It

offered Abd-ar-rahman the opportunity he had falled to find in

Africa. On the invitation of his partisans he landed at

Almunecar, to the east of Malaga, in September 755. For a

time he was compelled to submit to be guided by his supporters,

who were aware of the risks of their venture. Yusef opened

negotiations, and offered to give Abdar-rahman one of his

daughters in marriage and a grant of land. This was far less

than the prince meant to obtain, but he would probably have

been forced to accept the offer for want of a better if the

insolence of one of Yusef's messengers, a Spanish renegade,

had not outraged a chief partisan of the Omayyad cause. He

taunted this gentleman, Obeidullah by name, with being unable

to write good Arabic. Under this provocation Obeidullah drew

the sword. In the course of 756 a campaign was fought in

the valley of the Guadalquivir, which ended, on the 16th of

May, in the defeat of Yusef outside Cordova. Abdar-rahman's

army was so ill provided that he mounted almost the only good

war-horse in it; he had no banner, and one was improvised by

unwinding a green turban and binding it round the head of a

spear. The turban and the spear became the banner of the Spanish

Omayyads. The long reign of Abd-arrahman I. was spent in a

struggle to reduce his anarchical Arab and Berber subjects to

order. They had never meant to give themselves a master, and

they chafed under his hand, which grew continually heavier.

The details of these conflicts belong to the general history of

Spain. It is, however, part of the personal history of

Abd-ar-rahman that when in 763 he was compelled to fight at the

very gate of his capital with rebels acting on behalf of the

Abbasids, and had won a signal victory, he cut off the heads

of the leaders, filled them with salt and camphor and sent

them as a defiance to the eastern caliph. His last years were

spent amid a succession of palace conspiracies, repressed with

cruelty. Abd-ar-rahman grew embittered and ferocious. He was

a fine example of an oriental founder of a dynasty, and did his

work so well that the Omayyads lasted in Spain for two centuries

and a half.

ABD-AR-RAHMAN II. (822-852) was one of the weaker of

the Spanish Omayyads. He was a prince with a taste for

music and literature, whose reign was a time of confusion.

It is chiefly memorable for having included the story of

the ``Martyrs of Cordova,'' one of the most remarkable

passages in the religious history of the middle ages.

ABD-AR-RAHMAN III. (912-961) was the greatest and the most

successful of the princes of his dynasty in Spain (for the

general history of his reign see SPAIN, History). He

ascended the throne when he was barely twenty-two and reigned

for half a century. His life was so completely identified

with the government of the state that he offers less material

for biography than his ancestor Abd-ar-rahman I. Yet it

supplies some passages which show the real character of an

oriental dynasty even at its best. Abd-ar-rahman III. was

the grandson of his predecessor, Abdallah, one of the weakest

and worst of the Spanish Omayyads. His father, Mahommed,

was murdered by a brother Motarrif by order of Abdallah The

old sultan was so far influenced by humanity and remorse

that he treated his grandson kindly.

 Abd-ar-rahman III.

came to the throne when the country was exhausted by more

than a generation of tribal conflict among the Arabs, and

of strife between them and the Mahommedans of native Spanish

descent. Spaniards who were openly or secretly Christians

had acted with the renegades. These elements, which formed

the bulk of the population, were not averse from supporting

a strong ruler who would protect them against the Arab

aristocracy. These restless nobles were the most serious

of Abd-ar-rahman's enemies. Next to them came the Fatimites

of Egypt and northern Africa, who claimed the caliphate,

and who aimed at extending their rule over the Mahommedan

world, at least in the west. Abd-ar-rahman subdued the nobles

by means of a mercenary army, which included Christians.

He repelled the Fatimites, partly by supporting their

enemies in Africa, and partly by claiming the caliphate for

himself. His ancestors in Spain had been content the the

title of sultan. The caliphate was thought only to belong

to the prince who ruled over the sacred cities of Mecca and

Medina. But the force of this tradition had been so far

weakened that Abd-ar-rahman could proclaim himself caliph on

the 16th of January 929, and the assumption of the title gave

him increased prestige with his subjects, both in Spain and

Africa. His worst enemies were always his fellow Mahommedans.

After he was defeated by the Christians at Alhandega

in 939 through the treason of the Arab nobles in his

army (see SPAIN, History) he never again took the

field. He is accused of having sunk in his later years

into the self-indulgent habits of the harem. When the

undoubted prosperity of his dominions is quoted as an

example of successful Mahommedan rule, it is well to remember

that he administered well not by means of but in spite of

Mahommedans. The high praise given to his administration may

even excite some doubts as to its real excellence. We are

told that a third of his revenue sufficed for the ordinary

expenses of government, a third was hoarded and a third spent on

buildings. A very large proportion of the surplus must

have been wasted on the palace-town of Zahra, built three

miles to the north of Cordova, and named after a favourite

concubine. Ten thousand workmen are said to have been employed

for twenty-five years on this wonder, of which no trace now

remains. The great monument of early Arabic architecture in

Spain, the mosque of Cordoya, was built by his predecessors,

not by him. It is said that his harem included six thousand

women. Abd-ar-rahman was tolerant, but it is highly probable

that he was very indifferent in religion, and it is certain

that he was a thorough despot. One of the most authentic

sayings attributed to him is his criticism of Otto I. of

Germany, recorded by Otto's ambassador, Johann, abbot of

Gorze, who has left in his Vita an incomplete account

of his embassy (in Pertz, Mon. Germ. Scriptores, iv.

355-377). He blamed the king of Germany for trusting his nobles,

which he said could only increase their pride and leaning to

rebellion. His confession that he had known only twenty happy

days in his long reign is perhaps a moral tale, to be classed

with the ``omnia fui, et nil expedit'' of Septimius Severus.

In the agony of the Omayyad dynasty in Spain, two princes

of the house were proclaimed caliphs for a very short time,

Abd-ar-rahman IV. Mortada (1017), and Abd-ar-rahman V. Mostadir

(1023-1024). Both were the mere puppets of factions, who

deserted them at once. Abd-ar-rahman IV. was murdered

in the year in which he was proclaimed, at Guadiz, when

fleeing from a battle in which he had been deserted by his

supporters. Abd-ar-rahman V. was proclaimed caliph in

December 1023 at Cordova, and murdered in January 1024 by a

mob of unemployed workmen, headed by one of his own cousins.

The history of the Omayyads in Spain is the subject of the Histoire

des Musulmans d'Espagne, by R. Dozy (Leiden, 1861). (D. H.)

ABD-EL-AZIZ IV. (1880- ), sultan of Morocco, son of Sultan

Mulai el Hasan III. by a Circassian wife. He was fourteen

years of age on his father's death in 1894. By the wise action

of Si Ahmad bin Musa, the chamberlain of El Hasan, Abd-el

Aziz's accession to the sultanate was ensured with but little

fighting. Si Ahmad became regent and for six years showed

himself a capable ruler. On his death in 1900 the regency

ended, and Abd-el-Aziz took the reins of government into his own

hands, with an Arab from the south, El Menebhi, for his chief

adviser. Urged by his Circassian mother, the sultan sought

advice and counsel from Europe and endeavoured to act up to

it. But disinterested advice was difficult to obtain, and

in spite of the unquestionable desire of the young ruler to

do the best for the country, wild extravagance both in action

and expenditure resulted, leaving the sultan with depleted

exchequer and the confidence of his people impaired. His

intimacy with foreigners and his imitation of their ways were

sufficient to rouse fanaticism and create dissatisfaction.

His attempt to reorganize the finances by the systematic levy

of taxes was hailed with delight, but the government was not

strong enough to carry the measures through, and the money

which should have been used to pay the taxes was employed

to purchase firearms. Thus the benign intentions of Mulai

Abdel-Aziz were interpreted as weakness, and Europeans were

accused of having spoiled the sultan and of being desirous of

spoiling the country. When British engineers were employed

to survey the route for a railway between Mequinez and

Fez, this was reported as indicating an absolute sale of the

country. The fanaticism of the people was aroused, and a

revolt broke out near the Algerian frontier. Such was the

condition of things when the news of the Anglo-French Agreement

of 1904 came as a blow to Abd-el-Aziz, who had relied on

England for support and protection against the inroads of

France. On the advice of Germany he proposed the assembly of

an international conference at Algeciras in 1906 to consult

upon methods of reform, the sultan's desire being to ensure

a condition of affairs which would leave foreigners with no

excuse for interference in the control of the country, and

would promote its welfare, which Abd-el-Aziz had earnestly

desired from his accession to power. The sultan gave his

adherence to the Act of the Algeciras Conference, but the

state of anarachy into which Morocco fell during the latter

half of 1906 and the beginning of 1907 showed that the young

ruler lacked strength sufficient to make his will respected

by his turbulent subjects. In May 1907 the southern tribes

invited Mulai Hafid, an elder brother of Abd-el-Aziz, and

viceroy at Marrakesh, to become sultan, and in the following

August Hafid was proclaimed sovereign there with all the usual

formalities. In the meantime the murder of Europeans

at Casablanca had led to the occupation of that port by

France. In September Abd-el-Aziz arrived at Rabat from Fez

and endeavoured to secure the support of the European powers

against his brother. From France he accepted the grand cordon

of the Legion of Honour, and was later enabled to negotiate a

loan. His leaning to Christians aroused further opposition

to his rule, and in January 1908 he was declared deposed by

the ulema of Fez, who offered the throne to Hafid. After

months of inactivity Abd-el-Aziz made an effort to restore

his authority, and quitting Rabat in July he marched on

Marrakesh. His force, largely owing to treachery, was

completely overthrown (August 19th) when near that city,

and Abd-el-Aziz fled to Settat within the French lines

round Casablanca. In November he came to terms with his

brother, and thereafter took up his residence in Tangier

as a pensioner of the new sultan. He declared himself more

than reconciled to the loss of the throne, and as looking

forward to a quiet peaceful life. (See MOROCCO, History.)

ABD-EL-KADER (c. 1807-1883), amir of Mascara, the great

opponent of the conquest of Algeria by France, was born near

Mascara in 1807 or 1808. His family were sherifs or descendants

of Mahomet, and his father, Mahi-ed-Din, was celebrated

throughout North Africa for his piety and charity. Abd-el

Kader received the best education attainable by a Mussulman

of princely rank, especially in theology and philosophy, in

horsemanship and in other manly exercises. While still a

youth he was taken by his father on the pilgrimage to Mecca

and Medina and to the tomb of Sidi Abd-el-Kader El Jalili at

Bagdad--events which stimulated his natural tendency to religious

enthusiasm. While in Egypt in 1827, Abd-el-Kader is stated

to have been impressed, by the reforms then being carried out

by Mehemet Ali with the value of European civilization, and

the knowledge he then gained affected his career. Mahi-ed-Din

and his son returned to Mascara shortly before the French

occupation of Algiers (July 1830) destroyed the government

of the Dey. Coming forward as the champion of Islam against

the infidels, Abd-el-Kader was proclaimed amir at Mascara in

1832. He prosecuted the war against France vigorously and

in a short time had rallied to his standard all the tribes

of western Algeria. The story of his fifteen years' struggle

against the French is given under ALGERIA. To the beginning

of 1842 the contest went in favour of the amir; thereafter

he found in Marshal Bugeaud an opponent who proved, in the

end, his master. Throughout this period Abd-el-Kader showed

himself a born leader of men, a great soldier, a capable

administrator, a persuasive orator, a chivalrous opponent.

His fervent faith in the doctrines of Islam was unquestioned,

and his ultimate failure was due in considerable measure

to the refusal of the Kabyles, Berber mountain tribes whose

Mahommedanism is somewhat loosely held, to make common cause

with the Arabs against the French. On the 21st of December

1847, the amir gave himself up to General Lamoriciere at Sidi

Brahim. On the 23rd, his submission was formally made to the

duc d'Aumale, then governor of Algeria. In violation of the

promise that he would be allowed to go to Alexandria or St Jean

d'Acre, on the faith of which he surrendered, Abd-el-Kader and

his family were detained in France, first at Toulon, then at

Pau, being in November 1848 transferred to the chateau of

Amboise. There Abd-el-Kader remained until October 1852, when

he was released by Napoleon III. on taking an oath never again

to disturb Algeria. The amir then took up his residence in

Brusa, removing in 1855 to Damascus. In July 1860, when the

Moslems of that city, taking advantage of disturbances among

the Druses of Lebanon, attacked the Christian quarter and

killed over 3000 persons, Abd-el-Kader helped to repress the

outbreak and saved large numbers of Christians. For this

action the French government, which granted the amir a pension

of L. 4000, bestowed on him the grand cross of the Legion of

Honour. In 1865, he visited Paris and London, and was again in

Paris at the exposition of 1867. In 1871, when the Algerians

again rose in revolt, Abd-el-Kader wrote to them counselling

submission to France. After his surrender in 1847 he devoted

himself anew to theology and philosophy, and composed a

philosophical treatise, of which a French translation was

published in 1858 under the title of Rappel a l'intelligent.

Avis a l'indifferent. He also wrote a book on the Arab

horse. He died at Damascus on the 26th of May 1883.

See Commdt. J. Pichon, Abd el Kader, 1807--1883

(Paris [1899]): Alex. Bellemare, Abd-el-Kader: sa

vie politique et militaire (Paris, 1863); Col. C. H.

Churchill, The Life of Abdel Kader (London, 1867).

ABDERA, an ancient seaport town on the south coast of Spain,

between Malaca and New Carthage, in the district inhabited by the

Bastuli. It was founded by the Carthaginians as a trading

station, and after a period of decline became under the Romans

one of the more important towns in the province of Hispania

Baetica. It was situated on a hill above the modern Adra

(q.v.). Of its coins the most ancient bear the Phoenician

inscription abdrt with the head of Heracles (Melkarth) and

a tunny-fish; those of Tiberius (who seems to have made the

place a colony) show the chief temple of the town with two

tunny-fish erect in the form of columns. For inscriptions

relating to the Roman municipality see C.I.L. ii. 267.

ABDERA, a town on the coast of Thrace near the mouth of the

Nestos, and almost opposite Thasos. Its mythical foundation

was attributed to Heracles, its historical to a colony from

Clazomenae in the 7th century B.C. But its prosperity

dates from 544 B.C., when the majority of the people of

Teos migrated to Abdera after the Ionian revolt to escape

the Persian yoke (Herod. i. 168); the chief coin type, a

gryphon, is identical with that of Teos; the coinage is

noted for the beauty and variety of its reverse types. The

town seems to have declined in importance after the middle

of the 4th century. The air of Abdera was proverbial as

causing stupidity; but among its citizens was the philosopher

Democritus. The ruins of the town may still be seen on

Cape Balastra; they cover seven small hills, and extend

from an eastern to a western harbour; on the S.W. hills

are the remains of the medieval settlement of Polystylon.

Mittheil. d. deutsch. Inst. Athens, xii. (1887),

p. 161 (Regel); Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscriptions,

xxxix. 211; K. F. Hermann, Ges. Abh. 90-111, 370 in.

ABDICATION (Lat. abdicatio, disowning, renouncing,

from ab, from, and dicare, to declare, to proclaim as

not belonging to one), the act whereby a person in office

renounces and gives up the same before the expiry of the time

for which it is held. In Roman law, the term is especially

applied to the disowning of a member of a family, as the

disinheriting of a son, but the word is seldom used except

in the sense of surrendering the supreme power in a state.

Despotic sovereigns are at liberty to divest themselves of

their powers at any time, but it is otherwise with a limited

monarchy. The throne of Great Britain cannot be lawfully

abdicated unless with the consent of the two Houses of

Parliament. When James II., after throwing the great

seal into the Thames, fled to France in 1688, he did not

formally resign the crown, and the question was discussed

in parliament whether he had forfeited the throne or had

abdicated. The latter designation was agreed on, for in a

full assembly of the Lords and Commons, met in convention,

it was resolved, in spite of James's protest, ``that King

James II. having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of

the kingdom, by breaking the original contract between king

and people, and, by the advice of Jesuits and other wicked

persons, having violated the fundamental laws, and having

withdrawn himself out of this kingdom, has abdicated the

government, and that the throne is thereby vacant.'' The

Scottish parliament pronounced a decree of forfeiture and

deposition. Among the most memorable abdications of

antiquity may be mentioned that of Sulla the dictator, 79

B.C., and that of the Emperor Diocletian, A.D. 305. The

following is a list of the more important abdications of later

A.D.

Benedict IX., pope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048

Stephen II. of Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1131

Albert (the Bear) of Brandenburg . . . . . . . . . . 1169

Ladislaus III. of Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206

Celestine V., pope . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 13, 1294

John Baliol of Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296

John Cantacuzene, emperor of the East . . . . . . . 1355

Richard II. of England . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 29, 1399

John XXIII., pope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1415

Eric VII; of Denmark and XIII. of Sweden . . . . . . 1439

Murad II., Ottoman Sultan . . . . . . . . .1444 and 1445

Charles V., emperor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1556

Christina of Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1654

John Casimir of Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1618

James II. of England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1688

Frederick Augustus of Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . 1704

Philip V. of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1724

Victor Amadeus II. of Sardinia . . . . . . . . . . . 1730

Ahmed III., Sultan of Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . 1730

Charles of Naples (on accession to throne of Spain). 1759

Stanislaus II. of Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795

Charles Emanuel IV. of Sardinia . . . . . . June 4, 1802

Charles IV. of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . .Mar. 19, 1808

Joseph Bonaparte of Naples . . . . . . . . . June 6, 1808

Gustavus IV. of Sweden . . . . . . . . . . .Mar. 29, 1809

Louis Bonaparte of Holland . . . . . . . . . July 2, 1810

Napoleon I., French Emperor. . . . . . . . .April 4, 1814, and June 22, 1815

Victor Emanuel of Sardinia . . . . . . . . .Mar. 13, 1821

Charles X. of France . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 2, 1830

Pedro of Brazil 1 . . . . . . . . . . . .April 7, 1831

Miguel of Portgual . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 26, 1834

William I. of Holland . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 7, 1840

Louis Philippe, king of the French . . . . .Feb. 24, 1848

Louis Charles of Bavaria . . . . . . . . . .Mar. 21, 1848

Ferdinand of Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 2, 1848

Charles Albert of Sardinia . . . . . . . . .Mar. 23, 1849

Leopold II. of Tuscany . . . . . . . . . . .July 21, 1859

Isabella II. of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . June 25, 1870

Amadeus I. of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 11, 1873

Alexander of Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 7, 1886

Milan of Servia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Mar. 6, 1889

1 Pedro had succeeded to the throne of Portugal in

1826, but abdicated it at once in favour of his daughter.

ABDOMEN (a Latin word, either from abdere, to hide,

or from a form adipomen, from adeps, fat), the belly,

the region of the body containing most of the digestive

organs. (See for anatomical details the articles ALIMENTARY

CANAL, and ANATOMY, Superficial and Artistic.)

ABDOMINAL SURGERY.---The diseases affecting this region

are dealt with generally in the article DIGESTIVE ORGANS,

and under their own names (e.g. APPENDICITIS). The term

``abdominal surgery'' covers generally the operations which

involve opening the abdominal cavity, and in modern times this

field of work has been greatly extended. In this Encyclopaedia

the surgery of each abdominal organ is dealt with, for the

most part, in connexion with the anatomical description of

that organ (see STOMACH, KIDNEY, LIVER, &c.); but here the

general principles of abdominal surgery may be discussed.

Exploratory Laparotomy.---In many cases of serious intra-abdominal

disease it is impossible for the surgeon to say exactly

what is wrong without making an incision and introducing his

finger, or, if need be, his hand among the intestines. With

due care this is not a perilous or serious procedure, and the

great advantage appertaining to it is daily being more fully

recognized. It was Dr Oliver Wendell Holmes, the American

physiologist and poet, who remarked that one cannot say of

what wood a table is made without lifting up the cloth; so

also it is often impossible to say what is wrong inside the

abdomen without making an opening into it. When an opening

is made in such circumstances---provided only it is done soon

enough--the successful treatment of the case often becomes a

simple matter. An exploratory operation, therefore, should

be promptly resorted to as a means of diagnosis, and not left

as a last resource till the outlook is well-nigh hopeless.

It is probable that if the question were put to any experienced

hospital surgeon if he had often had cause to regret having

advised recourse to an exploratory operation on the abdomen,

his answer would be in the negative, but that, on the other

hand, he had not infrequently had cause to regret that he

had not resorted to it, post-mortem examination having

shown that if only he had insisted on an exploratioui being

made, some band, some adhesion, some tumour, some abscess

might have been satisfactorily dealt with, which, left

unsuspected in the dark cavity, was accountable for the

death. A physician by himself is helpless in these cases.

Much of the rapid advance which has of late been made in

the results of abdominal surgery is due to the improved

relationship which exists between the public and the surgical

profession. In former days it was not infrequently said, ``If

a surgeon is called in he is sure to operate.'' Not only have

the public said this, but even physicians have been known to

suggest it, and have indeed used the equivocal expression,

the ``apotheosis of surgery,'' in connexion with the operative

treatment of a serious abdominal lesion. But fortunately

the public have found out that the surgeon, being an honest

man, does not advise operation unless he believes that it is

necessary or, at any rate, highly advisable. And this happy

discovery has led to much more confidence being placed in his

decision. It has truly been said that a surgeon is a physician

who can operate, and the public have begun to realize the fact

that it is useless to try to relieve an acute abdominal lesion

by diet or drugs. Not many years ago cases of acute, obscure

or chronic affections of the abdomen which were admitted into

hospital were sent as a matter of course into the medical

wards, and after the effect of drugs had been tried with

expectancy and failure, the services of a surgeon were called

in. In acute cases this delay spoilt all surgical chances, and

the idea was more widely spread that surgery, after all, was

a poor handmaid to medicine. But now things are different.

Acute or obscure abdominal cases are promptly relegated to

the surgical wards; the surgeon is at once sent for, and if

operation is thought desirable it is performed without any

delay. The public have found that the surgeon is not a reckless

operator, but a man who can take a broad view of a case in all

its bearings. And so it has come about that the results of

operations upon the interior of the abdomen have been improving

day by day. And doubtless they will continue to improve.

A great impetus was given to the surgery of wounded, mortified

or diseased pieces of intestine by the introduction from

Chicago of an ingenious contrivance named, after the inventor,

Murphy's button. This consists of a short nickel-plated

tube in two pieces, which are rapidly secured in the divided

ends of the bowel, and in such a manner that when the

pieces are subsequently ``married'' the adjusted ends of

the bowel are securely fixed together and the canal rendered

practicable. In the course of time the button loosens itself

into the interior of the bowel and comes away with the alvine

evacuation. In many other cases the use of the button has

proved convenient and successful, as in the establishment of

a permanent communication between the stomach and the small

intestine when the ordinary gateway between these parts of

the alimentary canal is obstructed by an irremovable malignant

growth; between two parts of the small intestine so that

some obstruction may be passed; betw:en smal' and large

intestine. The operative procedure goes by the name of

short-circuiting; it enables the contents of the bowel to get

beyond an obstruction. In this way also a permanent working

communication can be set up between the gallbladder, or a

dilated bile-duct, and the neighbouring small intestine---the

last-named operation bears the precise but very clumsy name

of choledocoduodenostomy. By the use of Murphy's ingenious

apparatus the communication of two parts can be secured in

the shortest possible space of time, and this, in many of

the cases in which it is resorted to, is of the greatest

importance. But there is this against the method---that

sometimes ulceration occurs around the rim of the metal button,

whilst at others the loosened metal causes annoyance in its

passage along the alimentary canal. Some surgeons therefore

prefer to use a bobbin of decalcified bone or similar soft

material, while others rely upon direct suturing of the

parts. The last-named method is gradually increasing in

popularity, and of course, when time and circumstances permit,

it is the ideal method of treatment. The cause of death

in the case of intestinal obstruction is usually due to the

blood being poisoned by the absorption of the products of

decomposition of the fluid contents of the bowel above the

obstruction. It is now the custom, therefore, for the surgeon to

complete his operation for the relief of obstruction by drawing

out a loop of the distended bowel, incising and evacuating

it, and then carefully suturing and returning it. The surgeon

who first recognized the lethal effect of the absorption of

this stagnant fluid---or, at any rate, who first suggested the

proper method of treating it---was Lawson Tait of Birmingham,

who on the occurrence of grave symptoms after operating on

the abdomen gave small, repeated doses of Epsom salts to wash

away the harmful liquids of the bowel and to enable it at the

same time to empty itself of the gas, which, by distending the

intestines, was interfering with respiration and circulation.

Amongst still more recent improvements in abdominal surgery

may be mentioned the placing of the patient in the sitting

position as soon as practicable after the operation, and

the slow administration of a hot saline solution into the

lower bowel, or, in the more desperate cases, of injecting

pints of this ``normal saline'' fluid into the loose

tissue of the armpit. Hot water thus administered or

injected is quickly taken into the blood, increasing its

volume, diluting its impurities and quenching the great

thirst which is so marked a symptom in this condition.

Gunshot wounds of the Abdomen.---If a revolver bullet passes

through the abdomen, the coils of intestine are likely to be

traversed by it in several places. If the bullet be small and,

by chance, surgically clean, it is possible that the openings

may tightly close up behind it so that no leakage takes place

into the general peritoneal cavity. If increasing collapse

suggests that serious bleeding is occurring within the abdomen,

the cavity is opened forthwith and a thorough exploration

made. When it is uncettain lf the bowel has been traversed

or not, it is well to wait before opening the abdomen, due

preparation being made for performing that operation on the

first appearance of symptoms indicative of perforation having

occurred. Small perforating wounds of the bowel are treated

by such suturing as the circumstances may suggest, the interior

of the abdominal cavity being rendered as free from septic

micro-organisms as possible. It is by the malign influence of

such germs that a fatal issue is determined in the case of an

abdominal wound, whether inflicted by firearms or by a pointed

weapon. If aseptic procedure can be promptly resorted

to and thoroughly carried out, abdominal wounds do well,

but these essentials cannot be obtained upon the field of

battle. When after an action wounded men come pouring into

the field-hospital, the many cannot be kept waiting whilst

preparations are being made for the thorough carrying out

of a prolonged aseptic abdominal operation upon a solitary

case. Experience in the South African war of 1899-1902 showed

that Mauser bullets could pierce coils of intestine and leave

the soldiers in such a condition that, if treated by mere

``expectancy,'' more than 50% recovered, whereas if operations

were resorted to, fatal septic peritonitis was likely to ensue.

In the close proximity of the fight, where time, assistants,

pure water, towels, lotions and other necessaries for carrying

out a thoroughly aseptic operation cannot be forthcoming,

gunshot wounds of the abdomen had best not be interfered with.

Stabs of the abdomen are serious if they have penetrated the

abdominal wall, as, at the time of injury, septic germs may

have been introduced, or the bowel may have been wounded. In

either case a fatal inflammation of the peritoneum may be set

up. It is inadvisable to probe a wound in order to find out

if the belly-cavity has been penetrated, as the probe itself

might carry inwards septic germs. In case of doubt it is

better to enlarge the wound in order to determine its depth,

and to disinfect and close it if it be non-penetrating. If,

however, the bellycavity has been opened, the neighbouring

pieces of bowel should be examined, cleansed and, if need be,

sutured. Should there have been an escape of the contents of

the bowel the ``toilet of the peritoneum'' would be duly made,

and a drainage-tube would be left in. If the stab had injured

a large blood-vessel either of the abdominal cavity, or of the

hiver or of some other organ, the bleeding would be arrested

by ligature or suture, and the extravasated blood sponged

out. Before the days of antiseptic surgery, and of exploratory

abdominal operations, these cases were generally allowed

to drift to almost certain death, unrecognized and almost

untreated: at the present time a large number of them are saved.

Intussusception.---This is a terribly fatal disease of

infants and children, in which a piece of bowel slips into,

and is gripped by, the piece next below it. Formerly it was

generally the custom to endeavour to reduce the invagination

by passing air or water up the rectum under pressure--a

speculative method of treatment which sometimes ended in a

fatal rupture of the distended bowel, and often---one might

almost say generally--failed to do what was expected of

it. The teaching of modern surgery is that a small incision

into the abdomen and a prompt withdrawal of the invaginated

piece of bowel can be trusted to do all that, and more than,

infection can effect, without blindly risking a rupture of the

bowel. It is certain that when the surgeon is unable to

unravel the bowel with his fingers gently applied to the parts

themselves, no speculative distension of the bowel could

have been effective. But the outlook in these distressing

cases, even when the operation is promptly resorted to, is

extremely grave, because of the intensity of the shock which

the intussusception and resulting strangulation entail.

Still, every operation gives them by far the best chance.

Cancer of the Intestine.---With the introduction of aseptic

methods of operating, it has been found that the surgeon can

reach the bowel through the peritoneum easily and safely.

With the peritoneum opened, moreover, he can explore the

diseased bowel and deal with it as circumstances suggest.

If the cancerous mass is fairly movable the affected piece

of bowel is excised and the cut ends are spliced together,

and the continuity of the alimentary canal is permanently

re-established. Thus in the case of cancer of the large

intestine which is not too far advanced, the surgeon expects

to be able not only to relieve the obstruction of the bowel,

but actually to cure the patient of his disease. When the

lowest part of the bowel was found to be occupied by a cancerous

obstruction, the surgeon used formerly to secure an easy escape

for the contents of the bowel by making an opening into the

colon in the left loin. But in recent years this operation of

lumbar colotomy has been almost entirely replaced by opening

the colon in the left groin. This operation of iniguinal

colotomy is usually divided into two stages: a loop of the

large intestine is first drawn out through the abdominal

wound and secured by stitches, and a few days afterwards,

when it is firmly glued in place by adhesive inflammation,

it is cut across, so that subsequently the motions can no

longer find their way into the bowel below the artificial

anus. If at the first stage of the operation symptoms of

obstruction are urgent, one of the ingenious glass tubes

with a rubber conduit, which Mr F. T. Paul has invented,

may be forthwith introduced into the distended bowel, so

that the contents may be allowed to escape without fear of

soiling the peritoneum or even the surface-wound. (E. O.*)

ABDUCTION (Lat. abductio, abducere, to lead away), a

law term denoting the forcible or fraudulent removal of a

person, limited by custom to the case where a woman is the

victim. In the case of men or children, it has been usual

to substitute the term kidnapping (q.v.). The old English

laws against abduction, generally contemplating its object

as the possession of an heiress and her fortune, have been

repealed by the Offences against the Person Act 1861, which

makes it felony for any one from motives of lucre to take

away or detain against her will with intent to marry or

carnally know her, &c., any woman of any age who has any

interest in any real or personal estate, or is an heiress

presumptive, or co-heiress, or presumptive next of kin to

any one having such an interest; or for any one to cause

such a woman to be married or carnally known by any other

person; or for any one with such intent to allure, take

away, or detain any such woman under the age of twenty-one,

out of the possession and against the will of her parents or

guardians. By s. 54, forcible taking away or detention

against her will of any woman of any age with like intent is

felony. The same act makes abduction without eyen any such

intent a misdemeanour, where an unmarried girl under the

age of sixteen is unlawfully taken out of the possession and

against the will of her parents or guardians. In such a case

the girl's consent is immaterial, nor is it a defence that the

person charged reasonably believed that the girl was sixteen or

over. The Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 made still more

stringent provisions with reference to abduction by making

the procuration or attempted procuration of any virtuous

female under the age of twenty-one years a misdemeanour, as

well as the abduction of any girl under eighteen years of

age with the intent that she shall be carnally known, or the

detaining of any female against her will on any premises,

with intent to have, or that another person may have, carnal

knowledge of her. In Scotland, where there is no statutory

adjustment, abduction is similarly dealt with by practice.

ABD-UL-AZIZ (1830-1876), sultan of Turkey, son of Sultan

Mahmud II., was born on the 9th of February 1830, and

succeeded his brother Abd-ul-Mejid in 1861. His personal

interference in government affairs was not very marked, and

extended to little more than taking astute advantage of the

constant issue of State loans during his reign to acquire

wealth, which was squandered in building useless palaces

and in other futile ways: he is even said to have profited,

by means of ``bear'' sales, from the default on the Turkish

debt in 1875 and the consequent fall in prices. Another

source of revenue was afforded by Ismail Pasha, the khedive

of Egypt, who paid heavily in bakshish for the firman of

1866, by which the succession to the khedivate was made

hereditary from father to son in direct line and in order

of primogeniture, as well as for the subsequent firmans of

1867, 1869 and 1872 extending the khedive's prerogatives. It

is, however, only fair to add that the sultan was doubtless

influenced by the desire to bring about a similar change

in the succession to the Ottoman throne and to ensure the

succession after him of his eldest son, Yussuf Izz-ed-din.

Abd-ul-Aziz visited Europe in 1867, being the first Ottoman

sultan to do so, and was made a Knight of the Garter by Queen

Victoria. In 1869 he received the visits of the emperor of

Austria, the Empress Eugenie and other foreign princes, on their

way to the opening of the Suez Canal, and King Edward VII.,

while prince of Wales, twice visited Gonstantinople during his

reign. The mis-government and financial straits of the

country brought on the outbreak of Mussulman discontent and

fanaticism which eventually culminated in the murder of two

consuls at Salonica and in the ``Bulgarian atrocities,'' and

cost Abd-ul-Aziz his throne. His deposition on the 30th of

May 1876 was hailed with joy throughout Turkey; a fortnight

later he was found dead in the palace where he was confined,

and trustworthy medical evidence attributed his death to

suicide. Six children survived him: Prince Yussuf Izz-ed-din,

born 1857; Princess Salina, wife of Kurd Ismall Pasha;

Princess Nazime, wife of Khalid Pasha; Prince Abd-ul-Mejid,

born 1869; Prince Self-ed-din, born 1876; Princess Emine,

wife of Mahommed Bey; Prince Shefket, born 1872, died 1899.

ABD-UL-HAMID I.,(1725-1789), sultan of Turkey, son of Ahmed

III., succeeded his brother Mustafa III. in 1773. Long

confinement in the palace aloof from state affairs had left

him pious, God-fearing and pacific in disposition. At his

accession the financial straits of the treasury were such that

the usual donative could not be given to the janissaries. War

was, however, forced on him, and less than a year after his

accession the complete defeat of the Turks at Kozluja led

to the treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji ( 21st July 1774), the most

disastrous, especially in its after effects, that Turkey

has ever been obliged to conclude. (See TURKEY.) Slight

successes in Syria and the Morea against rebellious outbreaks

there could not compensate for the loss of the Crimea, which

Russia soon showed that she meant to absorb entirely. In

1787 war was again declared against Russia, joined in the

following year by Austria, Joseph II. being entirely won over to

Catherine, whom he accompanied in her triumohal progress in the

Crimea. Turkey held her own against the Austrians, but in

1788 Ochakov fell to the Russians. Four months later, on

the 7th of April 1789, the sultan died, aged sixty-four.

ABD-UL-HAMID II. (1842- ), sultan of Turkey, son of Sultan

Abd-ul-Mejid, was born on the 21st of September 1842, and

succeeded to the throne on the deposition of his brother Murad

V., on the 31st of August 1876. He accompanied his uncle

Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz on his visit to England and France in

1867. At his accession spectators were struck by the fearless

manner in which he rode, practically unattended, on his way

to be girt with the sword of Eyub. He was supposed to be of

liberal principles, and the more conservative of his subjects

were for some years after his accession inclined to regard him

with suspicion as a too ardent reformer. But the circumstances

of the country at his accession were ill adapted for liberal

developments. Default in the public funds and an empty

treasury, the insurrection in Bosnia and the Herzegovina, the

war with Servia and Montenegro, the feeling aroused throughout

Europe by the methods adopted in stamping out the Bulgarian

rebellion, all combined to prove to the new sultan that he

could expect little aid from the Powers. But, still clinging

to the groundless belief, for which British statesmen had, of

late at least, afforded Turkey no justification, that Great

Britain at all events would support him, he obstinately refused

to give ear to the pressing requests of the Powers that the

necessary reforms should be instituted. The international

Conference which met at Constantinople towards the end of

1876 was, indeed, startled by the salvo of guns heralding

the promulgation of a constitution, but the demands of the

Conference were rejected, in spite of the solemn warnings

addressed to the sultan by the Powers; Midhat Pasha, the

author of the constitution, was exiled; and soon afterwards

his work was suspended, though figuring to this day on the

Statute-Book. Early in 1877 the disastrous war with Russia

followed. The hard terms, embodied in the treaty of San

Stefano, to which Abd-ul-Hamid was forced to consent, were

to some extent amended at Berlin, thanks in the main to

British diplomacy (see EUROPE, History); but by this

time the sultan had lost all confidence in England, and

thought that he discerned in Germany, whose supremacy was

evidenced in his eyes by her capital being selected as the

meeting-place of the Congress, the future friend of Turkey.

He hastened to employ Germans for the reorganization of his

finances and his army, and set to work in the determination to

maintain his empire in spite of the difficulties surrounding

him, to resist the encroachments of foreigners, and to take

gradually the reins of absolute power into his own hands,

being animated by a profound distrust, not unmerited, of his

ministers. Financial embarrassments forced him to consent to

a foreign control over the Debt, and the decree of December

1881, whereby many of the revenues of the empire were handed

over to the Public Debt Administration for the benefit of the

bondholders, was a sacrifice of principle to which he could

only have consented with the greatest reluctance. Trouble in

Egypt, where a discredited khedive had to be deposed, trouble

on the Greek frontier and in Montenegro, where the Powers were

determined that the decisions of the Berlin Congress should

be carried into effect, were more or less satisfactorily got

over. In his attitude towards Arabi, the would-be saviour of

Egypt, Abd-ul-Hamid showed less than his usual astuteness, and

the resulting consolidation of England's hold over the country

contributed still further to his estrangement from Turkey's old

ally. The union in 1885 of Bulgaria with Eastern Rumelia, the

severance of which had been the great triumph of the Berlin

Congress, was another blow. Few people south of the Balkans

dreamed that Bulgaria could be anything but a Russian province,

and apprehension was entertained of the results of the union

until it was seen that Russia really and entirely disapproved of

it. Then the best was made of it, and for some years the sultan

preserved towards Bulgaria an attitude skilfully calculated

so as to avoid running counter either to Russian or to German

wishes. Germany's friendship was not entirely disinterested,

and had to be fostered with a railway or loan concession from

time to time, until in 1899 the great object aimed at, the

Bagdad railway, was conceded. Meanwhile, aided by docile

instruments, the sultan had succeeded in reducing his ministers

to the position of secretaries, and in concentrating the

mhole administration of the country into his own hands at

Yildiz. But internal dissension was not thereby lessened.

Crete was constantly in turmoil, the Greeks were dissatisfied,

and from about 1890 the Armenians began a violent agitation

with a view to obtaining the reforms promised them at

Berlin. Minor troubles had occurred in 1892 and 1893 at

Marsovan and Tokat. In 1894 a more serious rebellion in

the mountainous region of Sassun was ruthlessly stamped

out; the Powers insistently demanded reforms, the eventual

grant of which in the autumn of 1895 was the signal for a

series of massacres, brought on in part by the injudicious

and threatening acts of the victims, and extending over many

months and throughout Asia Minor, as well as in the capital

itself. The reforms became more or less a dead letter.

Crete indeed profited by the grant of extended privileges,

but these did not satisfy its turbulent population, and early

in 1897 a Greek expedition salled to unite the island to

Greece. War followed, in which Turkey was easily successful

and gained a small rectification of frontier; then .a few

months later Crete was taken over ``en depot'' by the Four

Powers---Germany and Austria not participating,---and Prince

George of Greece was appointed their mandatory. In the next year

the sultan received the visit of the German emperor and empress.

Abd-ul-Hamid had always resisted the pressure of the European

Powers to the last moment, in order to seem to yield only

to overwhelming force, while posing as the champion of Islam

against aggressive Christendom. The Panislamic propaganda

was encouraged; the privileges of foreigners in the Ottoman

Empire-often an obstacle to government--were curtailed; the

new railway to the Holy Places was pressed on, and emissaries

were sent to distant countries preaching Islam and the

caliph's supremacy. This appeal to Moslem sentiment was,

however, powerless against the disaffection due to perennial

misgovernment. In Mesopotamia and Yemen disturbance was

endemic; nearer home, a semblance of loyalty was maintained

in the army and among the Mussulman population by a system

of delation and espionage, and by wholesale arrests; while,

obsessed by terror of assassination, the sultan withdrew

himself into fortified seclusion in the palace of Yildiz.

The national humiliation of the situation in Macedonia

(q.v.), together with the resentment in the army against

the palace spies and informers, at last brought matters to a

crisis. The remarkable revolution associated with the names

of Niazi Bey and Enver Bey, the young Turk leaders, and

the Committee of Union and Progress is described elsewhere

(see TURKEY: History); here it must suffice to say that

Abd-ul-Hamid, on learning of the threat of the Salonica troops

to march on Constantinople (July 23), at once capitulated.

On the 24th an irade announced the restoration of the

suspended constitution of 1875; next day, further irades

abolished espionage and the censorship, and ordered the

release of political prisoners. On the 10th of December

the sultan opened the Turkish parliament with a speech

from the throne in which he said that the first parliament

had been ``temporarily dissolved until the education of

the people had been brought to a sufficiently high level

by the extension of instruction throughout the empire.''

The correct attitude of the sultan did not save him from

the suspicion of intriguing with the powerful reactionary

elements in the state, a suspicion confirmed by his attitude

towards the counter-revolution of the 13th of April, when

an insurrection of the soldiers and the Moslem populace of

the capital overthrew the committee and the ministry. The

comittee, restored by the Salonica troops, now decided on

Abdul-Hamid's deposition, and on the 27th of April his brother

Reshid Effendi was proclaimed sultan as Mahommed V. The

ex-sultan was conveyed into dignified captivity at Salonica.

ABD-UL-MEJID (1823-.1861), sultan of Turkey, was born on

the 23rd of April 1823, and succeeded his father Mahmud II.

on the 2nd of July 1839. Mahmud appears to have been unable

to effect the reforms he desired in the mode of educating

his children, so that his son received no better education

than that given, according to use and wont, to Turkish

princes in the harem. When Abd-ul-Mejid succeeded to the

throne, the affairs of Turkey were in an extremely critical

state. At the very time his father died, the news was on

its way to Constantinople that the Turkish army had been

signally defeated at Nezib by that of the rebel Egyptian

viceroy, Mehemet Ali; and the Turkish fleet was at the same

time on its way to Alexandria, where it was handed over by its

commander, Ahmed Pasha, to the same enemy, on the pretext

that the young sultan's advisers were sold to Russia. But

through the intervention of the European Powers Mehemet Ali

was obliged to come to terms, and the Ottoman empire was saved.

(See MEHEMET ALI.) In compliance with his father's express

instructions, Abd-ul-Mejid set at once about carrying out

the reforms to which Mahmud had devoted himself. In November

1839 was proclaimed an edict, known as the Hatt-i-sherif of

Dulhane, consolidating and enforcing these reforms, which

was supplemented at the close of the Crimean war by a similar

statute issued in February 1856. By these enactments it was

provided that all classes of the sultan's subjects should

have security for their lives and property; that taxes should

be fairly imposed and justice impartially administered; and

that all should have full religious liberty and equal civil

rights. The scheme met with keen opposition from the Mussulman

governing classes and the ulema, or privileged religious

teachers, and was but partially put in force, especially in

the remoter parts of the empire; and more than one conspiracy

was formed against the sultan's life on account of it. Of

the other measures of reform promoted by Abd-ul-Mejid the more

important were---the reorganization of the army (1843-1844),

the institution of a council of public instruction (1846),

the abolition of an odious and unfairly imposed capitation

tax, the repression of slave trading, and various provisions

for the better administration of the public service and for

the advancement of commerce. For the public history of his

times--the disturbances and insurrections in different parts of

his dominions throughout his reign, and the great war successfully

carried on against Russia by Turkey, and by England, France and

Sardinia, in the interest of Turkey(1853-1856)-- see TURKEY,

and CRIMEAN WAR. When Kossuth and others sought refuge in

Turkey, after the failure of the Hungarian rising in 1849,

the sultan was called on by Austria and Russia to surrender

them, but boldly and determinedly refused. It is to his

credit, too, that he would not allow the conspirators against

his own life to be put to death. He bore the character of

being a kind and honourable man, if somewhat weak and easily

led. Against this, however, must be set down his excessive

extravagance, especially towards the end of his life. He

died on the 25th of June 1861, and was succeeded by his

brother, Abd-ul-Aziz, as the oldest survivor of the family of

Osman. He left several sons, of whom two, Murad V. and

Abd-ul-Hamid II., eventually succeeded to the throne. In his

reign was begun the reckless system of foreign loans, carried

to excess in the ensuing reign, and culminating in default,

which led to the alienation of European sympathy from Turkey

and, indirectly, to the dethronement and death of Abd-ul-Aziz.

ABDUR RAHMAN KHAN, amir of Afghanistan (c. 1844-1901),

was the son of Afzul Khan, who was the eldest son of Dost

Mahomed Khan, the famous amir, by whose success in war the

Barakzai family established their dynasty in the rulership of

Afghanistan. Before his death at Herat, 9th June 1863, Dost

Mahomed had nominated as his successor Shere Ali, his third

son, passing over the two elder brothers, Afzul Khan and Azim

Khan; and at first the new amir was quietly recognized. But

after a few months Afzul Khan raised an insurrection in the

northern province, between the Hindu Kush mountains and the

Oxus, where he had been governing when his father died; and

then began a fierce contest for power among the sons of Dost

Mahomed, which lasted for nearly five years. In this war,

which resembles in character, and in its striking vicissitudes,

the English War of the Roses at the end of the 15th century,

Abdur Rahman soon became distinguished for ability and daring

energy. Although his father, Afzul Khan, who had none of

these qualities, came to terms with the Amir Shere Ali, the

son's behaviour in the northern province soon excited the

amir's suspicion, and Abdur Rahman: when he was summoned to

Kabul, fled across the Oxus into Bokhara. Shere Ali threw

Afzul Khan into prison, and a serious revolt followed in

south &fghanistan; but the amir had scarcely suppressed it by

winning a desperate battle, when Abdur Rahman's reapearance

in the north was a signal for a mutiny of the troops

stationed in those parts and a gathering of armed bands to his

standard. After some delay and desultory fighting, he and

his uncle, Azim Khan, occupied Kabul (March 1866). The amir

Shere All marched up against them from Kandahar; but in the

battle that ensued at Sheikhabad on 10th May he was deserted

by a large body of his troops, and after his signal defeat

Abdur Rahman released his father, Afzul Elian, from prison

in Ghazni, and installed him upon the throne as amir of

Afghanistan. Notwithstanding the new amir's incapacity, and

some jealousy between the real leaders, Abdur Rahman and his

uncle, they again routed Shere All's forces, and occupied

Kandahar in 1867; and when at the end of that year Afzul Khan

died, Azim Khan succeeded to the rulership, with Abdur Rahman

as his governor in the northern province. But towards the end

of 1868 Shere Ali's return, and a general rising in his favour,

resulting in their defeat at Tinah Khan on the 3rd of January

1869, forced them both to seek refuge in Persia, whence Abdur

Rahman proceeded afterwards to place himself under Russian

protection at Samarkand. Azim died in Persia in October 1869.

This brief account of the conspicuous part taken by Abdur

Rahman in an eventful war, at the beginning of which he was

not more than twenty years old, has been given to show the

rough school that brought out his qualities of resource and

fortitude, and the political capacity needed for rulership in

Afghanistan. He lived in exile for eleven years, until on the

death, in 1879, of Shere Ali, who had retired from Kabul when the

British armies entered Afghanistan, the Russian governorgeneral

at Tashkent sent for Abdur Rahman, and pressed him to try his

fortunes once more across the Oxus. In March 1880 a report

reached India that he was in northern Afghanistan; and the

governor-general, Lord Lytton, opened communications with him

to the effect that the British government were prepared to

withdraw their troops, and to recognize Abdur Rahman as amir of

Afghanistan, with the exception of Kandahar and some districts

adjacent. After some negotiations, an interview took place

between him and Mr (afterwards Sir) Lepel Griffin, the

diplomatic representative at Kabub of the Indian government,

who described Abdur Rahman as a man of middle height, with

an exceedingly intelligent face and frank and courteous

manners, shrewd and able in conversation on the business in

hand. At the durbar on the 22nd of July 1880, Abbdur Rahman

was officially recognized as amir, granted assistance in

arms and money, and promised, in case of unprovoked foreign

aggression, such further aid as might be necessary to repel

it, provided that he followed British advice in regard to

his external relations. The evacuation of Afghanistan was

settled on the terms proposed, and in 1881 the British troops

also made over Kandahar to the new amir; but Ayub Khan,

one of Shere Ali's sons, marched upon that city from Herat,

defeated Abdur Rahman's troops, and occupied the place in

July. This serious reverse roused the amir, who had not

at first displayed much activity. He led a force from

Kabul, met Ayub's army close to Kandahar, and the complete

victory which he there won forced Ayub Khan to fly into

Persia. From that time Abdur Rahman was fairly seated on the

throne at Kabul, and in the course of the next few years he

consolidated his dominion over all Afghanistan, suppressing

insurrections by a sharp and relentless use of his despotic

authority. Against the severity of his measures the powerful

Ghilzai tribe revolted, and were crushed by the end of 1887.

In that year Ayub Khan made a,fruitless inroad from Persia;

and in 1888 the amir's cousin, Ishak Khan, rebelled against

him in the north; but these two enterprises came to nothing.

In 1885, at the moment when (see AFGHANISTAN) the amir

was in conference with the British viceroy, Lord Dufferin,

in India, the news came of a collision between Russian

and Afghan troops at Panjdeh, over a disputed point in the

demarcation of the north-western frontier of Afghanistan.

Abdur Rahman's attitude at this critical juncture is a good

example of his political sagacity. To one who had been a man

of war from his youth up, who had won and lost many fights,

the rout of a detachment and the forcible seizure of some

debateable frontier lands was an untoward incident; but it

was no sufficent reason for calling upon the British, although

they had guaranteed his territory's integrity, to vindicate

his rights by hostilities which would certainly bring upon

him a Russian invasion from the north, and would compel his

British allies to throw an army into Afghanistan from the

south-east. His interest lay in keeping powerful neighbours,

whether friends or foes, outside his kingdom. He knew this

to be the only policy that would be supported by the Afghan

nation; and although for some time a rupture with Russia seemed

imminent, while the Indian government made ready for that

contingency, the amir's reserved and circumspect tone in the

consultations with him helped to turn the balance between

peace and war, and substantially conduced towards a pacific

solution. Abdur Rahman left on those who met him in India

the impression of a clear-headed man.of action, with great

self-reliance and hardihood, not without indications of the

implacable severity that too often marked his administration.

His investment with the insignia of the highest grade of the

Order of the Star of India appeared to give him much pleasure.

From the end of 1888 the amir passed eighteen months in

his northern provinces bordering upon the Oxus, where

he was engaged in pacifying the country that had been

disturbed by revolts, and in punishing with a heavy hand

all who were known or suspected to have taken any part in

rebellion. Shortly afterwards (1892) he succeeded in

finally beating down the resistance of the Hazara tribe, who

vainly attempted to defend their immemorial independence,

within their highlands, of the central authority at Kabul.

In 1893 Sir Henry Durand was deputed to Kabul by the government

of India for the purpose of settling an exchange of territory

required bu the demarcation of the boundary between north-eastern

Afghanistan and the Russian possessions, and in order to discuss

with the amir other pending questions. The amir showed his

usual ability in diplomatic argument, his tenacity where his

own views or claims were in debate, with a sure underlying

insight into the real situation. The territorial exchanges

were amicably agreed upon; the relations between the Indian and

Afghan governments, as previously arranged, were confirmed; and

an understanding was reached upon the important and difficult

subject of the border line of Afghanistan on the east, towards

India. In 1895 the amir found himself unable, by reason of

ill-health, to accept an invitation from Queen Victoria to visit

England; hut his second son Nasrullah Khan went in his stead.

Abdur Rahman died on the 1st of October 1901, being succeeded

by his son Habibullah. He had defeated all enterprises by

rivals against his throne; he had broken down the power of

local chiefs, and tamed the refractory tribes; so that his

orders were irresistible throughout the whole dominion.

His government was a military despotism resting upon a

well-appointed army; it was administered through officials

absolutely subservient to an inflexible will and controlled

by a widespread system of espionage; while the exercise

of his personal authority was too often stained by acts of

unnecessary cruelty. He held open courts for the receipt

of petitioners and the dispensation of justice; and in the

disposal of business he was indefatigable. He succeeded in

imposing an organized government upon the fiercest and most

unruly population in Asia; he availed himself of European

inventions for strengthening his armament, while he sternly

set his face against all innovations which, like railways

and telegraphs, might give Europeans a foothold within his

country. His adventurous life, his forcible character,

the position of his state as a barrier between the Indian

and the Russian empires, and the skill with which he held

the balance in dealing with them, combined to make him a

prominent figure in contemporary Asiatic politics and will

mark his reign as an epoch in the history of Afghanistan.

The amir received an annual subsidy from the British

government of 18-1/2 lakhs of rupees. He was allowed to

import munitions of War. In 1896 he adopted the title of

Tia-ul-hlillat-ud Din (Light of the nation and religion);

and his zeal for the cause of Islam induced him to publish

treatises on Jehad. His eldest son Habibullah Khan, with

his brother Nasrullah Khan, was born at Samarkand. His

youngest son, Mahomed Omar Jan, was born in 1889 of an Afghan

mother, connected by descent with the Barakzai family.

See also S. Wheeler, F.R.G.S., The Amir Abdur Rahman (London,

1895); The Life of Abdur Rahman, Amir of Afghanistan, G.C.B.,

G.C.S.L, edited by Mir Munshi, Sultan Mahommed Khan (2 vols.,

London, 1900); At the Court of the Amir, by J. A. Grey (1895).

(A. C. L.)

ABECEDARIANS, a nickname given to certain extreme

Anabaptists (q.v.), who regarded the teaching of the Holy

Spirit as all that was necessary, and so despised all human

learning and even the power of reading the written word.

A BECKETT, GILBERT ARBOTT (1811-1856), English writer, was

born in north London on the 9th of January 1811. He belonged

to a family claiming descent from the father of St Thomas

Becket. His elder brother, Sir William a Beckett (1806-1869),

became chief justice of Victoria (Australia). Gilbert Abbott

a Beckett was educated at Westminster school, and was called

to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1841. He edited Figaro in

London, and was one of the original staff of Punch and

a contributor all his life. He was an active journalist on

The Times and The Morning Herald, contributed a series

of light articles to The Illustrated London News, conducted

in 1846 The Almanack of the Month and found time to produce

some fifty or sixty plays, among them dramatized versions of

Dickens's shorter stories in collaboration with Mark Lemon.

As poor-law commissioner he presented a valuable report to the

home secretary regarding scandals in connexion with the Andover

Union, and in 1849 he became a metropolitan pouce magistrate.

He died at Boulogne on the 30th of August 1856 of typhus fever.

His eldest son GILBERT ARTHUR A BECKETT (1837-1891) was born

at Hammersmith on the 7th of April 1837. He went up to Christ

Church, Oxford, as a Westminster scholar in 1855, graduating in

1860. He was entered at Lincoln's Inn, but gave his attention

chiefly to the drama, producing Diamonds and Hearts at

the Haymarket in 1867, which was followed by other light

comedies. His pieces include numerous burlesques and

pantomimes, the libretti of Savonarola (Hamburg, 1884) and

of The Canterbury Pilgrims (Drury Lane, 1884) for the music

of Dr (afterwards Sir) C. V. Stanford. The Happy Land (Court

Theatre, 1873), a political burlesque of W. S. Gilbert's Wicked

World, was written in collaboration with F. L. Tomline.

For the last ten years of his life he was on the regular staff

of Punch. His health was seriously affected in 1889 by the

death of his only son, and he died on the 15th of October 1891.

A younger son, ARTHUR WILLIAM A BECKETT (1844--1909), a

well-known journalist and man of letters, was also on the

staff of Punch from 1874 to 1902, and gave an account of his

father and his own reminiscences in The A Becketts of Punch

(1903). He died in London on the 14th of January 1909.

See also M. H. Spielmann, The History of Punch (1895).

ABEDNEGO, the name given in Babylon to Azariah, one of

the companions of Daniel (Dan. i. 7, &c.). It is probably a

corruption, perhaps deliberate, of Abednebo, ``servant of

Nebo,'' though G. Hoffmann thinks that the original form was

Abednergo, for Abednergal, ``servant of the god Nergal.'' C.

H. Toy compares Barnebo, ``son of Nebo''; of which he regards

Barnabas as a slightly disguised form (Jewish Encyclopaedia).

ABEKEN, HEINRICH (1809-1872), German theologian and

Prussian official, was born at Berlin on the 8th of August

1809. He studied theology at Berlin and in 1834 became

chaplain to the Prussian embassy in Rome. In 1841 he visited

England, being commissioned by King Frederick William IV.

to make arrangements for the establishment of the Protestant

bishopric of Jerusalem. In 1848 he received an appointment

in the Prussian ministry for foreign affairs, and in 1853

was promoted to be privy councillor of legation (Geheimer

Legationsrath). He was much employed by Bismarck in the

writing of official despatches, and stood high in the favour

of King William, whom he often accompanied on his journeys

as representative of the foreign office. He was present with

the king during the campaigns of 1866 and 1870-71. In 1851 he

published anonymously Babylon unnd Jerusalem, a slashing

criticism of the views of the Countess von Hahn-Hahn (q.v.).

See Heinrich Abeken, ein schlichtes Leben in bewegter Zeit

(Berlin, 1898), by his widow. This is valuable by reason

of the letters written from the Prussian headquarters.

ABEL (Hebrew for breath), the second son of Adam, slain

by Cain, his elder brother (Gen. iv. 1-16). The narrative

in Genesis which tells us that ``the Lord had respect unto

Abel and to his offering, but unto Cain and to his offering

he had not respect,'' is supplemented by the statement of the

New Testament, that ``by faith Abel offered unto God a more

excellent sacrifice than Cain'' (Heb. xi. 4), and that Cain

slew Abel ``because his own works were evil and his brother's

righteous'' (1 John iii. 12). See further under CAIN. The

name has been identified with the Assyrian ablu, ``son,'' but

this is far from certain. It more probably means ``herdsman''

(cf. the name Jabal), and a distinction is drawn between the

pastoral Abel and the agriculturist Cain. If Cain is the eponym

of the Kenites it is quite possible that Abel was originally

a South Judaean demigod or hero; on this, see Winckler,

Gesch. Israels, ii. p. 189; E. Meyer, Israelitein, p.

395. A sect of Abelitae, who seem to have lived in North

Africa, is mentioned by Augustine (De Haeresibus, lxxxvi.).

ABEL, SIR FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, BART. (1827-1902), English

chemist, was born in London on the 17th of July 1827. After

studying chemistry for six years under A. W. von Hofmann at the

Royal College of Chemistry (established in London in 1845), he

became professor of chemistry at the Royal Military Academy in

1851, and three years later was appointed chemist to the War

Department and chemical referee to the government. During

his tenure of this office, which lasted until 1888, he carried

out a large amount of work in connexion with the chemistry of

explosives. One of the most important of his investigations

had to do with the manufacture of guncotton, and he developed

a process, consisting essentially of reducing the nitrated

cotton to fine pulp, which enabled it to be prepared with

practically no danger and at the same time yielded the

product in a form that increased its usefulness. This work

to an important extent prepared the way for the ``smokeless

powders'' which came into general use towards the end of the

19th century; cordite, the particular form adopted by the

British government in 1891, was invented jointly by him and

Professor James Dewar. Our knowledge of the explosion of

ordinary black powder was also greatly added to by him, and

in conjunction with Sir Andrew Noble he carried out one of

the most complete inquiries on record into its behaviour when

fired. The invention of the apparatus, legalized in 1879, for

the determination of the flash-point of petroleum, was another

piece of work which fell to him by virtue of his official

position. His first instrument, the open-test apparatus, was

prescribed by the act of 1868, but, being found to possess

certain defects, it was superseded in 1879 by the Abel close-test

instrument (see PETROLEUM). In electricity Abel studied

the construction of electrical fuses and other applications

of electricity to warlike purposes, and his work on problems

of steel manufacture won him in 1897 the Bessemer medal of the

Iron and Steel Institute, of which from 1891 to 1893 he was

president. He was president of the Institution of Electrical

Engineers (then the Society of Telegraph Engineers) in

1877. He became a member of the Royal Society in 1860,

and received a royal medal in 1887. He took an important

part in the work of the Inventions Exhibition (London) in

1885, and in 1887 became organizing secretary and first

director of the Imperial Institute, a position he held till

his death, which occurred in London on the 6th of September

1902. He was knighted in 1891, and created a baronet in 1893.

Among his books were--Handbook of Chemistry (with C. L.

Bloxam), Modern History of Gunpowder (1866), Gun-cotton

(1866), On Explosive Agents (1872), Researches in

Explosives (1875), and Electricity applied to Explosive

Purposes (1884). He also wrote several important articles

in the ninth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.

ABEL, KARL FRIEDRICH (1725-1787), German musician, was

born in Kothen in 1725, and died on the 20th of June 1787 in

London. He was a great player on the viola da gamba,

and composed much music of importance in its day for that

instrument. He studied under Johann Sebastian Bach at

the Leipzig Thomasschule; played for ten years (1748-1758)

under A. Hasse in the band formed at Dresden by the elector

of Saxony; and then, going to England, became (in 1759)

chamber-musician to Queen Charlotte. He gave a concert

of his own compositions in London, performing on various

instruments, one of which, the pentachord, was newly

invented. In 1762 Johann Christian Bach, the eleventh son

of Sebastian, came to London, and the friendship between

him and Abel led, in 1764 or 1765, to the establishment of

the famous concerts subsequently known as the Bach and Abel

concerts. For ten years these were organized by Mrs Comelys,

whose enterprises were then the height of fashion. In 1775

the concerts became independent of her, and were continued

by Abel unsuccessfully for a year after Bach's death in

1782. At them the works of Haydn were first produced in

England. After the failure of his concert undertakings

Abel still remained in great request as a player on various

instruments new and old, but he took to drink and thereby

hastened his death. He was a man of striking presence, of whom

several fine portraits, including two by Gainsborough, exist.

ABEL, NIELS HENRIK (1802-1829), Norwegian mathematician,

was born at Findoe on the 25th of August 1802. In 1815 he

entered the cathedral school at Christiania, and three years

later he gave proof of his mathematical genius by his brilliant

solutions of the original problems proposed by B. Holmboe.

About this time, his father, a poor Protestant minister,

died, and the family was left in straitened circumstances;

but a small pension from the state allowed Abel to enter

Christiania University in 1821. His first notable work was a

proof of the impossibility of solving the quintic equation by

radicals. This investigation was first published in 1824

and in abstruse and difficult form, and afterwards (1826)

more elaborately in the first volume of Crelle's Journal.

Further state aid enabled him to visit Germany and France in

1825, and having visited the astronomer Heinrich Schumacher

(178-1850) at Hamburg, he spent six months in Berlin, where

he became intimate with August Leopold Crelle, who was then

about to publish his mathematical journal. This project

was warmly encouraged by Abel, who contributed much to the

success of the venture. From Berlin he passed to Freiberg,

and here he made his brilliant researches in the theory of

functions, elliptic, hyperelliotic and a new class known as

Abelians being particularly studied. In 1826 he moved to

Paris, and during a ten months' stay he met the leading

mathematicians of France; but he was little appreciated, for

his work was scarcely known, and his modesty restrained him

from proclaiming his researches. Pecuniary embarrassments,

from which he had never been free, finally compelled him

to abandon his tour, and on his return to Norway he taught

for some time at Christiania. In 1829 Crelle obtained a

post for him at Berlin, but the offer did not reach Norway

until after his death near Arendal on the 6th of April.

The early death of this talented mathematician, of whom

Legendre said ``quelle tete celle du jeune Norvegien!'',

cut short a career of extraordinary brilliance and promise.

Under Abel's guidance, the prevailing obscurities of analysis

began to be cleared, new fields were entered upon and the

study of functions so advanced as to provide mathematicians

with numerous ramifications along which progress could be

made. His works, the greater part of which originally

appeared in Crelle's Journal, were edited by Holmbor and

published in 1839 by the Swedish government, and a more

complete edition by L. Sylow and S. Lie was published in 1881.

For further details of his mathematical investigations see the

articles GROUPS, THEORY OF, and FUNCTIONS OF COMPLEX VARIABLES.

See C. A. Bjerknes, Niels Henrik Abel: Tableau de sa

vie et son action scientifique (Paris, 1885); Lucas

de Peslouan, Niels Henrik Abel (Paris, 1906).

ABEL (better ABELL), THOMAS (d. 1540), an English priest

who was martyred during the reign of Henry VIII. The place

and date of his birth are unknown. He was educated at Oxford

and entered the service of Queen Catherine some time before

1528, when he was sent by her to the emperor Charles V. on a

mission relating to the proposed divorce. On his return he

was presented by Catherine to the living of Bradwell, in Essex,

and remained to the last a staunch supporter of the unfortunate

queen. In 1533, he published his Invicta Veritas (with

the fictitious pressmark of Luneberge, to avoid suspicion),

which contained an answer to the numerous tracts supporting

Henry's ecclesiastical claims. After an imprisonment of more

than six years, Abel was sentenced to death for denying the

royal supremacy in the church, and was executed at Smithfield

on the 30th of July 1540. There is still to be seen on the

wall of his prison in the Tower the symbol of a bell with

an A upon it and the name Thomas above, winch he carved

during his confinement. He was beatified by Pope Leo XIII.

See J. Gillow's Bibl. Dictionary of Eng. Catholics, vol. i.;

Calendar of State Papers of Henry VIII., vols. iv.-vii. passim.

ABELARD, PETER (1079-1142), scholastic philosopher, was born

at Pallet (Palais), not far from Nantes, in 1079. He was the

eldest son of a noble Breton house. The name Abaelardus

(also written Abailardus, Abaielardus, and in many other

ways) is said to be a corruption of Habelardus, substituted

by himself for a nickname Bajolardus given to him when a

student. As a boy, he showed an extraordinary quickness of

apprehension, and, choosing a learned life instead of the

knightly career natural to a youth of his birth, early became

an adept in the art of dialectic, under which name philosophy,

meaning at that time chiefly the logic of Aristotle transmitted

through Latin channels, was the great subject of liberal

study in the episcopal schools. Roscellinus, the famous

canon of Compiegne, is mentioned by himself as his teacher;

but whether he heard this champion of extreme Nominalism in

early youth, when he wandered about from school to school

for instruction and exercise, or some years later, after he

had already begun to teach for himself, remains uncertain.

His wanderings finally brought him to Paris, still under

the age of twenty. There, in the great cathedral school of

Notre-Dame, he sat for a while under the teaching of William

of Champeaux, the disciple of St Anselm and most advanced of

Realists, but, presently stepping forward, he overcame the

master in discussion, and thus began a long duel that issued

in the downfall of the philosophic theory of Realism, till

then dominant in the early Middle Age. First, in the teeth

of opposition from the metropolitan teacher, while yet only

twenty-two, he proceeded to set up a school of hs own at

Melun, whence, for more direct competition, he removed to

Corbeil, nearer Paris. The success of his teaching was

signal, though for a time he had to quit the field, the

strain proving too great for his physical strength. On his

return, after 1108, he found William lecturing no longer at

Notre-Dame, but in a monastic retreat outside the city, and

there battle was again joined between them. Forcing upon

the Realist a material change of doctrine, he was once more

victorious, and thenceforth he stood supreme. His discomfited

rival still had power to keep him from lecturing in Paris, hut

soon failed in this last effort also. From Melun, where he

had resumed teaching, Abelard passed to the capital, and set

up his school on the heights of St Genevieve, looking over

Notre-Dame. From his success in dialectic, he next turned to

theology and attended the lectures of Anselm at Laon. His triumph

over the theologian was complete; the pupil was able to give

lectures, without previous training or special study, which

were acknowledged superior to those of the master. Abelard

was now at the height of hs fame. He stepped into the chair at

Notre-Dame, being also nominated canon, about the year 1115.

Few teachers ever held such sway as Abelard now did for a

time. Distinguished in figure and manners, he was seen

surrounded by crowds--it is said thousands of students,

drawn from all countries by the fame of hs teaching, in which

acuteness of thought was relieved by simplicity and grace of

exposition. Enriched by the offerings of his pupils, and

feasted with universal admiration, he came, as he says,

to think himself the only philosopher standing in the

world. But a change in his fortunes was at hand. In his

devotion to science, he had hitherto lived a very regular

life, varied only by the excitement of conflict: now, at

the height of his fame, other passions began to stir within

him. There lived at that time, within the precincts of

Notre-Dame, under the care of her uncle, the canon Fulbert, a

young girl named Heloise, of noble extraction, and born about

1101. Fair, but still more remarkable for her knowledge,

which extended beyond Latin, it is said, to Greek and Hebrew,

she awoke a feeling of love in the breast of Abelard; and

with intent to win her, he sought and gained a footing in

Fulbert's house as a regular inmate. Becoming also tutor to

the maiden, he used the unlimited power which he thus obtained

over her for the purpose of seduction, though not without

cherishing a real affection which she returned in unparalleled

devotion. Their relation interfering with his public work, and

being, moreover, ostentatiously sung by himself, soon became

known to all the world except the too-confiding Fulbert; and,

when at last it could not escape even his vision, they were

separated only to meet in secret. Thereupon Heloise found

herself pregnant, and was carried off by her lover to Brittany,

where she gave birth to a son. To appease her furious uncle,

Abelard now proposed a marriage, under the condition that it

should be kept secret, in order not to mar his prospects of

advancement in the church; but of marriage, whether public

or secret, Heloise would hear nothing. She appealed to him

not to sacrifice for her the independence of his life, nor

did she finally yield to the arrangement without the darkest

forebodings, only too soon to be reallzed. The secret of

the marriage was not kept by Fulbert; and when Heloise, true

to her singular purpose, boldly denied it, life was made so

unsupportable to her that she sought refuge in the convent of

Argenteuil. Immediately Fulbert, believing that her husband,

who aided in the flight, designed to be rid of her, coinceived

a dire revenge. He and some others broke into Abelard's

chamber by night, and perpetrated on him the most brutal

mutilation. Thus cast down from his pinnacle of greatness

into an abyss of shame and misery, there was left to the

brilliant master only the life of a monk. The priesthood

and ecclesiastical office were canonically closed to him.

Heloise, not yet twenty, consummated her work of self-sacrifice

at the call of his jealous love, and took the veil.

It was in the abbey of St Denis that Abelard, now aged

forty, sought to bury himself with his woes out of sight.

Finding, however, in the cloister neither calm nor solitude,

and having gradually turned again to study, he yielded after

a year to urgent entreaties from without and within, and

went forth to reopen his school at the priory of Maisonceile

(1120). His lectures, now framed in a devotional spirit, were

heard again by crowds of students, and all his old influence

seemed to have returned; but old enmities were revived

also, against which he was no longer able as before to make

head. No sooner had he put in writing his theological

lectures (apparently the Introductio and Theolo giam

that has come down to us), than his adversaries fell foul of

his rationalistic interpretation of the Trinitarian dogma.

Charging him with the heresy of Sabellius in a provincial

synod held at Soissons in 1121, they procured by irregular

practices a condemnation of his teaching, whereby he was made

to throw his book into the flames and then was shut up in

the convent of St Medard at Soissons. After the other, it

was the bitterest possible experience that could befall him,

nor, in the state of mental desolation into which it plunged

him, could he find any comfort from being soon again set free.

The life in his own monastery proved no more congenial than

formerly. For this Abelard himself was partly responsible.

He took a sort of malicious pleasure in irritating the monks.

Quasijocando, he cited Bede to prove that Dionysius the

Areopagite had been bishop of Corinth, while they relied upon

the statement of the abbot Hilduin that he had been bishop of

Athens. When this historical heresy led to the inevitable

persecution, Abelard wrote a letter to the abbot Adam in

which he preferred to the authority of Bede that of Eusebius'

Historia Ecelesiastica and St Jerome, according to whom

Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, was distinct from Dionysius

the Areopagite, bishop of Athens and founder of the abbey,

though, in deference to Bede, he suggested that the Areopagite

might also have beeit bishop of Corinth. Life in the

monastery was intolerable for such a troublesome spirit, and

Abelard, who had once attempted to escape the persecution

he had called forth by flight to a monastery at Provins,

was finally allowed to withdraw. In a desert place near

Nogent-sur-Seine, he built himself a cabin of stubble and

reeds, and turned hermit. But there fortune came back to him

with a new surprise. His retreat becoming known, students

flocked from Paris, and covered the wilderness around him

with their tents and huts. When he began to teach again he

found consolation, and in gratitude he consecrated the new

oratory they built for him by the name of the Paraclete.

Upon the return of new dangers, or at least of fears, Abelard

left the Paraclete to make trial of another refuge, accepting

an invitation to preside over the abbey of St Gildas-de-Rhuys,

on the far-off shore of Lower Brittany. It proved a wretched

exchange. The region was inhospitable, the domain a prey to

lawless exaction, the house itself savage and disorderly.

Yet for nearly ten years he continued to struggle with fate

before he fled from his charge, yielding in the end only under

peru of violent death. The misery of those years was not,

however, unrelieved; for he had been able, on the breaking

up of Heloise's convent at Argenteuil, to establish her as

head of a new religious house at the deserted Paraclete, and

in the capacity of spiritual director he often was called to

revisit the spot thus made doubly dear to him. All this time

Heloise had lived amid universal esteem for her knowledge and

character, uttering no word under the doom that had fallen upon

her youth; hut now, at last, the occasion came for expressing

all the pent-up emotions of her soul. Living on for some time

apart (we do not know exactly where), after his flight from St

Gildas, Abelard wrote, among other things, his famous Historia

Calamitatum, and thus moved her to peu her first Letter,

which remains an unsurpassed utterance of human passion and

womanly devotion; the first being followed by the two other

Letters, in which she finally accepted the part of resignation

which, now as a brother to a sister, Abelard commended to

her. He not long after was seen once more upon the field

of his early triumphs lecturing on Mount St Genevieve in

1136 (when he was heard by John of Salisbury), but it was

only for a brief space: no new triumph, but a last great

trial, awaited him in the few years to come of his chequered

life. As far back as the Paraclete days, he had counted

as chief among his foes Bernard of Clairvaux, in whom was

incarnated the principle of fervent and unhesitating faith,

from which rational inquiry like his was sheer revolt, and

now this uncompromising spirit was moving, at the instance of

others, to crush the growing evil in the person of the boldest

offender. After preliminary negotiations, in which Bernard

was roused by Abelard's steadfastness to put forth all his

strength, a council met at Sens (1141), before which Abelard,

formally arraigned upon a number of heretical charges, was

prepared to plead his cause. When, however, Bernard, not without

foregone terror in the prospect of meeting the redoubtable

dialectician, had opened the case, suddenlly Abelard appealed to

Rome. The stroke availed him nothing; for Bernard, who had

power, notwithstanding, to get a condemnation passed at the

council, did not rest a moment till a second condemnation was

procured at Rome in the following year. Meanwhile, on his way

thither to urge his plea in person, Abelard had broken down

at the abbey of Cluny, and there, an utterly fallen man, with

spirit of the humblest, and only not bereft of his intellectual

force, he lingered but a few months before the approach of

death. Removed by friendly hands, for the relief of his

sufferings, to the priory of St Marcel, near Chalon-sur-Saone,

he died on the 21st of April 1142. First buried at St Marcel,

his remains soon after were carried off in secrecy to the

Paraclete, and given over to the loving care of Heloise, who

in time came herself to rest beside them (1164). The bones

of the pair were shifted more than once afterwards, but they

were marvellously preserved even through the vicissitudes

of the French Revolution, and now they lie united in the

well-known tomb in the cemetery of Pere-la-Chaise at Paris.

Great as was the influence exerted by Abelard on the minds of

his contemporaries and the course of medieval thought, he has

been little known in modern times but for his connexion with

Heloise. Indeed, it was not till the 19th century, when Cousin

in 1836 issued the collection entitled Ouvrages inedits

d'Abelard, that his philosophical performance could be judged

at first hand; of his strictly philosophical works only one,

the ethical treatise Scito te ipsum, having been published

earlier, namely, in 1721. Cousin's collection, besides giving

extracts from the theological work Sic et Non (an assemblage

of opposite opinions on doctrinal points, culled from the

Fathers as a basis for discussion, the main interest in which

lles in the fact that there is no attempt to reconcile the

different opinions), includes the Dialectica, commentaries

on logical works of Aristotle, Porphyry and Boothius, and a

fragment, De Generibus et Speciebus. The last-named

work, and also the psychological treatise De Inteilectibus,

published apart by Cousin (in Fragmens Philosophiques,

vol. ii.), are now considered upon internal evidence not to

be hy Abelard himself, but only to have sprung out of his

school. A genuine work, the Glossulae super Porphyrium,

from which Charles de Remusat, in his classical monograph

Abelard (1845), has given extracts, remains in manuscript.

The general importance of Abelard lles in his having fixed

more decisively than any one before him the scholastic manner

of philosophizing, with its object of giving a formally

rational expression to the received ecclesiastical doctrine

. However his own particular interpretations may have been

condemned, they were conceived in essentially the same spirit

as the general scheme of thought afterwards elaborated in

the 13th century with approval from the heads of the church.

Through him was prepared in the Middle Age the ascendancy

of the philosophical authority of Aristotle, which became

firmly established in the half-century after his death, when

first the completed Organon, and gradually ail the other

works of the Greek thinker, came to be known in the schools:

before his time it was rather upon the authority of Plato

that the prevailing Realism sought to lean. As regards his

so-called Conceptualism and his attitude to the question of

Universals, see SCHOLASTICISM. Outside of his dialectic,

it was in ethics that Abelard showed greatest activity of

philosophical thought; laying very particular stress upon

the subjective intention as determining, if not the moral

character, at least the moral value, of human action. His

thought in this direction, wherein he anticipated something

of modern speculation, is the more remarkable because his

scholastic successors accomplished least in the field of

morals, hardly venturing to bring the principles and rules of

conduct under pure philosophical discussion, even after the

great ethical inquiries of AAstotle became fully known to them.

BIBLIOGRAPHY --Abelard's own works remain the best sources

for his life, especially his Historia Culamitatum, an

autobiography, and the correspondence with Heloise. The

literature on Abelard is extensive, but consists principally

of monographs on different aspects of his philosophy.

Charles de Remusat's Abelard (2 vols., 1845) remains an

authority; it must be distinguished from his drama Abelard

(1877), which is an attempt to give a picture of medieval

life. McCabe's life of Abelard is written closely from

the sources. eee also the valuable analysis by Nitsch

in the article ``Abalard'' There is a comprehensive

bibliograohy in U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources

hist. du moyen age, s. ``Abailard.'' (G. C. R.; J. T. S.*)

ABELIN, JOHANN PHILIPP, an early 16th-century German

chronicler, was born, probably, at Strasburg, and died there

between the years 1634 and 1637. He wrote numerous histories

over the pseudonyms of Philipp Arlanibaus, Abeleus and Johann

Eudwighottfaed or Gotofredus, his earliest works of importance

being his history of the German wars of Gustavus Adolphus,

entitled Arma Suecica (pub. 1631-1634, in 12 parts), and the

Inventarium Sueciae (1632)---both compilations from existing

records. His best known work is the Theatrum Europaeum, a

series of chronicles of the chief events in the history of the

world down to 1619. He was himself responsible for the first two

volumes. It was continued by various writers and grew to

twenty-one volumes (Frankf. 1633-1738). The chief interest

of the work is, however, its illustration by the beautiful

copperplate engravings of Matthaus Meriah (1593-1650). Abelin

also wrote a history of the antipodes, Historia Antipodum

(posthumously pub. Frankf. 1655), and a history of India.

See G. Droysen, Arlanibaeus, Godofredus, Abelinus (Berlin,

1864); and notice in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic.

ABENCERRAGES, a family or faction that is said to have held a

prominent position in the Moorish kingdom of Granada in the 15th

century. The name appears to have been derived from the Yussuf

ben-Serragh, the head of the tribe in the time of Mahommed

VII., who did that sovereign good service in his struggles

to retain the crown of which he was three times deprived.

Nothing is known of the family with certainty; but the name

is familiar from the interesting romance of Gines Perez de

Hita, Guerras civiles de Granada, which celebrates the feuds

of the Abencerrages and the rival family of the Zegris, and

the cruel treatment to which the former were subjected. J.

P. de Florian's Gonsalve de Cordoue and Chateaubriand's Le

dernier des Abencerrages are imitations of Perez de Hita's

work. The hall of the Abencerrages in the Alhambra takes its

name from being the reputed scene of the massacre of the family.

ABENDANA, the name of two Jewish theologians. (1) JACOB

(1630-i695), rabbi (Hakham) of the Spanish Jews in London

from 1680. Like his brother Isaac, Jacob Abendana had

a circle of Christian friends, and his reputation led to

the appreciation of Jewish scholarship by modern Christian

theologians. (2) ISAAC (c. 1650-1710), his brother,

taught Hebrew at Cambridge and afterwards at Oxford. He

compiled a Jewish Calendar and wrote Discourses on the

Ecclesiastical and Civil Polity of the Jews (1706).

ABENEZRA (IBN EZRA), or, to give him his full name,

ABRAHAM BEN MEIR IBN Ezra (1092 or 1093-1167), one of the

most distinguished Jewish men of letters and writers of the

Middle Ages. He was born at Toledo, left his native land of

Spain before 1140 and led until his death a life of restless

wandering, which took him to North Africa, Egypt, Italy (Rome,

Lucca, Mantua,Verona), Southern France(Narbonne, Beziers),

Northern France (Dreux), England (London), and back again to

the South of France. At several of the above-named places he

remained for some time and developed a rich literary activity.

In his native land he had already gained the reputation of a

distinguished poet and thinker; but, apart from his poems, his

works, which were all in the Hebrew language, were written

in the second period of his life. With these works, which

cover in the first instance the field of Hebrew philology and

Biblical exegesis, he fulfilled the great mission of making

accessible to the Jews of Christian Europe the treasures of

knowledge enshrined in the works written in Arabic which he

had brought with him from Spain. His grammatical writings,

among which Moznayim (``the Scales,'' written in 1140)

and Zahot (``Correctness,'' written in 1141) are the most

valuable, were the first expositions of Hebrew grammar in the

Hebrew language, in which the system of Hayyuj and his school

prevailed. He also translated into Hebrew the two writings

of Hayyuj in which the foundations of the system were laid

down. Of greater original value than the grammatical works of

Ibn Ezra are his commentaries on most of the books of the Bible,

of which, however, a part has been lost. His reputation as an

intelligent and acute expounder of the Bible was founded on his

commentary on the Pentateuch, of which the great popularity is

evidenced by the numerous commentaries which were written upon

it. In the editions of this commentary (ed. princ. Naples

1488) the commentary on the book of Exodus is replaced by a

second, more complete commentary of Ibn Ezra, while the

first and shorter commentary on Exodus was not printed until

1840. The great editions of the Hebrew Bible with rabbinical

commentaries contained also commentaries of Ibn Ezra's on the

following books of the Bible: Isaiah, Minor Prophets, Psalms,

Job, Pentateuch, Daniel; the commentaries on Proverbs, Ezra

and Nehemiah which bear his name are really those of Moses

Kimhi. Ibn Ezra wrote a second commentary on Genesis as he

had done on Exodus, but this was never finished. There are

second commentaries also by him on the Song of Songs, Esther and

Daniel. The importance of the exegesis of Ibn Ezra consists

in the fact that it aims at arriving at the simple sense of

the text, the so-called ``Pesohat,'' on solid grammatical

principles. It is in this that, although he takes a great

part of his exegetical material from his predecessors, the

originality of his mind is everywhere apparent, an originality

which displays itself also in the witty and lively language of his

commentaries. To judge by certain signs, of which Spinoza

in his Tractatus Theologico Politicus makes use, Ibn

Ezra belongs to the earliest pioneers of the criticism of the

Pentateuch. His commentaries, and especially some of the longer

excursuses, contain numerous contributions to the philosophy of

religion. One writing in particular, which belongs to this

province (Vosod Mera), on the division and the reasons

for the Biblical commandments, he wrote in 1158 for a London

friend, Joseph b. Jacob. In his philosophical thought

neo-platonic ideas prevail; and astrology also had a place

in his view of the world. He also wrote various works on

mathematical and astronomical subjects. Ibn Ezra died on the

28th of January 1167, the place of his death being unknown.

Among the literature on Ibn Ezra may be especially mentioned:

M. Friedlander, Essays on the Writings of Ibn Ezra

(London, 1877); W. Bacher, Abraham Ibn Ezra als Grammatiker

(Strasburg, 1882); M. Steinschneider, Abraham Ibn Ezra, in

the Zeitschrift fur Mathematik und Physik, Band xxv.,

Supplement; D. Rosin, Die Religions philosophie Abraham

Ibn Ezra's in vols. xiii. and xliii. of the Monatschrift

fur Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums; his Diwan

was edited by T. Egers (Berlin, 1886): a collection of his

poems, Reime und Gedichte, with translation and commentary,

were published by D. Rosin in several annual reports of the

Jewish theological Seminary at Breslau (1885--1894). (W. BA.)

ABENSBERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the

Abens, a tributary of the Danube, 18 m. S.W. of Regensburg,

with which it is connected by rail. Pop. 2202. It has a small

spa, and its sulphur baths are resorted to for the cure of

rheumatism and gout. The town is the Castra Abusina of the

Romans, and Roman remains exist in the neighbourhood. Here,

on the 20th of April 1809, Napoleon gained a signal victory

over the Austrians under the Archduke Louis and Genegal Hiller.

ABEOKUTA, a town of British West Africa in the Egba

division of the Yoruba country, S. Nigeria Protectorate. It

is situated in 7 deg. 8' N., 3 deg. 25' E., on the Ogun river, 64

m. N. of Lagos by railway, or 81 m. by water. Population,

approximately 60,000. Abeokuta lies in a beautiful and fertile

country, the surface of which is broken by masses of grey

granite. It is spread over an extensive area, being surrounded

by mud walls 18 miles in extent. Abeokuta, under the reforming

zeal of its native rulers, was largely transformed during

the early years of the 20th century. Law courts, government

offices, prisons and a substantial bridge were built, good roads

made, and a large staff of sanitary inspectors appointed.

The streets are generally narrow and the houses built of

mud. There are numerous markets in which a considerable

trade is done in native products and articles of European

manufacture. Palm-oil, timber, rubber, yams and shea-butter

are the chief articles of trade. An official newspaper is

published in the Yoruba and English languages. Abeokuta is

the headquarters of the Yoruba branch of the Church Missionary

Societyi and British and American, missionaries have met

with some success in their civilizing work. In their schools

about 2000 children are educated. The completion in 1899

of a railway from Lagos helped not only to develop trade

but to strengthen generally the influence of the white man.

Abeokuta (a word meaning ``under the rocks,''), dating

from 1825, owes its origin to the incessant inroads of the

slavehunters from Dahomey and Ibadan, which compelled the

village populations scattered over the open country to take

refuge in this rocky stronghold against the common enemy.

Here they constituted themselves a free confederacy of many

distinct tribal groups, each preserving the traditional customs,

religious rites and even the very names of their original

villages. Yet this apparently incoherent aggregate held

its ground successfully against the powerful armies often

sent against the place both by the king of Dahomey from the

west, and by the people of Ibadan from the north-east.

The district of Egba, of which Abeokuta is the capital, has

an estimated area of 3000 sq. m. and a population of some

350,000. It is officially known as the Abeokuta province

of the Southern Nigeria protectorate. It contains luxuriant

forests of palmtrees, which constitute the chief wealth of the

people. Cotton is indigenous and is grown for export.

The Egbas are enthusiastic farmers and have largely adopted

European methods of cultivation. They are very tenacious

of their independence, but accepted without opposition the

establishment of a British protectorate, which, while putting

a stop to inter-tribal warfare, slave-raiding and human

sacrifices, and exercising control over the working of the

laws, left to the people executive and fiscal autonomy. The

administration is in the hands of a council of chiefs which

exercises legislative, executive and, to some extent, judicial

functions. The president of this council, or ruling chief

---chosen from among the members of the two recognized

reigning families--is called the alake, a word meaning

``Lord of Ake,'' Ake being the name of the principal quarter

of Abeokuta, after the ancient capital of the Egbas. The

alake exercises little authority apart from his councili

the form of government being largely democratic. Revenue

is chiefly derived from tolls or import duties. A visit

of the alake to England in 1904 evoked considerable public

interest. The chief was a man of great intelligence, eager

to study western civilization, and an ardent agriculturist.

See the publications of the Church Missionary Society

dealing mith the Voruba Mission; Col. A. B. Ellis's The

Yoruba-speaking Peoples (London, 1894); and an article on

Abeokuta by Sir Wm. Macgregor, sometime governor of Lagos, in

the African Society's Journal, No. xii. (London, July 1904).

ABERAVON, a contributory parliamentary and municipal borough

of Glamorganshire, Wales, on the right bank of the Avon, near

its mouth in Swansea Bay, 11 m. E.S.E. of Swansea and 170 m.

from London by rail. Pop. (1901) 7553. It has a station on the

Rhondda and Swansea Bay railway and is also on the main South

Wales line of the Great Western, whose station, however, is at

fort Talbot, half a mile distant, on the eastern side of the

Avon. The valley of the Avon, which is only some three miles

long, has been from about 1840 a place of much metallurgical

activity. There are tinplate and engineering works within

the borough. At Cwmavon, 1 1/2 m. to the north-east, are

large copper-smelting works established in 1838, acquired

two years later by the governor and Company of the Copper

Miners of England, but now worked by the Rio Tinto Copper

Company. There are also iron, steel and tinplate works

both at Cwmavon and at Port Talbot, which, when it consisted

only of docks, was appropriately known as Aberavon Port.

The town derives its name from the river Avon (corrupted from

Avan), which also gave its name to a medieval lordship. On

the Norman conquest at Glamorgan, Caradoc, the eldest son of

the defeated prince, Lestyn ab Gwrgan, continued to hold this

lordship, and for the defence of thc passage of the river

built here a castle whose foundations are still traceable in

a field near the churchyard. His descendants (who from the

13th century onwards styled themselves De Avan or D'Avene)

established, under line protection of the castle, a chartered

town, which in 1372 received a further charter from Edward

Le Despenser, into whose family the lordship had come on an

exchange of lands. In modern times these charters were not

acted upon, the town being deemed a borough by prescription,

but in 1861 it was incorporated under the Municipal

Corporations Act. Since 1832 it has belonged to the Swansea

parliamentary district of boroughs, uniting with Kenfig,

Loughor, Neath and Swansea to return one member; but in 1885

the older portion of Swansea was given a separate member.

ABERCARN, an urban district in the southern parliamentary

division of Monmouthshire, England, 10 m. N.W. of Newport

by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 12,607. There are

collieries, ironworks and tinplate works in the district;

the town, which lies in the middle portion of the Ebbw

valley, being situated on the south-eastern flank of the

great mining region of Glamorganshire and Monmouthshire.

ABERCORN, JAMES HAMILTON, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1575-1618),

was the eldest son of Claud Hamilton, Lord Paisley (4th son of

James, 2nd earl of Arran, and duke of Chatelherault), and of

Margaret, daughter of George, 6th Lord Seton. He was made

sheriff of Linlithgow in 1600, received large grants of

lands in Scotland and Ireland, was created in 1603 baron of

Abercorn, and on the 10th of July 1606 was rewarded for his

services in the matter of the union by being made earl of

Abercorn, and Baron Hamilton, Mount Castle and Kilpatrick.

He married Marion, daughter of Thomas, 5th Lord Boyd, and left

five sons, of whom the eldest, baron of Strabane, succeeded

him as 2nd earl of Abercorn. He died on the 23rd of March

1618. The title of Abercorn, held by the head of the Hamilton

family, became a marquessate in 1790, and a dukedom in 1868,

the 2nd duke of Abercorn (b. 1838) being a prominent Unionist

politician and chairman of the British South Africa Company.

ABERCROMRIE, JOHN (1780-1844), Scottish physician, was the son

of the Rev. George Abercrombie of Aberdeen, where he was born

on the 10th of October 1780. He was educated at the university

of Edinburgh, and after graduating as M.D. in 1803 he settled

down to practise in that city, where he soon attained a leading

position. From 1816 he published various papers in the

Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, which formed the basis

of his Pathological and Practical Researches on Diseases

of the Brain and Spinal Cord, and of his Researches on the

Diseases of the Intestinal Canal, Liver and other Viscera

of the Abdomen, both published in 1828. He also found time

for philosophical speculations, and in 1830 he published his

Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers of Man and

the Investigation of Truth, which was followed in 1833 by a

sequel, The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings. Both works,

though showing little originality of thought, achieved wide

popularity. He died at Edinburgh on the 14th of November 1844.

ABERCROMBY, DAVID, a 17th-century Scottish physician who

was sufficiently noteworthy a generation after the probable

date of his death to have his Nova Medicinae Praxis

reprinted at Paris in 1740. During his lifetime his Tuta

ac efficax luis venereae saepe absque mercurio ac semper

absque salivatione mercuriali curando methodus (1684) was

translated into French, Dutch and German. Two other works

by him were De Pulsus Variatione (London, 1685), and Ars

explorandi medicas facultates plantarum ex solo sapore

(London, 1685--1688); His Opuscula were collected in 1687.

These professional writings gave him a place and memorial

in A. von Haller's Bibliotheca Medicinae Pract. (4 vols.

8vo, 1779, tom. iii. p. 619); but he claims notice rather by

his remarkable controversial books in theology and philosophy

than by his medical writings. Bred up at Douai as a Jesuit,

he abjured popery, and published Protestancy proved Safer

than Popery' (London, 1686). But the most noticeable of

his productions is A Discourse of Wit (London, 1685), which

contains some of the most characteristic and most definitely-put

metaphysical opinions of the Scottish philosophy of common

sense. It was followed by Academia Scientiarum (1687),

and by A Moral Treatise of the Power. of Interest (1690),

dedicated to Robert Boyle. A Short Account of Scots Divines,

by him, was printed at Edinburgh in 1833, edited by James

Maidment. The exact date of his death is unknown, but

according to Haller he was alive early in the 18th century.

ABERCROMBY, PATRICK (1656-c.1716), Scottish physician

and antiquarian, was the third son of Alexander Abercromby

of Fetterneir in Aberdeenshire, and brother of Francis

Abercromby, who was created Lord Glasford by James II. He

was born at Forfar in 1656 apparently of a Roman Catholic

family. Intending to become a doctor of medicine he entered

the university of St Andrews, where he took his degree of M.D.

in 1685, but apparently he spent most of his youthful years

abroad. It has been stated that he attended the university of

Paris. The Discourse of Wit (1685), sometimes assigned to

him, belongs to Dr David Abercromby (q.v.). On his return to

Scotland, he is found practising as a physician in Edinburgh,

where, besides his professional duties, he gave himself with

characteristic zeal to the study of antiquities. He was

appointed physician to James II. in 1685, but the revolution

deprived him of the post. Living during the agitations for

the union of England and Scotland, he took part in the war

of pamphlets inaugurated and sustained by prominent men on

both sides of the Border, and he crossed swords with no less

redoubtable a foe than Daniel Defoe in his Advantages of the

Act of Security compared with those of the intended Union

(Edinburgh, 1707), and A Vindication of the Same against Mr

De Foe (ibid.). A minor literary work of Abercromby's was

a translation of Jean de Beaugue's Histoire de la guerre

d'Ecosse (1556) which appeared in 1707. But the work with

which his name is permanently associated is his Martial

Atchievements of the Scots Nation, issued in two large folios,

vol. i. 1711, vol. ii. 1716. In the title-page and preface

to vol. i. he disclaims the ambition of being an historian,

but in vol. ii., in title-page and preface alike, he is no

longer a simple biographer, but an historian. Even though,

read in the light of later researches, much of the first volume

must necessarily be relegated to the region of the mythical,

none the less was the historian a laborious and accomplished

reader and investigator of all available authorities, as well

manuscript as printed; while the roll of names of those who

aided him includes every man of note in Scotland at the time,

from Sir Thomas Craig and Sir George Mackenzie to Alexander

Nisbet and Thomas Ruddiman. The date of Abercromby's death is

uncertain. It has been variously assigned to 1715, 1716,

1720, and 1726, and it is usually added that he left a widow

in great poverty. The Memoirs of the Abercrombys, commonly

attributed to him, do not appear to have been published.

See Robert Chambers, Eminent Scotsmen, s.v.; William Anderson,

Scottish Nation, s.v.; Alexander Chalmers, Biog. Dict.,

s.v.; George Chalmers, Life of Ruddiman; William Lee, Defoe.

ABERCROMBY, SIR RALPH (1734-1801), British lieutenant-general,

was the eldest son of George Abercromby of Tillibody,

Clackmannanshire, and was born in October 1734. Educated

at Rugby and Edinburgh University, in 1754 he was sent to

Leipzig to study civil law, with a view to his proceeding

to the Scotch bar. On returning from the continent he

expressed a strong preference for the military profession,

and a cornet's commission was accordingly obtained for him

(March 1756) in the 3rd Dragoon Guards. He served with his

regiment in the Seven Years' war, and the opportunity thus

afforded him of studying the methods of the great Frederick

moulded his military character and formed his tactical

ideas. He rose through the intermediate grades to the rank of

lieutenant-colonel of the regiment (1773) and brevet colonel

in 1780, and in 1781 he became colonel of the King's Irish

infantry. When that regiment was disbanded in 1783 he retired upon

half-pay. That up to this time he had scarcely been engaged

in active service was owing mainly to his disapproval of the

policy of the government, and especially to his sympathies with

the American colonists in their struggles for independence;

and his retirement is no doubt to be ascribed to similar

feelings. On leaving the army he for a time took up political

life as member of Parliament for Clackmannanshire. This,

however, proved uncongenial, and, retiring in favour of his

brother, he settled at Edinburgh and devoted himself to the

education of his children. But on France declaring war against

England in 1793, he hastened to resume his professional duties;

and, being esteemed one of the ablest and most intrepid

officers in the whole British forces, he was appointed to the

command of a brigade under the duke of York, for service in

Holland. He commanded the advanced guard in the action at Le

Cateau, and was wounded at Nijmwegen. The duty fell to him of

protecting the British army in its disastrous retreat out of

Holland, in the winter of 1794-1795. In 1795 he received the

honour of a knighthood of the Bath, in acknowledgment of his

services. The same year he was appointed to succeed Sir Charles

Grey, as commander-in-chief of the British forces in the West

Indies. In 1796 Grenada was suddenly attacked and taken by a

detachment of the army under his orders. He afterwards obtained

possession of the settlements of Demerara and Essequibo, in

South America, and of the islands of St Lucia, St Vincent and

Trinidad. He returned in 1797 to Europe, and, in reward for

his important services, was appointed colonel of the regiment

of Scots Greys, entrusted with the governments of the Isle of

Wight, Fort-George and Fort-Augustus, and raised to the rank of

lieutenant-general. He held, in 1797-1798, the chief command

of the forces in Ireland. There he laboured to maintain the

discipline of the army, to suppress the rising rebellion,

and to protect the people from military oppression, with a

care worthy alike of a great general and an enlightened and

beneficent statesman. When he was appointed to the command

in Ireland, an invasion of that country by the French was

confidently anticipated by the English government. He used

his utmost efforts to restore the discipline of an army that

was utterly disorganized; and, as a first step, he anxiously

endeavoured to protect the people by re-establishing the

supremacy of the civil power, and not allowing the military

to be called out, except when it was indispensably necessary

for the enforcement of the law and the maintenance of

order. Finding that he received no adequate support from the

head of the Irish government, and that all his efforts were

opposed and thwarted by those who presided in the councils

of Ireland, he resigned the command. His departure from

Ireland was deeply lamented by the reflecting portion of the

people, and was speedily followed by those disastrous results

which he had anticipated, and which he so ardently desired

and had so wisely endeavoured to prevent. After holding for

a short period the office of commander-in-chief in Scotland,

Sir Ralph, when the enterprise against Holland was resolved

upon in 1799, was again called to command under the duke of

York. The campaign of 1799 ended in disaster, but friend and

foe alike confessed that the most decisive victory could not

have more conspicuously proved the talents of this distinguished

officer. His country applauded the choice when, in 1801, he

was sent with an army to dispossess the French of Egypt. His

experience in Holland and the West Indies particularly fitted

him for this new command, as was proved by his carrying his

army in health, in spirits and with the requisite supplies,

in spite of very great difficulties, to the destined scene of

action. The debarkation of the troops at Aboukir, in

the face of strenuous opposition, is justly ranked among

the most daring and brilliant exploits of the English

army. A battle in the neighbourhood of Alexandria (March

21, 1801) was the sequel of this successful landing, and it

was Abercromby's fate to fall in the moment of victory. He

was struck by a spent ball, which could not be extracted,

and died seven days after the battle. His old friend and

commander the duke of York paid a just tribute to the great

soldier's memory in general orders: ``His steady observance

of discipline, his ever-watchful attention to the health

and wants of his troops, the persevering and unconquerable

spirit which marked his military career, the splendour of

his actions in the field and the heroism of his death, are

worthy the imitation of all who desire, like him, a life of

heroism and a death of glory.'' By a vote of the House of

Commons, a monument was erected in his honour in St Paul's

cathedral. His widow was created Baroness Abercromby of

Tullibody and Aboukir Bay, and a pension of L. 2000 a year

was settled on her and her two successors in the title.

A memoir of the later years of his life (1793-1801) by his

third son, James (who was Speaker of the House of Commons,

1835-1839, and became Lord Dunfermline), was published in

1861. For a shorter account of Sir Ralph Abercromby see

Wilkinson, Twelve British Soldiers (London, 1899).

ABERDARE, HENRY AUSTIN BRUCE, 1ST BARON (1815-1895), English

statesman, was born at Duffryn, Aberdare, Glamorganshire, on

the 16th of April 1815, the son of John Bruce, a Glamorganshire

landowner. John Bruce's original family name was Knight,

but on coming of age in 1805 he assumed the name of Bruce,

his mother, through whom he inherited the Duffryn estate,

having been the daughter of William Bruce, high sheriff of

Glamorganshire. Henry Austin Bruce was educated at Swansea

grammar school, and in 1837 was called to the bar. Shortly

after he had begun to practise, the discovery of coal beneath

the Duffryn and other Aberdare Valley estates brought the

family great wealth. From 1847 to 1852 he was stipendiary

magistrate for Merthyr Tydvil and Aberdare, resigning the

position in the latter year, when he entered parliament

as Liberal member for Merthyr Tydvil. In 1862 he became

under-secretary for the home department, and in 1869, after

losing his seat at Merthyr Tydvil, but being re-elected

for Renfrewshire, he was made home secretary by W. E.

Gladstone. His tenure of this office was conspicuous for a

reform of the licensing laws, and he was responsible for the

Licensing Act of 1872, which constituted the magistrates the

licensing authority, increased the penalties for misconduct in

public-houses and shortened the number of hours for the sale of

drink. In 1873 he relinquished the home secretaryship, at

Gladstone's request, to become lord president of the council,

and was almost simultaneously raised to the peerage as Baron

Aberdare. The defeat of the Liberal government in the following

year terminated Lord Aberdare's official political life, and

he subsequently devoted himself to social, educational and

economic questions. In 1876 he was elected F.R.S.; from 1878

to 1892 he was president of the Royal Historical Society;

and in 1881 he became president of the Royal Geographical

Society. In 1882 he began a connexion with West Africa which

lasted the rest of his life, by accepting the chairmanship

of the National African Company, formed by Sir George Taubman

Goldie, which in 1886 received a charter under the title of the

Royal Niger Company and in 1899 was taken over by the British

government, its territories being constituted the protectorate of

Nigeria. West African affairs, however, by no means exhausted

Lord Aberdare's energies, and it was principally through his

efforts that a charter was in 1894 obtained for the university

of Wales at Cardiff. Lord Aberdare, who in 1885 was made a

G.C.B., presided over several Royal Commissions at different

times. He died in London on the 25th of February 1895.

His second wite was the daughter of Sir William Napier, the

historian of the Peninsular war, whose Life he edited.

ABERDARE, a market town of Glamorganshire, Wales, situated (as

the name implies) at the confluence of the Dar and Cynon, the

latter being a tributary of the Tain. Pop. of urban district

(1901), 43,365. It is 4 m. S.W. of Merthyr Tydvil, 24 from

Cardiff and 160 from London by rail. It has a station on the

Pontypool and Swansea section of the Great Western railway,

and is also served by the Llwydcoed and Abernant stations

which are on a branch line to Merthyr. The Tain Vale line

(opened 1846) has a terminus in the town. The Glamorgan canal

has also a branch (made in 1811) running from Abercynon to

Aberdare. From being, at the beginning of the 19th century,

a mere village in an agricultural district, the place grew

rapidly in population owing to the abundance of its coal and

iron ore, and the population of the whole parish (which was only

1486 in 1801) increased tenfold during the first half of the

century. Ironworks were established at Llwydcoed and Abernant

in 1799 and 1800 respectively, followed by others at Gadlys

and Aberaman in 1827 and 1847. These have not been worked

since about 1875, and the only metal industries remaining

in the town are an iron foundry or two and a small tinplate

works at Gadlys (established in 1868). Previous to 1836,

most of the coal worked in the parish was consumed locally,

chiefly in the ironworks, but in that year the working of

steam coal for export was begun, pits were sunk in rapid

succession, and the coal trade, which at least since 1875

has been the chief support of the town, soon reached huge

dimensions. There are also several brickworks and breweries.

During the latter half Of the 19th century, considerable

public improvements were effected in the town, making it,

despite its neighbouring collieries, an agreeable place of

residence. Its institutions included a post-graduate

theological college (opened in connexion with the Church

of England in 1892, until 1907, when it was removed to

Llandaff). There is a public park of fifty acres with two small

lakes. Aberdare, with the ecclesiastical parishes of St

Fagan's (Trecynon) and Aberaman carved out of the ancient

parish, has some twelve Anglican churches, one Roman Catholic

church (built in 1866 in Monk Street near the site of a

cell attached to Penrhys Abbey) and over fifty Noncoformist

chapels. The services in the majority of the chapels are in

Welsh. The whole parish falls within the parliamentary borough

of Merthyr Tydvil. The urban district includes what were

once the separate villages of Aberaman, Abernant, Cwmbach,

Cwmaman, Cwmdare, Llwydcoed and Trecynon. There are several

cairns and the remains of a circular British encampment on

the mountain between Aberdare and Merthyr. Hirwaun moor,

4 m. to the N.W. of Aberdare, was according to tradition

the scene of a battle at which Rhys ap Jewdwr, prince of

Dyfed, was defeated by the ailied forces of the Norman Robert

Fitzhamon and Iestyn ab Gwrgan, the last prince of Glamorgan.

ABERDEEN, GEORGE GORDON, 1ST EARL OF (1637-1720), lord

chancellor of Scotland, son of Sir John Gordon, 1st baronet

of Haddo, Aberdeenshire, executed by the Presbyterians in

1644, was born on the 3rd of October 1637. He graduated

M.A., and was chosen professor at King's College, Aberdeen, in

1658. Subsequently he travelled and studied civil law abroad.

At the Restoration the sequestration of his father's lands was

annulled, and in 1665 he succeeded by the death of his elder

brother to the baronetcy and estates. He returned home in

1667, was admitted advocate in 1668 and gained a high legal

reputation. He represented Aberdeenshire in the Scottish

parliament of 1669 and in the following assemblies, during his

first session strongly opposing the projected union of the two

legislatures. In November 1678 he was made a privy councillor

for Scotland, and in 1680 was raised to the bench as Lord

Haddo. He was a leading member of the duke of York's

administration, was created a lord of session in June and

in November 1681 president of the court. The same year

he is reported as moving in the council for the torture of

witnesses.1 In 1682 he was made lord chancellor of Scotland,

and was created, on the 13th of November, earl of Aberdeen,

Viscount Formartine, and Lord Haddo, Methllck, Tarves and

Kellie, in the Scottish peerage, being appointed also sheriff

principal of Aberdeenshire and Midlothian. Burnet reflects

unfavourably upon him, calls him ``a proud and covetous man,''

and declares ``the new chancellor exceeded all that had gone

before him.''2 He executed the laws enforcing religious

conformity with severity, and filled the parish churches, but

resisted the excessive measures of tyranny prescribed by the

English government; and in consequence of an intrigue of the

duke of Queensberry and Lord Perth, who gained the duchess of

Portsmouth with a present of L. 27,000, he was dismissed in 1684.

After his fall he was subjected to various petty prosecutions

by his victorious rivals with the view of discovering some

act of maladministration on which to found a charge against

him, but the investigations only served to strengthen his

credit. He took an active part in parliament in 1685 and

1686, but remained a non-juror during the whole of William's

reign, being frequently fined for his non-attendance, and

took the oaths for the first time after Anne's accession, on

the 11th of May 1703. In the great affair of the Union in

1707, while protesting against the completion of the treaty

till the act declaring the Scots aliens should be repealed,

he refused to support the opposition to the measure itself

and refrained from attending parliament when the treaty was

settled. He died on the 20th of April 1720, after having

amassed a large fortune. He is described by John Mackay as

``very knowing in the laws and constitution of his country and

is belleved to be the solidest statesman in Scotland, a fine

orator, speaks slow but sure.'' His person was said to be

deformed, and his ``want of mine or deportment'' was alleged

as a disqualification for the office of lord chancellor. He

married Anne, daughter and sole heiress of George Lockhart of

Torbrecks, by whom he had six children, his only surviving

son, William, succeeding him as 2nd earl of Aberdeen.

See Letters to George, earl of Aberdeen (with memoir: Spalding

Club, 1851); Hist. Account of the Senators of-the College

of Justice, by G. Brunton and D. Haig (1832), p. 408; G.

Crawfurd's Lives of the Officers of State (1726), p. 226;

Memoirs of Affairs in Scotland, by Sir G. Mackenzie (1821),

p. 148; Sir J. Lauder's (Lord Fountainhall) Journals (Scottish

Hist. Society, vol. xxxvi., 1900); J. Mackay's Memoirs

(1733), p. 215; A. Lang's Hist. of Scotland, iii. 369, 376.

(P. C. Y.)

1 Sir J. Lauder's Hist. Notices (Bannatyne Club, 1848), p. 297.

2 Hist. of his own Times, i. 523.

ABERDEEN, GEORGE HAMILTON GORDON, 4TH EARL OF (1784-1860),

English statesman, was the eldest son of George Gordon, Lord

Haddo, by his wife Charlotte, daughter of William Baird of

Newbyth, Haddingtonshire, and grandson of George, 3rd earl of

Aberdeen. Born in Edinburgh on the 28th of January 1784,

he lost his father in 1791 and his mother in 1795; and as

his grandfather regarded him with indifference, he went to

reside with Henry Dundas, afterwards Viscount Melville. At

the age of fourteen he was permitted by Scotch law to name

his own curators, or guardians, and selecting William Pitt

and Dundas for this office he spent much of his time at their

houses, thus meeting many of the leading politicians of the

day. He was educated at Harrow, and St John's College, Cambridge,

where he graduated as a nobleman in 1804. Before this time,

however, he had become earl of Aberdeen on his grandfather's

death in 1801, and had travelled over a large part of the

continent of Europe, meeting on his journeys Napoleon Bonaparte

and other persons of distinction. He also spent some time in

Greece, and on his return to England founded the Athenian

Society, membership of which was confined to those who had

travelled in that country. Moreover, he wrote an article in

the Edinburgh Review of July 1805 criticizing Sir William

Gill's Topography of Troy, and these circumstances led Lord

Byron to refer to him in Eniglish Bardo and Scotch Reviewers

as ``the travell'd thane, Athenian Aberdeen.'' Having attained

his majority in 1805, he married on the 28th of July Catherine

Elizabeth Hamilton, daughter of John James, 1st marquess of

Abercorn. In December 1806 he was elected a representative

peer for Scotland, and took his seat as a Tory in the House of

Lords, but for some years he took only a slight part in public

business. However, by his birth, his abilities and his

connexions alike he was marked out for a high position, and

after the death of his wife in February 1812 he was appointed

ambassador extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary at

Vienna, where he signed the treaty of Toplitz between Great

Britain and Austria in October 1813; and accompanying the

emperor Francis I. through the subsequent campaign against

France, he was present at the battle of Leipzig. He was

one of the British representatives at the congress of

Chatillon in February 1814, and in the same capacity was

present during the negotiations which led to the treaty of

Paris in the following May. Returning home he was created

a peer of the United Kingdom as Viscount Gordon of Aberdeen

(1814), and made a member of the privy council. On the 15th

of Juby 1815 he married Harriet, daughter of the Hon. John

Douglas, and widow of James, Viscount Hamilton, and thus

became doubly connected with the family of the marquess of

Abercorn. During the ensuing thirteen years Aberdeen took a

less prominent part in public affairs, although he succeeded

in passing the Entail (Scotland) Act of 1825. He kept in

touch, however, with foreign politics, and having refused to

join the ministry of George Canning in 1827, became a member

of the cabinet of the duke of Wellington as chancellor of the

duchy of Lancaster in January 1828. In the following June he

was transferred to the office of secretary of state for foreign

affairs, and having acquitted himself with credit with regard

to the war between Russia and Turkey, and to affairs in Greece,

Portugal and France, he resigned with Wellington in November

1830, and shared his leader's attitude towards the Reform

Bill of 1832. As a Scotsman, Aberdeen was interested in the

ecclesiastical controversy which culminated in the disruption of

1843. In 1840 he introduced a bill to settle the vexed question

of patronage; but disliked by a majority in the general assembly

of the Scotch church, and unsupported by the government, it

failed to become law, and some opprobrium was cast upon its

author. In 1843 he brought forward a similar measure ``to

remove doubts respecting the admission of ministers to

benefices.'' This Admission to Benefices Act, as it was called,

passed into law, but did not reconcile the opposing parties.

During the short administration of Sir Robert Peel in 1834

and 1835, Aberdeen had filled the office of secretary for

the colonies, and in September 1841 he took office again

under Peel, on this occasion as foreign secretary; the

five years during which he held this position were the most

fruitful and successful of his public life. He owed his

success to the confidence placed in him by Queen Victoria,

to his wide knowledge of European politics, to his intimate

friendship with Guizot, and not least to his own conciliatory

disposition. Largely owing to his efforts, causes of quarrel

between Great Britain and France in Tahiti, over the marriage

of Isabella II. of Spain, and in other directions, were

removed. More important still were his services in settling

the question of the boundary between the United States and

British North America at a time when a single injudicious

word would probably have provoked a war. In 1845 he supported

Peel when in a divided cabinet he proposed to suspend the duty

on foreign corn, and left office with that minister in July

1846. After Peel's death in 1850 he became the recognized

leader of the Peelites, although since his resignation his

share in public business had been confined to a few speeches

on foreign affairs. His dislike of the Ecclesiastical Titles

Assumption Bill, the rejection of which he failed to secure in

1851, prevented him from joining the government of Lord John

Russell, or from forming an administration himself in this

year. In December 1852, however, be became first lord of

the treasury and head of a coalition ministry of Whigs and

Peelites. Although united on free trade and in general

on questions of domestic reform, a cabinet which contained

Lord Palmerston and Lord John Russell, in addition to

Aberdeen, was certain to differ on questions of foreign

policy. The strong and masterful character of these and

other colleagues made the task of the prime minister one

of unusual difficulty, a fact which was recognized by

contemporaries. Charles Greville in his Memoirs says,

``In the present cabinet are five or six first-rate men of

equal, or nearly equal, pretensions, none of them likely to

acknowledge the superiority or defer to the opinions of any

other, and every one of these five or six considering himself

abler and more important than their premier''; and Sir James

Graham wrote, ``It is a powerful team, but it will require good

driving.'' The first year of office passed off successfully,

and it was owing to the steady support of the prime minister

that Gladstone's great budget of 1853 was accepted by the

cabinet. This was followed by the outbreak of the dispute

between France and Turkey over the guardianship of the

holy places at Jerusalem, which, after the original cause

of quarrel had been forgotten, developed into the Crimean

war. The tortuous negotiations which preceded the struggle

need not be discussed here, but in defence of Aberdeen

it may be said that he hoped and strove for peace to the

last. Rightly or wrongly, however, he held that Russell was

indispensable to the cabinet, and that a resignation would

precipitate war. His outlook, usually so clear, was blurred

by these considerations, and he lacked the strength to force

the suggestions which he made in the autumn of 1853 upon his

imperious colleagues. Palmerston, supported by Russell and

well served by Lord Stratford de Redcllffe, British ambassador

at Constantinople, favoured a more aggressive policy, and

Aberdeen, unable to control Palmerston, and unwilling to let

Russell go, cannot be exonerated from blame. When the war

began he wished to prosecute it vigorously; but the stories

of misery and mismanagement from the seat of war deprived

the ministry of public favour. Russell resigned; and on

the 29th of January 1855 a motion by J. A. Roebuck, for the

appointment of a select committee to enquire into the conduct

of the War, was carried in the House of Commons by a large

majority. Treating this as a vote of want of confidence

Aberdeen at once resigned office, and the queen bestowed

upon him the order of the Garter. He smoothed the way for

Palmerston to succeed him, and while the earl of Clarendon

remained at the foreign office he aided him with advice and

was consulted on matters of moment. He died in London on the

14th of December 1860, and was buried in the family vault at

Stanmore. By his first wife he had one son and three

daughters, all of whom predeceased their father. By his second

wife, who died in August 1833, he left four sons and one

daughter. His eldest son, George John James, succeeded as 5th

earl; his second son was General Sir Alexander Hamilton-Gordon,

K.C.B.; his third son was the Reverend Douglas Hamilton-Gordon;

and his youngest son Arthur Hamilton, after holding various

high offices under the crown, was created Baron Stanmore in

1893. Among the public offices held by the earl were those of

lord-lieutenant of Aberdeenshire, president of the society of

Antiquaries from 1812 to 1846 and fellow of the Royal Society.

Aberdeen was a distinguished scholar with a retentive memory

and a wide knowledge of literature and art. His private life

was exemplary, and he impressed his contemporaries with the

loftiness of his character. His manner was reserved, and

as a speaker he was weighty rather than eloquent. In public

life he was remarkable for his generosity to his political

opponents, and for his sense of justice and honesty. He

did not, however, possess the qualities which impress the

populace, and he lacked the strength which is one of the

essential gifts of a statesman. His character is perhaps best

described by a writer who says ``his strength was not equal

to his goodness.'' His foreign policy was essentially one of

peace and non-intervention, and in pursuing it he was accused

of favouring the despotisms of Europe. Aberdeen was a model

landlord. By draining the land, by planting millions of trees

and by erecting numerous buildings, he greatly improved the

condition of his Aberdeenshire estates, and studied continually

the welfare of his dependants. A bust of him by Matthew Noble

is in Westminster Abbey, and his portrait was painted by Sir

Thomas Lawrence. He wrote An Inquiry into the Principles

of Beauty in Grecian Architecture (London, 1822), and the

Correspondence of the Earl of Aberdeen has been printed

privately under the direction of his son, Lord Stanmore.

The 6th earl, George (1841-1870), son of the 5th earl,

was drowned at sea, and was succeeded by his brother

John Campbell Gordon, 7th earl of Aberdeen, (b. 1847), a

prominent Liberal politician, who was lord-lieutenant of

Ireland in 1886, governor-general of Canada 1893--1898,

and again the lord-lieutenant of Ireland when Sir Henry

Campbell-Bannerman formed his ministry at the close of 1905.

See Lord Stanmore, The Earl of Aberdeen (London, 1893); C.

C. F. Greville, Memoirs, edited by H. Reeve (London, 1888);

Spencer Walpole, History of England (London, 1878-1886),

and Life of Lord John Russell (London, 1889); A. W.

Kinglake, Invasion of the Crimea (London, 1877-1888);

Sir T. Martin, Life of the Prince Consort (London,

1875-1880); J. Morley, Life of Gladstone (London, 1903).

(A. W. H. deg. )

ABERDEEN, a royal burgh, city and county of a city,

capital of Aberdeenshire, and chief seaport in the north of

Scotland. It is the fourth Scottish town in population,

industry and wealth, and stands on a bay of the North

Sea, between the mouths of the Don and Dee, 130 1/2 m. N.

E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. Though Old

Aberdeen, extending from the city suburbs to the southern

banks of the Dob, has a separate charter, privileges and

history, the distinction between it and New Aberdeen can no

longer be said to exist; and for parliamentary, municipal

and other purposes, the two towns now form practically one

community. Aberdeen's popular name of the ``Granite City,'

is justified by the fact that the bulk of the town fs built

of granite, but to appreciate its more poetical designation

of the ``Silver City by the Sea,'' it should be seen after

a heavy rainfall when its stately structures and countless

houses gleam pure and white under the brilliant sunshine.

The area of the city extends to 6602 acres, the burghs of

Old Aberdeen and Woodside, and the district of Torry (for

parliamentary purposes in the constituency of Kincardineshire)

to the south of the Dee, having been incorporated in 1891.

The city comprises eleven wards and eighteen ecclesiastical

parishes, and is under the jurisdiction of a council with

lord provost, bailies, treasurer and dean of guild. The

corporation owns the water (derived from the Dee at a spot 21

m. W.S.W. of the city) and gas supplles, electric lighting and

tramways. Since 1885 the city has returned two members to

Parliament. Aberdeen is served by the Caledonian, Great North

of Scotland and North British railways (occupying a commodious

joint railway station), and there is regular communication by

sea with London and the chief ports on the eastern coast of

Great Britain and the northern shores of the Continent. The mean

temperature of the city for the year is 45.8 deg. F., for summer

56 deg. F., and for winter 37.3 deg. F. The average yearly rainfall

is 30.57 inches. The city is one of the healthiest in Scotland.

Streets and Buildings.--Roughly, the extended city runs

north and south. From the new bridge of Don to the ``auld

brig'' of Dee there is tramway communication via King

Street, Union Street and Holburn Road--a distance of over five

miles. Union Street is one of the most imposing thoroughfares

in the British Isles. From Castle Street it runs W. S. W.

for nearly a mile, is 70 ft. wide, and contains the principal

shops and most of the modern public buildings, all of granite.

Part of the street crosses the Denburn ravine (utilized for

the line of the Great North of Scotland railway) by a fine

granite arch of 132 ft. span, portions of the older town

still fringing the gorge, fifty feet below the level of Union

Street. Amongst the more conspicuous secular buildings in the

street may be mentioned the Town and County Bank, the Music

Hall, with sitting accommodation for 2000 persons, the Trinity

Hall of the incorporated trades (originating in various years

between 1398 and 1527, and having charitable funds for poor

members, widows and orphans), containing some portraits

by George Jamesone, a noteworthy set of carved oak chairs,

dating from 1574, and the shields of the crafts with quaint

inscriptions; the office of the Aberdeen Free Press, one of

the most influential papers in the north of Scotland; the Palace

Hotel; the office of the Nnrthern Assurance Company, and the

Nutional Bank of Scotland. In Castle Street, a continuation

eastwards of Union Street, are situated the Municipnl and

County Buildings, one of the most splendid granite edifices

in Scotland, in the Franco-Scottish Gothic style, built in

1867-1878. They are of four stories and contain the great

hall with an open timber ceiling and oak-panelled walls; the

Sheriff Court House; the Town Hall, with excellent portraits

of Prince Albert (Prince Consort), the 4th earl of Aberdeen,

the various lord provosts and other distinguished citizens.

In the vestibule of the entrance corridor stands a suit of

black armour believed to have been worn by Provost Sir Robert

Davidson, who feh in the battle of Harlaw, near Inverurie, in

1411. From the south-western corner a grand tower rises to

a height of 210 ft., commanding a fine view of the city and

surrounding country. Adjoining the municipal buildings is

the North of Scotland Bank, of Greek design, with a portico

of Corinthian columns, the capitals of which are exquisitely

carved. On the opposite side of the street is the fine

building of the Union Bank. At the upper end of Castle Street

stands the Salvation Army Citadel, an effective castellated

mansion, the most imposing ``barracks'' possessed anywhere

by this organization. In front of it is the Market Cross,

a beautiful, open-arched, hexagonal structure, 21 ft. in

diameter and 18 ft. high. The original was designed in 1682

by Jnhn Montgomery, a native architect, but in 1842 it was

removed hither from its old site and rebuilt in a better

style. On the entablature surmounting the Ionic columns are

panels containing medallions of Scots sovereigns from James

I. to James VII. From the centre rises a shaft, 12 1/2 ft.

high, with a Corinthian capital on which is the royal,unicorn

rampant. On an eminence east of Castle Street are the military

barracks. In Market Street are the Mechanics' Institution,

founded in 1824, with a good library; the Post and Telegraph

offices; and the Market, where provisions of all kinds and

general wares are sold. The Fish Market, on the Albert Basin,

is a busy scene in the early morning. The Art Gallery and

Museum at Schoolhill, built in the Italian Renaissance style

of red and brown granite, contains an excellent Collection of

pictures, the Macdonald Hall of portraits of contemporary

artists by themselves being of altogether exceptional

interest and unique of its kind in Great Britain. The public

llbrary, magnificently housed, contains more than 60,000

volumes. The theatre in Guild Street is the chief seat of

dramatic, as the Palace Theatre in Bridge Place is of variety

entertainment. The new buildings of Marischal College fronting

Broad Street, opened by King Edward VII. in 1906, form one

of the most splendid examples of modern architecture in Great

Britain; the architect, Alexander Marshall Mackenzie, a native

of Aberdeen, having adapted his material, white granite, to

the design of a noble building with the originality of genius.

Churches.---Like most Scottish towns, Aberdeen is well

equipped with churches, most of them of good design, but

few of special interest. The East and West churches of St

Nicholas, their kirkyard separated from Union Street by an Ionic

facade, 147 1/2 ft. long, built in 1830, form one continuous

building, 220ft. in length, including the Drum Aisle (the

ancient burial-place of the Irvines of Drum) and the Colllson

Aisle, which divide them and which formed the transept of the

12th-century church of St Nicholas. The West Church was built in

1775, in the Italian style, the East originally in 1834 in the

Gothic. In 1874 a fire destroyed the East Church and the

old central tower with its fine peal of nine bells, one of

which, Laurence or ``Lowrie,'' was 4 ft. in diameter at the

mouth, 3 1/2 ft. high and very thick. The church was rebuilt

and a massive granite tower erected over the intervening

aisles at the cost of the municipality, a new peal of 36

bells, cast in Holland, being installed to commemorate the

Victorian jubilee of 1887. The Roman Catholic Cathedral in

Huntly Street, a Gothic building, was erected in 1859. The

see of Aberdeen was first founded at Mortlach in Banffshire

by Malcolm II. in 1004 to celebrate his victory there over

the Danes, but in 1137 David I. transferred the bishopric

to Old Aberdeen, and twenty years later the cathedral of

St Machar, situated a few hundred yards from the Don, was

begun. Save during the episcopate of William Elphinstone

(1484-1511), the building progressed slowly. Gavin Dunbar,

who followed him in 1518, was enabled to complete the

structure by adding the two western spires and the southern

transept. The church suffered severely at the Reformation,

but is still used as the parish church. It now consists of the

nave and side aisles. It is chiefly built of outlayer granite,

and, though the plainest cathedral in Scotland, its stately

simplicity and severe symmetry lend it unique distinction.

On the flat panelled ceiling of the nave are the heraldic

shields of the princes, noblemen and bishops who shared in its

erection, and the great west window contains modern painted

glass of excellent colour and design. The cemeteries are St

Peter's in Old Aberdeen, Trinity near the links, Nellfield

at the junction of Great Western and Holburn Roads, and

Allenvale, very tastefully laid out, adjoining Duthie Park.

Education.---Aberdeen University consists of King's College

in Old Aberdeen, founded by Bishop Elphinstone in 1494,

and Marischal College, in Broad Street, founded in 1593 by

George Keith, 5th earl Marischal, which were incorporated in

1860. Arts and divinity are taught at King's, law, medicine

and science at Marischal. The number of students exceeds 800

yearly. The buildings of both colleges are the glories of

Aberdeen. King's forms a quadrangle with interior court, two

sides of which have been rebuilt, and a library wing has been

added. The Crown Tower and the Chapel, the oldest parts, date from

1500. The former is surmounted by a structure about 40 ft.

high, consisting of a six-sided lantern and royal crown, both

sculptured, and resting on the intersections of two arched

ornamental slips rising from the four corners of the top of the

tower. The choir of the chapel still contains the original

oak canopied stalls, miserere seats and lofty open screens in

the French flamboyant style, and of unique beauty of design and

execution. Their preservation was due to the enlightened

energy of the principal at the time of the Reformation, who

armed his folk to save the building from the barons of the

Mearns after they had robbed St Machar's of its bells and

lead. Marischal College is a stately modern building, having

been rebuilt in 1836-1841, and greatly extended several years

later at a cost of L. 100,000. The additions to the buildings

opened by King Edward VII. in 1906 have been already mentioned.

The beautiful Mitchell Tower is so named from the benefactor (Dr

Charles Mitchell) who provided the splendid graduation hall.

The opening of this tower in 1895 signalized the commemoration

of the four hundredth anniversary of the foundation of the

university. The University Library comprises nearly 100,000

books. A Botanic Garden was presented to the university in

1899. Aberdeen and Glasgow Universities combine to return

one member to Parliament. The United Free Church Divinity

Hall in Alford Place, in the Tudor Gothic style, dates from

1850. The Grammar School, founded in 1263, was removed in

1861-1863 from its old quarters in Schoolhill to a large new

building, in the Scots Baronial style, off Skene Street.

Robert Gordon's College in Schoolhill was founded in 1729

by Robert Gordon of Straloch and further endowed in 1816 by

Alexander Simpson of Collyhill. Originally devoted (as Gordon's

Hospital) to the instruction and maintenance of the sons of poor

burgesses of guild and trade in the city, it was reorganized

in 1881 as a day and night school for secondary and technical

education, and has since been unusually successful. Besides

a High School for Girls and numerous board schools, there are

many private higher-class schools. Under the Endowments Act

1882 an educational trust was constituted which possesses a

capital of L. 155,000. At Blairs, in Kincardineshire, five

miles S.W. of Aberdeen, is St Mary's Roman Catholic College

for the training of young men intended for the priesthood.

Charities.---The Royal Infimary, in Woolmanhill, established

in 1740, rebuilt in the Grecian style in 1833-1840, and

largely extended after 1887 as a memorial of Queen Victoria's

jubilee; the Royal Asylum, opened in 1800; the Female Orphan

Asylum, in Albyn Place, founded in 1840; the Blind Asylum,

in Huntly Street, established in 1843; the Royal Hospital

for Sick Children; the Maternity Hospital, founded in 1823;

the City Hospital for Infectious Diseases; the Deaf and Dumb

Institution; Mitchell's Hospital in Old Aberdeen; the East

and West Poorhouses, with lunatic wards; and hospitals devoted

to specialized diseases, are amongst the most notable of

the charitable institutions. There are, besides, industrial

schools for boys and girls and for Roman Catholic children, a

Female School of Industry, the Seabank Rescue Home, Nazareth

House and Orphanage, St Martha's Home for Girls, St Margaret's

Convalescent Home and Sisterhood, House of Bethany, the

Convent of the Sacred Heart and the Educational Trust School.

Parks and Open Spaces.---Duthie Park, of 50 acres, the gift

of Miss Elizabeth Crombie Duthie of Ruthrieston, occupies an

excellent site on the north bank of the Dee. Victoria Park

(13 acres) and its extension Westburn Park (13 acres) are

situated in the north-western area; farther north lies Stewart

Park (11 acres), called after Sir D. Stewart, lord provost in

1893. The capacious links bordering the sea between the

mouths of the two rivers are largely resorted to for open-air

recreation; there is here a rifle range where a ``wapinschaw,''

or shooting tournament, is held annually. Part is laid out

as an 18-hole golf course; a section is reserved for cricket

and football; a portion has been railed off for a race-course,

and a bathing-station has been erected. Union Terrace

Gardens are a popular rendezvous in the heart of the city.

Statues.---In Union Terrace Gardens stands a colossal statue

in bronze of Sir William Wallace, by W. G. Stevenson, R.S.A.

(1888). In the same gardens are a bronze statue of Burns

and Baron Marochetti's seated figure of Prince Albert. In

front of Gordon's College is the bronze statue, by T. S.

Burnett, A.R.S.A., of General Gordon (1888). At the east

end of Union Street is the bronze statue of Queen Victoria,

erected in 1893 by the royal tradesmen of the city. Near the

Cross stands the granite statue of the 5th duke of Gordon (d.

1836). Here may also be mentioned the obelisk of Peterhead

granite, 70 ft. high, erected in the square of Marischal

College to the memory of Sir James M`Grigor (1778-1851), the

military surgeon and director-general of the Army Medical

Department, who was thrice elected lord rector of the College.

Bridges.--The Dee is crossed by four bridges,--the old

bridge, the Wellington suspension bridge, the railway bridge,

and Victoria Bridge, opposite Market Street. The first, till

1832 the only access to the city from the south, consists of

seven semicircular ribbed arches, is about 30 ft. high, and

was built early in the 16th century by Bishops Elphinstone and

Dunbar. It was nearly all rebuilt in 1718--1723, and in

1842 was widened from 14 1/2 to 26 ft. The bridge of Don has

five granite arches, each 75 ft. in span, and was built in

1827--1832. A little to the west is the Auld Brig o'

Balgownie, a picturesque single arch spanning the deep

black stream, said to have been built by King Robert I.,

and celebrated by Byron in the tenth canto of Don Juan.

Harbour.--A defective harbour, with a shallow sand and gravel

bar at its entrance. long retarded the trade of Aberdeen, but

under various acts since 1773 it was greatly deepened. The

north pier, built partly by Smeaton in 1775-1781, and partly

by Telford in 1810-1815, extends nearly 3000 ft. into the North

Sea. It increases the depth of water on the bar from a few

feet to 22 or 24 ft. at spring tides and to 17 or 18 ft. at

neap. A wet dock, of 29 acres, and with 6000 ft. of quay,

was completed in 1848 and called Victoria Dock in honour

of the queen's visit to the city in that year. Adjoining

it is the Upper Dock. By the Harbour Act of 1868, the Dee

near the harbour was diverted from the south at a cost of

L. 80,000, and 90 acres of new ground (in addition to 25 acres

formerly made up) were provided on the north side of the

river for the Albert Basin (with a graving dock), quays and

warehouses. A breakwater of concrete, 1050 ft. long, was

constructed on the south side of the stream as a protection

against south-easterly gales. On Girdleness, the southern

point of the bay, a lighthouse was built in 1833. Near the

harbour mouth are three batteries mounting nineteen guns.

Industry.---Owing to the variety and importance of its chief

industries Aberdeen is one of the most prosperous cities in

Scotland. Very durable grey granite has been quarried near

Aberdeen for more than 300 years, and blocked and dressed

paving ``setts,'' kerb and building stones, and monumental

and other ornamental work of granite have long been exported

from the district to all parts of the world. This, though

once the predominant industry, has been surpassed by the

deep-sea fisheries, which derived a great impetus from

beam-trawling, introduced in 1882, and steam line fishing

in 1889, and threaten to rival if not to eclipse those of

Grimsby. Fish trains are despatched to London daily. Most

of the leading industries date from the 18th century, amongst

them woollens (1703), linen (1749) and cotton (1779). These

give employment to several thousands of operatives. The

paper-making industry is one of the most famous and oldest in

the city, paper having been first made in Aberdeen in 1694.

Flax-spinning and jute and combmaking factories are also very

flourishing, and there are successful foundries and engineering

works. There are large distilleries and breweries, and

chemical works employing many hands. In the days of wooden

ships ship-building was a flourishing industry, the town being

noted for its fast clippers, many of which established records

in the ``tea races.'' The introduction of trawllng revived

this to some extent, and despite the distance of the city

from the iron fields there is a fair yearly output of iron

vessels. Of later origin are the jam, pickle and potted

meat factories, hundreds of acres having been laid down in

strawberries and other fruits within a few miles of the city.

History.--Aberdeen was an important place as far back as the

12th century. William the Lion had a residence in the city, to

which he gave a charter in 1179 confirming the corporate rights

granted by David I. The city received other royal charters

later. It was burned by the English king, Edward III., in

1336, but it was soon rebuilt and extended, and called New

Aberdeen. The burgh records are the oldest in Scotland.

They begin in 1398 and with one brief break are complete to

the present day. For many centuries the city was subject to

attacks by the neighbouring barons, and was strongly fortified,

but the gates were all removed by 1770. In 1497 a blockhouse

was built at the harbour mouth as a protection against the

English. During the struggles between the Royalists and

Covenanters the city was impartially plundered by both

sides. In 1715 the Earl Marischal proclaimed the Old

Pretender at Aberdeen, and in 1745 the duke of Cumberland

resided for a short time in the city before attacking

the Young Pretender. The motto on the city arms is ``Bon

Accord,'' which formed the watchword of the Aberdonians

while aiding Robert Bruce in his battles with the English.

Population.---In 1396 the population was about 3000. By 1801 it had

become 26,992; in 1841 it was 63,262; (1891) 121,623; (1901) 153,503.

AUTHORITIES.--The charters of the burgh; extracts from

the council register down to 1625, and selections from the

letters. guildry and treasurer's accounts, forming 3 vols.

of the Spalding Club; Cosmo Innes, Registrum Episcopatus

Aberdonensis, Spalding Club; Walter Thore, The History

of Aberdeen (1811); Robert Wilson, Historical Account and

Delineation of Aberdeen (1822); William Kennedy, The Annals

of Aberdeen (1818); Orem, Descripjion of the Chanonry,

Cathedral and King's College of Old Aberdeen, 1724-1725

(1830); Sir Andrew Leith Hay of Rannes, The Castellated

Architecture of Aberdeen; Giles, Specimens of old

Castellated Houses of Aberdeen (1838); James Bryce, Lives

of Eminent Men of Aberdeen (1841); J. Gordon, Description

of Both Towns of Aberdeen (Spalding Club, 1842); Joseph

Robertson, The Book of Bon-Accord (Aberdeen, 1839); W.

Robbie, Aberdeen: its Traditions and History (Aberdeen,

1893); C. G. Burr and A. M. Munro, Old Landmarks of Aberdeen

(Aberdeen, 1886); A. M. Munro, Memorials of the Aldermen,

Provosts and Lord Provosts of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1897);

P. J. Anderson, Charters, &c., illustrating the History

of Records of Marischal College (New Spalding 1890);

Selections from the Records of Marischal College (New

Spalding Club, 1889, 1898..1899); J. Cooper, Chartulary of

the Church of St Nicholas (New Spalding Club, 1888, 1892);

G. Cadenhead, Sketch of the Territorial History of the

Burgh of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1876); W. Cadenhead, Guide to

the City of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1897); A. Smith, History

and Antiquities of New and Old Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1882).

ABERDEEN, a city and the county-seat of Brown county, South

Dakota, U.S.A., about 125 m. N.E. of Pierre. Pop. (1890)

3182; (1900) 4087, of whom 889 were foreign born; (1905) 5841;

(1910) 10,753. Aberdeen is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee

and St Paul, the Great Northern, the Minneapolis and St

Louis, and the Chicago and North Western railways. It is

the financial and trade centre for the northern part of the

state, a fine agricultural region, and in 1908 had five banks

and a number of wholesale houses. The city is the seat of the

Northern Normal and Industrial School, a state institution,

and has a Carnegie Library; the principal buildings are the

court house and the government buildings. Artesian wells

furnish good water-power, and artesian-well supplies, grain

pitchers, brooms, chemicals and flour are manufactured. The

municipality owns and operates the water-works. Aberdeen

was settled in 1880, and was chartered as a city in 1883.

ABERDEENSHIRE, a north-eastern county of Scotland, bounded

N. and E. by the North Sea, S. by Kincardine, Forfar and

Perth, and W. by Inverness and Banff. It has a coast-line

of 65 m., and is the sixth Scottish county in area, occupying

1261,887 acres or 1971 sq. m. The county is generally

hilly, and from the south-west, near the centre of Scotland,

the Grampians send out various branches, mostly to the

north-east. The shire is popularly divided into five

districts. Of these the first is Mar, mostly between the

Dee and Don, which nearly covers the southern half of the

county and contains the city of Aberdeen. It is mountainous,

especially Braemar (q.v.), which contains the greatest

mass of elevated land in the British Isles. The soil on the

Dee is sandy, and on the Don loamy. The second district,

Formartine, between the lower Don and Ythan, has a sandy

coast, which is succeeded inland by a clayey, fertile, tilled

tract, and then by low hills, moors, mosses and tilled land.

Buchan, the third district, lies north of the Ythan, and,

comprising the north-east of the county, is next in size to

Mar, parts of the coast being bold and rocky, the interior bare,

low, flat, undulating and in places peaty. On the coast, 6

m. S. of Peterhead, are the Bullers of Buchan--a basin in

which the sea, entering by a natural arch, boils up violently

in stormy weather. Buchan Ness is the most easterly point of

Scotland. The fourth district, Garioch, in the centre of the

shire, is a beautiful, undulating, loamy, fertile valley.

formerly called the granary of Aberdeen. Strathbogie, the

fifth district, occupying a considerable area south of the

Deveron, mostly consists of hills, moors and mosses. The

mountains are the most striking of the physical features of the

county. Ben Macdhui (4296 ft.), a magnificent mass, the

second highest mountain in Great Britain, Braeriach (4248),

Cairntoul (4241), Ben-na-bhuaird (3924), Ben Avon (3843),

``dark'' Lochnagar (3786), the subject of a well-known song by

Byron, Cairn Eas (3556), Sgarsoch (3402), Culardoch (2953),

are the principal heights in the division of Mar. Farther

north rise the Buck of Cabrach (2368) on the Banffshire border,

Tap o' Noth (1830), Bennachie (1698), a beautiful peak which

from its central position is a landmark visible from many

different parts of the county, and which is celebrated in John

Imlah's song, ``O gin I were where Gadie rins,'' and Foudland

(1529). The chief rivers are the Dee, 90 m. long; the Iyon,

82 m.; the Ythan, 37 m., with mussel-beds at its mouth; the

Ugie, 20 m., and the Deveron, 62 m., partly on the boundary of

Banffshire. The rivers abound with salmon and trout, and the

pearl mussel occurs in the Ythan and Don. A valuable pearl

in the Scottish crown is said to be from the Ythan. Loch

Muick, the largest of the few lakes in the county, 1310 ft.

above the sea, 2 1/2 m. long and 1/3 to 1/2 m. broad, lies some

8 1/2 m. S.W. of Ballater, and has Altnagiuthasach, a royal

shooting-box, near its south-western end. Loch Strathbeg, 6

m. S.E. of Fraserburgh, is only separated from the sea by

a narrow strip of land. There are noted chalybeate springs

at Peterhead, Fraserburgh, and Pannanich near Ballater.

Geology.---The greater part of the county is composed of

crystalline schists belonging to the metamorphic rocks of

the Eastern Highlands. In the upper parts of the valleys

of the Dee and the Don they form well-marked groups, of

which the most characteristic are (1) the black schists and

phyllites, with calcflintas, and a thin band of tremolite

limestone, (2) the main or Blair Atholl limestone, (3) the

quartzite. These divisions are folded on highly inclined or

vertical axes trending north-east and south-west, and hence

the same zones are repeated over a considerable area. The

quartzite is generally regarded as the highest member of the

series. Excellent sections showing the component strata

occur in Glen Clunie and its tributary valleys above Braemar.

Eastwards down the Dee and the Don and northwards across the

plain of Buchan towards Rattray Head and Fraserburgh there

is a development of biotite gneiss, partly of sedimentary

and perhaps partly of igneous origin. A belt of slate which

has been quarried for roofing purposes runs along the west

border of the county from Turriff by Auchterless and the

Foudland Hills towards the Tap o' Noth near Gartly. The

metamorphic rocks have been invaded by igneous materials, some

before, and by far the larger series after the folding of the

strata. The basic types of the former are represented by

the sills of epidiorite and hornblende gneiss in Glen Muick

and Glen Callater, which have been permeated by granite and

pegmatite in veins and lenticles, often foliated. The later

granites subsequent to the plication of the schists have a

wide distribution on the Ben Macdhui and Ben Avon range, and

on Lochnagar; they stretch eastwards from Ballater by Tarland

to Aberdeen and north to Bennachie. Isolated masses appear

at Peterhead and at Strichen. Though consisting mainly of

biotite granite, these later intrusions pass by intermediate

stages into diorite, as in the area between Balmoral and the

head-waters of the Gairn. The granites have been extensively

quarried at Rubislaw, Peterhead and Kemnay. Serpentine and

troctolite, the precise age of which is uncertain, occur at

the Black Dog rock north of Aberdeen, at Belhelvie and near Old

Meldrum. Where the schists of sedimentary origin have been

pierced by these igneous intrusions, they are charged with

contact minerals such as sillimanite, cordierite, kyanite and

andalusite. Cordierite-bearing rocks occur near Ellon, at the

foot of Bennachie, and on the top of the Buck of Cahrach. A

banded and mottled calc-silicate hornfels occurring with the

limestone at Iyerry Falls, W. N.W. of Braemar, has yielded

malacolite, wollastonite, brown idocrase, garnet, sphene and

hornblende. A larger list of minerals has been obtained

from an exposure of limestone and associated beds in Glen

Gairn, about four miles above the point where that river

joins the Dee. Narrow belts of Old Red Sandstone, resting

unconformably on the old platform of slates and schists, have

been traced from the north coast at Peterhead by Turriff to

Fyvie, and also from Huntly by Gartly to Kildrummy Castle.

The strata consist mainly of conglomerates and sandstones,

which, at Gartly and at Rhyme, are associated with lenticular

bands of andesite indicating contemporaneous volcanic

action. Small outliers of conglomerate and sandstone of this

age have recently been found in the course of excavations in

Aberdeen. The glacial deposits, especially in the belt

bordering the coast between Aberdeen and Peterhead, furnish

important evidence. The ice moved eastwards off the high

ground at the head of the Dee and the Don, while the mass

spreading outwards from the Moray Firth invaded the low

plateau of Buchan; but at a certain stage there was a marked

defection northwards parallel with the coast, as proved by

the deposit of red clay north of Aberdeen. At a later date

the local glaciers laid down materials on top of the red

clay. The committee appointed by the British Association

(Report for 1897, p. 333) proved that the Greensand, which

has yielded a large suite of Cretaceous fossils at Moreseat,

in the parish of Cruden, occurs in glacial drift, resting

probably on granite. The strata from which the Moreseat

fossils were derived are not now found in place in that part

of Scotland, but Mr Jukes Brown considers that the horizon

of the fossils is that of the lower Greensand of the Isle of

Wight or the Aptien stage of France. Chalk flints are widely

distributed in the drift between Fyvie and the east coast of

Buchan. At Plaidy a patch of clay with Liassic fossils

occurs. At several localities between Logie Coldstone and Dinnet

a deposit of diatomite (Kieselguhr) occurs beneath the peat.

Flora and Fauna.---The tops of the highest mountains have an

arctic flora. At the royal lodge on Loch Muick, 1350 ft. above

the sea, grow larches, vegetables, currants, laurels, roses,

&c. Some ash-trees, four or five feet in girth, are growing

at 1300 ft. above the sea. T rees, especially Scotch fir and

larch, grow well, and Braemar is rich in natural timber, said

to surpass any in the north of Europe. Stumps of Scotch fir

and oak found in peat are sometimes far larger than any now

growing. The mole is found at 1800 ft. above the sea, and the

squirrel at 1400. Grouse, partridges and hares are plentiful,

and rabbits are often too numerous. Red deer abound in

Braemar, the deer forest being the most extensive in Scotland.

Climate and Agriculture.---The climate, except in the

mountainous districts, is comparatively mild, owing to

the proximity of much of the shire to the sea. The mean

annual temperature at Braemar is 43.6 deg. F., and at Aberdeen

45.8 deg. . The mean yearly rainfall varies from about 30 to 37

in. The summer climate of the upper Dee and Don valleys is

the driest and most bracing in the British Isles, and grain

is cultivated up to 1600 ft. above the sea, or 400 to 500

ft. higher than elsewhere in North Britain. Poor, gravelly,

clayey and peaty solis prevail, but tile-draining, bones and

guano, and the best methods of modern tillage, have greatly

increased the produce. Indeed, in no part of Scotland has

a more productive soil been made out of such unpromising

material. Farm-houses and steadings have much improved, and

the best agricultural implements and machines are in general

use. About two-thirds of the population depend entirely

on agriculture . Farms are small compared with those in

the south-eastern counties. Oats are the predominant crop,

wheat has practically gone out of cultivation, but barley

has largely increased. The most distinctive industry is

cattle-feeding. A great number of the home-bred crosses

are fattened for the London and local markets, and Irish

animals are imported on an extensive scale for the same

purpose, while an exceedingly heavy business in dead meat

for London and the south is done all over the county.

Sheep, horses and pigs are also raised in large numbers.

Fisheries.---A large fishing population in villages along

the coast engage in the white and herring fishery, which is the

next most important industry to agriculture, its development

having been due almost exclusively to the introduction of steam

trawlers. The total value of the annual catch, of which

between a half and a third consists of herrings, amounts to

L. 1,000,000. Haddocks are salted and rock-dried (speldings)

or smoked (finnans). The ports and creeks are divided

into the fishery rllstricts of Peterhead, Fraserburgh and

Aberdeen, the last of which includes also three Kincardineshire

ports. The herring season for Aberdeen, Peterhead and

Fraserburgh is from June to September, at which time

the ports are crowded with boats from other Scottish

districts. There are valuable salmon-fishings--rod, net

and stake-net--on the Dee, Don, Ythan and Ugie. The average

annual despatch of salmon from Aberdeenshire is about 400 tons.

Other Industries.--Manufactures are mainly prosecuted in or

near the city of Aberdeen, but throughout the rural districts

there is much milling of corn, brick and tile making, smith-work,

brewing and distilling, cart and farm-implement making,

casting and drying of peat, and timber-felling, especially

on Deeside and Donside, for pit-props, railway sleepers,

laths and barrel staves. There are a number of paper-making

establishments, most of them on the Don near Aberdeen.

The chief source of mineral wealth is the noted durable

granite, which is quarried at Aberdeen, Kemnay, Peterhead and

elsewhere. An acre of land on being reclaimed has yielded L. 40 to

L. 50 worth of causewaying stones. Sandstone and other rocks

are also quarried at different parts. The imports are mostly

coal, lime, timber, iron, slate, raw materials for the textile

manufactures, wheat, cattle-feeding stuffs, bones, guano, sugar,

alcoholic liquors, fruits. The exports are granite (roughdressed

and polished), flax, woollen and cotton goods, paper, combs,

preserved provisions, oats, barley, live and dead cattle.

Communications.---From the south Aberdeen city is approached

by the Caledonian (via Perth, Forfar and Stonehaven), and the

North British (via Dundee, Montrose and Stonehaven) railways,

and the shire is also served by the Great North of Scotland

railway, whose main line runs via Kintore and Huntly to Keith and

Elgin. There are branch lines from various points opening up

the more populous districts, as from Aberdeen to Ballater by

Deeside, from Aberdeen to Fraserburgh (with a branch at Maud

for Peterhead and at Ellon for Cruden Bay and Boddam), from

Kintore to Alford, and from Inverurie to Old Meldrum and also to

Macduff. By sea there is regular communication with London,

Leith, Inverness, Wick, the Orkneys and Shetlands, Iceland and the

continent. The highest of the macadamized roads crossing the

eastern Grampians rises to a point 2200 ft. above sea-level.

Population and Government.---In 1801 the population numbered

284,036 and in 1901 it was 304,439 (of whom 159,603 were

females), or 154 persons to the sq. m. In 1901 there were 8

persons who spoke Gaelic only, and 1333 who spoke Gaelic and

English. The chief towns are Aberdeen (pop. in 1901, 153,503),

Bucksburn (2231), Fraserburgh (9105), Huntly (4136), Inverurie

(3624), Peterhead (11,794), Turriff (2273). The Supreme Court

of Justiciary sits in Aberdeen to try cases from the counties of

Aberdeen, Banff and Kincardine. The three counties are under

a sheriff, and there are two sheriffs-substitute resident in

Aberdeen, who sit also at Fraserburgh, Huntly, Peterhead and

Turriff. The sheriff courts are held in Aberdeen and

Peterhead. The county sends two members to parliament

--one for East Aberdeenshire and the other for West

Aberdeenshire. The county town, Aberdeen (q.v.), returns two

members. Peterhead, Inverurie and Kintore belong to the Elgin

group of parliamentary burghs, the other constituents being

Banff, Cullen and Elgin. The county is under school-board

jurisdiction, and there are also several voluntary schools.

There are higher-class schools in Aberdeen, and secondary

schools at Huntly, Peterhead and Fraserburgh, and many of

the other schools in the county earn grants for secondary

education. The County Secondary Education Committee dispense

a large sum, partly granted by the education department and

partly contributed by local authorities from the ``residue''

grant, and support, besides the schools mentioned, local

clases and lectures in agriculture, fishery and other technical

subjects, in addition to subsidizing the agricultural department

of the university of Aberdeen. The higher branches of

education have always been thoroughly taught in the schools

throughout the shire, and pupils have long been in the

habit of going directly from the schools to the university.

The native Scots are long-headed, shrewd, careful, canny,

active, persistent, but reserved and blunt, and without

demonstrative enthusiasm. They have a physiognomy distinct

from the rest of the Scottish people, and have a quick,

sharp, rather angry accent. The local Scots dialect is

broad, and rich in diminutives, and is noted for the use

of e for o or u, f for wh, d for th, &c.

So recently as 1830 Gaelic was the fireside language of

almost every family in Braemar, but now it is little used.

History.---The country now forming the shires of Aberdeen

and Banff was originally peopled by northern Picts, whom

Ptolemy called Taixall, the territory being named Taixalon.

Their town of Devana, once supposed to be the modern Aberdeen,

has been identified by Prof. John Stuart with a site in the

parish of Peterculter, where there are remains of an ancient

camp at Normandykes, and by Dr W. F. Skene with a station

on Loch Davan, west of Aboyne. So-called Roman camps have

also been discovered on the upper Ythan and Deveron, but

evidence of effective Roman occupation is still to seek.

Traces of the native inhabitants, however, are much less

equivocal. Weems or earth-houses are fairly common in the

west. Relics of crannogs or lake-dwellings exist at Loch

Ceander, or Kinnord, 5 m. north-east of Ballater, at Loch

Goul in the parish of New Machar and elsewhere. Duns or forts

occur on hills at Dunecht, where the dun encloses an area

of two acres, Bnrra near Old Meldrum, Tap o' Noth, Dunnideer

near Insch and other places. Monoliths, standing stones and

``Druidical'' circles of the pagan period abound, and there are

many examples of the sculptured stones of the early Christian

epoch. Efforts to convert the Picts were begun by Teman

in the 5th century, aad continued by Columba (who founded

a monastery at Old Deer), Drostan, Maluog and Machar, but

it was long before they showed lasting results. Indeed,

dissensions within the Columban church and the expulsion

of the clergy from Pictland by the Pictish king Nectan in

the 8th century undid most of the progress that had been

made. The Vikings and Danes periodically raided the coast,

but whhen (1040) Macbeth ascended the throne of Scotland the

Northmen, under the guidance of Thorfinn, refrained from further

trouble in the north-east. Macbeth was afterwards slain at

Lumphanan (1057), a cairn on Perkhill marking the spot. The

influence of the Norman conquest of England was felt even in

Aberdeenshire. Along with numerous Anglo-Saxon exiles, there

also settled in the country Flemings who introduced various

industries, Saxons who brought farming, and Scandinavians

who taught nautical skill. The Celts revolted more than

once, but Malcolm Canmore and his successors crushed them

and confiscated their lands. In the reign of Alexander

I. (d. 1124) mention is first made of Aberdeen (originally

called Abordon and, in the Norse sagas, Apardion), which

received its charter from William the Lion in 1179, by which

date its burgesses had alfeady combined with those of Banff,

Elgin, Inverness and other trans-Grampian communities to form

a free Hanse, under which they enjoyed exceptional trading

privileges. By this time, too, the Church had been organized,

the bishopric of Aberdeen having been established in 1150.

In the 12th and 13th centuries some of the great Aberdeenshire

famines arose, including the earl of Mar (c. 1122), the

Leslies, Freskins (ancestors of the dukes of Sutherland),

Durwards, Bysets, Comyns and Cheynes, and it is significant

that in most cases their founders were immigrants. The

Celtic thanes and their retainers slowly fused with the

settlers. They declined to take advantage of the disturbed

condition of the country during the wars of the Scots

independence, and made common cause with the bulk of the

nation. Though John Comyn (d. 1300?), one of the competitors

for the throne, had considerable interests in the shire, his

claim received locally little support. In 1296 Edward I. made

a triumphal march to the north to terrorize the more turbulent

nobles. Next year Wilham Wallace surprised the English garrison

in Aberdeen, but failed to capture the castle. In 1303 Edward

again visited the county, halting at the Castle of Kildrummy,

then in the possession of Robert Bruce, who shortly afterwards

became the acknowledged leader of the Scots and made Aberdeen

his headquarters for several months. Despite the seizure of

Kildrummy Castle by the English in 1306, Bruce's prospects

brightened from 1308, when he defeated John Comyn, earl of

Buchan (d. 1313?), at Inverurie. For a hundred years after

Robert Bruce's death (1329) there was intermittent anarchy

in the shire. Aberdeen itself was burned by the English in

1336, and the re-settlement of the districts of Buchan and

Strathbogie occasioned constant quarrels On the part of the

dispossessed. Moreover, the crown had embroiled itself

with some of the Highland chieftains, whose independence it

sought to abolish. This policy culminated in the invasion of

Aberdeenshire by Donald, lord of the Isles, who was, however,

defeated at Harlaw, near Inverurie, by the earl of Mar in

1411. In the 15th century two other leading county families

appeared, Sir Alexander Forbes being created Lord Eorbes

about 1442, and Sir Alexander Seton Lord Gordon in 1437 and

earl of Huntly in 1445. Bitter feuds raged between these

families for a long period, but the Gordons reached the

height of their power in the first half of the 16th century,

when their domains, already vast, were enhanced by the

acquisition, through marriage, of the earldom of Sutherland

(1514). Meanwhile commerce with the Low Countries, Poland

and the Baltic had grown apace, Campvere, near Flushing in

Holland, becoming the emporium of the Scottish traders, while

education was fostered by the foundation of King's College

at Aberdeen in 1497 (Marischal College followed a century

later). At the Reformation so little intuition had the

clergy of the drift of opinion that at the very time that

religious structures were being despoiled in the south, the

building and decoration of churches went on in the shire.

The change was acquiesced in without much tumult, though

rioting took place in Aberdeen and St Machar's cathedral in

the city suffered damage. The 4th earl of Huntly offered

some resistance, on behalf of the Catholics, to the influence

of Lord James Stuart, afterwards the Regent Murray, but

was defeated and killed at Corrichie on the hill of Fare in

1562. As years passed it was apparent that Presbyterianism

was less generally acceptable than Episcopacy, of which system

Aberdeenshire remained for generations the stronghold in

Scotland. Another crisis in ecclesiastical affairs arose in

1638, when the National Covenant was ordered to be subscribed,

a demand so grudgingly responded to that the marquis of

Montrose visited the shire in the following year to enforce

acceptance. The Cavaliers, not being disposed to yield,

dispersed an armed gathering of Covenanters in the affair

called the Trot of Turriff (1639), in which the first blood

of the civil war was shed. The Covenanters obtained the upper

hand in a few weeks, when Montrose appeared at the bridge

of Dee and compelled the surrender of Aberdeen, which had no

choice but to cast in its lot with the victors. Montrose,

however, soon changed sides, and after defeating the Covenanters

under Lord Balfour of Burleigh (1644), delivered the city to

rapine. He worsted the Covenanters again after a stiff

fight on the 2nd of July 1645, at Alford, a village in the

beautiful Howe of Alford. Peace was temporarily restored

on the ``engagement', of the Scots commissioners to assist

Charles I. On his return from Holland in 1650 Charles II.

was welcomed in Aberdeen, but in little more than a year

General Monk entered the city at the head of the Cromwellian

regiments. The English garrison remained till 1659, and

next year the Restoration was effusively hailed, and prelacy

was once more in the ascendant. Most of the Presbyterians

conformed, but the Quakers, more numerous in the shire

and the adjoining county of Kincardine than anywhere else

in Scotland, were systematically persecuted. After the

Revolution (1688) episcopacy passed under a cloud, but the

clergy, yielding to force majeure, gradually accepted the

inevitable, hoping, as long as Queen Anne lived, that prelacy

might yet be recognized as the national form of Church

government. Her death dissipated these dreams, and as George

I., her successor, was antipathetic to the clergy, it happened

that Jacobitism and episcopalianism came to be regarded in the

shire as identical, though in point of fact the non-jurors as

a body never countenanced rebellion. The earl of Mar raised

the standard of revolt in Braemar (6th of September 1715); a

fortnight later James was proclaimed at Aberdeen cross; the

Pretender landed at Peterhead on the 22nd of December, and

in February 1716 he was back again in France. The collapse

of the first rising ruined many of the lairds, and when the

second rebellion occurred thirty years afterwards the county

in the main was apathetic, though the insurgents held Aberdeen

for five months, and Lord Lewis Gordon won a trifling victory

for Prince Charles Edward at Inverurie (23rd of December

1745). The duke of Cumberland relieved Aberdeen at the end

of February 1746, and in April the Young Pretender was a

fugitive. Thereafter the people devoted themselves to

agriculture, industry and commerce, which developed by leaps

and bounds, and, along with equally remarkable progress in

education, transformed the aspect of the shire and made the

community as a whole one of the most prosperous in Scotland.

See W. Watt, History of Aberdeen and Banff (Edinburgh,

1900); Collections for a History of the Shires of Aberdeen

and Banff. (edited by Dr Joseph Robertson, Spalding Club); Sir

A. Leith-Hay, Castles of Aberdeenshire (Aberdeen, 188R);

J; Davidson, Inverurie and the Earldom of the Garioch

(Edinburgh, 1878); Pratt, Buchan (rev. by) R. Anderson),

(Aberdeen, 1900); A. I. M'Connochie, Deeside (Aberdeen, 1895).

ABERDOUR, a village of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pleasantly

situated on the shore of the Firth of Forth, 17 1/2 m. N.W.

of Edinburgh by the North British railway and 7 m. N.W. of

Leith by steamer, it is much resorted to for its excellent

sea-bathing. There are ruins of a castle and an old decayed

church, which contains some fine Norman work. About 3

m. S.W. is Donibristle House, the seat of the earl of Murray

(Moray), and the scene of the murder (Feb. 7, 1592) of James,

2nd (Stuart) earl of Murray. The island of Inchcolm, or

Island of Columba, 1/4 m. from the shore, is in the parish of

Aberdour. As its name implies, its associations date back

to the time of Columba. The primitive stone-roofed oratory

is supposed to have been a hermit's ceil. The Augustinian

monastery was founded in 1123 by Alexander I. The buildings

are well preserved, consisting of a low square tower, church,

cloisters, refectory and small chapterhouse. The island

of Columba was occasionally plundered by English and other

rovers, but in the 16th century it became the property of

Sir James Stuart, whose grandson became 2nd earl of Murray

by virtue of his marriage to the elder daughter of the 1st

earl. From it comes the earl's title of Lord St Colme (1611).

ABERDOVEY (Aberdyfi: the Dyfi is the county frontier), a

seaside village of Merionethshire, North Wales, on the Cambrian

railway. Pop. (1901) 1466. It lies in the midst of beautiful

scenery, 4 m. from Towyn, on the N. bank of the Dyfi estuary,

commanding views of Snowdon, Cader Idris, Arran Mawddy and

Plynllmmon. The Dyfi, here a mile broad, is crossed by a

ferry to Borth sands, whence a road leads to Aberystwyth.

The submerged ``bells of Aberdovey'' (since Seithennin ``the

drunkard'' caused the formation of Cardigan Bay) are famous

in a Welsh song. Aberdovey is a health and bathing resort.

ABERFOYLE, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, 34 1/4

m. N. by W. of Glasgow by the North British railway. Pop.

of parish (1901) 1052. The village is situated at the base of

Craigmore (1271 ft. high) and on the Laggan, a head-water of the

Forth. Since 1885, when the duke of Montrose constructed a

road over the eastern shoulder of Craigmore to join the older

road at tho entrance of the Trossachs pass, Aberfoyle has become

the alternauve route to the Trossachs and Loch Katrine. Loch

Ard, about 2 m. W. of LIberfoyle, lies 105 ft. above the

sea. It is 3 m. long (including the narrows at the east end)

and 1 m. broad. Towards the west end is Eilean Gorm (the

green isle), and near the north-western shore are the falls of

Ledard. Two m. N.W. is Loch Chon, a90 ft. above the sea,

1 1/4 m. long, and about 1/2 m. broad. It drains by the Avon

Dhu to Loch Ard, which is drained in turn by the Laggan. The

slate quarries on Craigmore are the Only industry in Aberfoyle.

ABERGAVENNY, a market town and municipal borough in the

northern parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, 14

m. W. of Monmouth on the Great Western and the London and

North-Western railways. Pop. (1901) 7795. It is situated

at the junction of a small stream cailed the Gavenny with the

river Usk; and the site, almost surrounded by lofty hills,

is very beautiful. The town was formerly walled, and has the

remains of a castle built soon after the conquest, frequently

the scene of border strife. The church of St Mary belonged

originally to a Benedictine monastery founded early in the 12th

century. The existing building, however, is Decorated and

Perpendicular, and contains a fine series of memorials of dates

from the 13th to the 17th century. There is a free grammar

school, which till 1857 had a fellowship at Jesus College,

Oxford. Breweries, ironworks, quarries, brick fields and

collieries in the neihbourhood are among the principal industrial

establishments. Abergavenny was incorporated in 1899, and is

governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 825 acres.

This was the Roman Gobannium, a small fort guarding the

road along the valley of the Usk and ensuring quiet among

the hill tribes. There is practically no trace of this

fort. Abergavenny (Bergavenny) grew up under the protection

of the lords of Abergavenny, whose title dated from William

I. Owing to its situation, the town was frequently embroiled

in the border warfare of the 12th and 13th centuries, and

Giraldus Cambrensis relates how in 1173 the castle was seized

by the Welsh. Hamelyn de Baalun, first lord of Abergavenny,

founded the Benedictine priory, which was subsequently

endowed by William de Braose with a tenth of the profits

of the castle and town. At the dissolution of the priory

part of this endowment went towards the foundation of a

free grammar school, the site itself passing to the Gunter

family. During the Civil War prior to the siege of Ragban

Castle in 1645, Charles I. visited Abergavenny, and presided

in person over the trial of Sir Trevor Williams and other

parliamentarians. In 1639 Abergavenny received a charter

of incorporation under the title of bailiff and burgesses.

A charter with extended privileges was drafted in 1657, but

appears never to have been enrolled or to have come into effect.

OV1ng to the refusal of the chief officers of the corporation

to take the oath of allegiance to William III. in 1688, the

charter was annullod, and the town subseunentlv declined in

prosperity. The act of 27 Henry VIII., which provided that

llonmouth, as county town, should return one burgess to

parliament, further stated that other ancient Monmouthshire

boroughs were to contribute towards the payment of the

member. In consequence of this clause Abergavenny on various

occasions shared in the election, the last instance being in

1685. Reference to a market at Abergavenny is found in a charter

granted to the prior by William de Braose (d. r211). The right

to hold two weekly markets and three yearly fairs, as hitherto

held, was confirmed in 1657. Abergavenny was celebrated for

the production of Welsh flannel, and also for the manufacture,

whilst the fashion prevailed, of periwigs of goats, hair.

The title of Baron Abergavenny, in the Neville family, dates

from Edward Neville (d. 1476), who was the youngest son of

the 1st earl of Westmoreland by Joan Beaufort, daughter of

John of Gaunt. He married the heiress of Richard, earl of

Worcester, whose father had inherited the castle and estate of

Abergavenny, and was summoned in 1392 to parliament as Lord

Bergavenny. Edward Neville was summoned to parliament with

this title in 1450. His direct male descendants ended in 1387

in Henry Neville, but a cousin, Edward Neville (d. 1622), was

confirmed in the barony in 1604. From him it has descended

continuously, the title being increased to an earldom in

1784; and in 1876 William Nevill (sic) 5th earl (b. 1826),

an indefatigable and powerful supporter of the conseruative

party, was created 1st marquess of Abergavenny. (See NEVILLE.)

ABERIGH-MACKAY, GEORGE ROBERT (1848-1881), Anglo-Indian

writer, son of a Bengal chaplain, was born on the 25th

of July 1848, and was educated at Magdalen College School

and Cambridge University. Entering the Indian education

department in 1870, he became professor of English literature

in Delhi College in 1873, tutor to the raja of Rutlam

1876, and principal of the Rajkumar College at Indore in

1877. He is best known for his book Twenty-one Days in India

(1878--1879), a satire upon Anglo-Indian society and modes of

thought. This book gave promise of a successful literary

Career, but the author died at the age of thirty-three.

ABERNETHY, JOHN (1680-1740), Irish Presbyterian divine,

was born at Coleraine, county Londonderry, where his father

was Nonconformist minister, on the 19th of October 1680. In

his thirteenth year he entered the university of Glasgow, and

on concluding his course thore went on to Edinburgh, where

his intellectual and social attainments gained him a ready

entrance into the most cultured circles. Returning home he

received licence to preach from his Presbytery before he was

twenty-one. In 1701 he was urgently invited to accept charge

of an important congregation in Antrim; and after an interval

of two years, mostly spent in further study in Dublin, he

was ordained there on the 8th of August 1703. Here he did

notable work, both as a debater in the synods and assemblies

of his church and as an evangelist. In 1712 he lost his wife

(Susannah Jordan), and the loss desolated his life for many

years. In 1717 he was invited to the congregation of Usher's

Quay, Dublin, and contemporaneously to what was called the

Old Congregation of Belfast. The synod assigned him to

Dublin. After careful consideration he declined to accede,

and remained at Antrim. This refusal was regarded then as

ecclesisstical high-treason; and a controversy of the most

intense and disproportionate character followed, Abernethy

standing firm for religious freedom and repudiating the

sacerdotal assumptions of all ecclesiastical courts. The

controversy and quarrel bears the name of the two camps in the

conflict, the ``Subscribers'' and the ``Non-subscribers.''

Out-and-out evangelical as (John Abernethy was, there can

be no question that he and his associates sowed the seeds

of that after-struggle (1821--1840) in which, under the

leadership of Dr Henry Cooke, the Arian and Socinian elements

of the Irish Presbyterian Church were thrown out. Much of

what he contended for, and which the ``Subscribers'' opposed

bitterly, has been silently granted in the lapse of time.

In 1726 the ``Non-subscribers,'' spite of an almost wofully

pathetic pleading against separation by Abernethy, were cut

off, with due ban and solemnity, from the Irish Presbyterian

Church. In 1730, although a ``Non-subscriber,'' he was

invited to Wood Street, Dublin, whither he removed. In

1731 came on the greatest controversy in which Abernethy

engaged, viz. in relation to the Test Act nominally, but

practically on the entire question of tests and disabilities.

His stand was ``against all laws that, upon account of mere

differences of religious opinions and forms of worship,

excluded men of integrity and ability from serving their

country.'' He was nearly a century in advance of his age.

He had to reason with those who denied that a Roman Catholic

or Dissenter could be a ``man of integrity and ability.''

His Tracts---afterwards collected--did fresh service,

generations later, and his name is honoured by all who love

freedom of conscience and opinion. He died in December 1740.

See Dr Duchal's Life, prefixed to Sermons (1762): Diary in

MS., 6 vols. 4to; Reid's Presbyterian Church in Ireland, iii. 234.

ABERNETHY, JOHN (1764-1831), English surgeon, grandson of

John Abernethy (see above), was born in London on the 3rd of

April 1764. His father was a London merchant. Educated at

Wolverhampton grammar school, he was apprenticed in 1779 to

Sir Charles Blicke (1745-1815), surgeon to St Bartholomew's

Hospital, London. He attended the anatomical lectures of

Sir William Blizard (1743-1835) at the London Hospital,

and was early employed to assist as ``demonstrator'';

he also attended Percival Pott's surgical lectures at St

Bartholomew's Hospital, as well as the lectures of John

Hunter. On Pott's resignation of the office of surgeon of St

Bartholomew's, Sir Charles Blicke, who was assistant-surgeon,

succeeded him, and Abernethy was elected assistant-surgeon in

1787. In this capacity he began to give lectures at his

house in Bartholomew Close, which were so well attended

that the governors of the hospital built a regular theatre

(1790-1791), and Abernethy thus became the founder of the

distinguished school of St Bartholomew's. He held the office

of assistant-surgeon of the hospital for the long period of

twenty-eight years, till, in 1815, he was elected principal

surgeon. He had before that time been appointed lecturer in

anatomy to the Royal College of Surgeons (1814). Abernethy

was not a great operator, though his name is associated with

the treatment of aneurism by ligature of the external iliac

artery. His Surgical Observations on the Constitutional

Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases (1809)--known as ``My

Book,'' from the great frequency with which he referred his

patients to it, and to page 72 of it in particular, under that

name--was one of the earliest popular works on medical science,

He taught that local diseases were frequently the results

of disordered states of the digestive organs, and were to be

treated by purging and attention to diet. As a lecturer he was

exceedingly attractive, and his success in teaching was largely

attributable to the persuasiveness with which he enunciated his

views. It has been said, however, that the influence he exerted

on those who attended his lectures was not beneficial in this

respect, that his opinions were delivered so dogmatically,

and all who differed from him were disparaged and denounced

so contemptuously, as to repress instead of stimulating

inquiry. The celebrity he attained in his practice was due

not only to his great professional skill, but also in part

to the singularity of his manners. He used great plainness

of speech in his intercourse with his patients, treating them

often brusquely and sometimes even rudely. In the circle of

his family and friends he was courteous and affectionate; and

in all his dealings he was strictly just and honourable. He

resigned his position at St Bartholomew's Hospital in 1827,

and died at his residence at Enfield on the 20th of April 1831.

A collected edition of his works was published in 1830. A biography,

Memoirs of John Abernethy, by George Macilwain, appeared in 1853.

ABERRATION (Lat. ab, from or away, errare, to wander),

a deviation or wandering, especially used in the figurative

sense: as in ethics, a deviation from the truth; in pathology,

a mental derangement; in zoology and botany, abnormal

development or structure. In optics, the word has two special

applications: (1) Aberration of Light, and (2) Aberration

in Optical Systems. These subjects receive treatment below.

I. ABERIIATION OF LIGHT This astronomical phenomenon may

be defined as an apparent motion of the heavenly bodies; the

stars describing annually orbits more or less elliptical,

according to the latitude of the star; consequently at

any moment the star appears to be displaced from its true

position. This apparent motion is due to the finite velocity

of light, and the progressive motion of the observer with the

earth, as it performs its yearly course about the sun. It

may be familiarized by the following illustrations. Alexis

Claude Clairaut gave this figure: Imagine rain to be falling

vertically, and a person carrying a thin perpendicular tube

to be standing on the ground. If the bearer be stationary,

rain-drops will traverse the tube without touching its sides;

if, however, the person be walking, the tube must be inchued

at an angle varying as his velocity in order that the rain

may traverse the tube centrally. (J. J. L. de Lalande gave

the illustration of a roofed carriage with an open front: if

the carriage be stationary, no rain enters; if, however, it be

moying, rain enters at the front. The ``umbrella', analogy

is possibly the best known figure. When stationary, the most

efficient position in which to hold an umbrella is obviously

vertical; when walking, the umbrella must be held more and

more inclined from the vertical as the walker quickens his

pace. Another familiar figure, pointed Out by P. L. M. de

Maupertuis, is that a sportsman, when aiming at a bird on the

wing, sights his gun some distance ahead of the bird, the

distance being proportional to the velocity of the bird.

The mechanical idea, named the parallelogram of velocities,

permits a ready and easy graphical representation of these

facts. Reverting to the analogy of Clairaut, let AB (fig.

1) represent the velocity of the rain, and AC the relative

velocity of the person bearing the tube. The diagonal AD

of the parallelogram, of which AB and AC are adjacent sides,

will represent, both in direction and magnitude, the motion

of the rain as apparent to the observer. Hence for the

rain to centrally traverse the tube, this must be inclined

at an angle BAD to the vertical; this angle is conveniently

termed the aberration: due to these two motions. The

umbrella analogy is similarly explained; the most efficient

position heing when the stick points along the resultant AD.

The discovery of the aberration of light in 1725, due to James

Bradley, is one of the most important in the whole domain of

astronomy. That it wus unexpected there can be no doubt;

and it was only by extraordinary perseverance and perspicuity

that Bradley was able to explain it in 1727. Its origin is

seated in attempts made to free from doubt the prevailing

discordances as to whether the stars possessed appreciable

parallaxes. The Copernican theory of the solar system--that

the earth revolved annually about the sun--had received

confirmation by the observations of Galileo and Tycho

Brahe, and the mathematical investigations of Kepler and

Newton. As early as 1573, Thomas Digges had suggested that

this theory should necessitate a parallactic shifting of

the stars, and, consequently, if such stellar parallaxes

existed, then the Copernican theory would receive additional

confirmation. Many observers claimed to have determined such

parallaxes, but Tycho Brahe and G. B. Riccioll concluded

that they existed only in the minds of the observers, and

were due to instrumental and personal errors. In 1680 Jean

Picard, in his Voyage d'Uranibourg, stated, as a result

of ten years' observations, that Polaris, or the Pole

Star, exhibited variations in its position amounting to 40"

annually; some astronomers endeavoured to explain this by

parallax, but these attempts were futile, for the motion

was at variance with that which parallax would occasion. J.

Flamsteed, from measurements made in 1689 and succeeding

years with his mural quadrant, similarly concluded that the

declination of the Pole Star was 40" less in July than in

September. R. Hooke, in 1674, pubilshed his observations of

g Draconis, a star of the second magnitude which passes

practically overhead in the latitude of London, and whose

observations are therefore singularly free from the complex

corrections due to astronomical refraction, and concluded

that this star was 23" more northerly in July than in October.

When James Bradley and Samuel Moineux entered this sphere of

astronomical research in 1725, there consequently prevailed

much uncertainty as to whether stellar parallaxes had been

observed or not; and it was with the intention of definitely

answering this question that these astronomers erected a large

telescope at the house of the latter at Kew. They determined

to reinvestigate the motion of g Draconis; the telescope,

constructed by George Graham (1675-1751), a celebrated

instrument-maker, was affixed to a vertical chimneystack,

in such manner as to permit a small oscillation of the

eyepiece, the amount of which, i.e. the deviation from the

vertical, was regulated and measured by the introduction

of a screw and a plumb-line. The instrument was set up

in November 1725, and observations on g Draconis were

made on the 3rd, 5th, 11th, and 12th of December. There

was apparently no shifting of the star, which was therefore

thought to be at its most southerly point. On the 17th of

December, however, Bradley observed that the star was moving

southwards, a motion further shown by observations on the

20th. These results were unexpected, and, in fact, inexplicable

by existing theories; and an examination of the telescope

showed that the observed anomalies were not due to instrumental

errors. The observations were continued, and the star was

seen to continue its southerly course until March, when it

took up a position some 20" more southerly than its December

position. After March it began to pass northwards, a motion

quite apuarent by the middle of April; in June it passed

at the same distance from the zenith as it did in December;

and in September it passed through its most northerly

position, the extreme range from north to south, i.e. the

angle between the March and September positions, being 40".

This motion is evidently not due to parallax, for, in this

case, the maximum range should be between the June and

December positions; neither was it due to observatiooal

errors. Bradley and Molyneux discussed several hypotheses in

the hope of fixing the solution. One hypothesis was: while

g Draconis was stationary, the plumb-line, from which

the angular measurements were made, varied; this would follow

if the axis of the earth varied. The oscillation of the

earth's axis may arise in two distinct ways; distinguished

as ``nutation of the axis'' and ``variation of latitude.''

Nutation, the only form of oscillation imagined by Bradley,

postulates that while the earth's axis is fixed with respect

to the earth, i.e. the north and south poles occupy permanent

geographical positions, yet the axis is not directed towards

a fixed point in the heavens; variation of latitude, however,

is associated with the shifting of the axis within the earth,

i.e. the geographical position of the north pole varies.

Nutation of the axis would determine a similar apparent

motion for all stars: thus, all stars having the same polar

distance as g Draconis should exhibit the same apparent

motion after or before this star by a constant interval.

Many stars satisfy the condition of equality of polar distance

with that of g Draconis, but few were bright enough to

be observed in Molyneux's telescope. One such star, however,

with a right ascension nearly equal to that of g Draconis,

but in thc opposite sense, was selected and kept under

observation. This star was seen to possess an apparent

motion similar to that which would be a consequence of the

nutation of the earth's axis; but since its declination

varied only one half as much as in the case of g Draconis,

it was obvious that nutation did not supply the requisite

solution. The question as to whether the motion was due to

an irregular distribution of the earth's atmosphere, thus

involving abnormal variations in the refractive index, was

also investigated; here, again, negative results were obtained.

Bradley had already perceived, in the case of the two stars

previously scrutinized, that the apparent difference of

declination from the maximum positions was nearly proportional

to the sun's distance from the equinoctial points; and he

reallzed the necessity for more observations before any

generalization could be attempted. For this purpose he

repaired to the Rectory, Wanstead, then the residence of Mrs

Pound, the widow of his uncle James Pound, with whom he had

made many observations of the heavenly bodies. Here he had set

up, on the 19th of August 1727, a more convenient telescope

than that at Kew, its range extending over 6 1/4 deg. on each

side of the zenith, thus covering a far larger area of the

sky. Two hundred stars in the British Catalogue of

Flamsteed traversed its field of view; and, of these, about

fifty were kept under close observation. His conclusions

may be thus summatized: (1) only stars near the solstitial

colure had their maximum north and south positions when the

sun was near the equinoxes, (2) each star was at its maximum

positions when it passed the zenith at six o'clock morning

and evening (this he afterwards showed to be inaccurate, and

found the greatest change in declination to be proportional

to the latitude of the star), (3) the apparent motions of

all stars at about the same time was in the same direction.

A re-examination of his previously considered hypotheses as

to the cause of these phenomena was fruitless; the true theory

was ultimately discovered by a pure accident, comparable in

simplicity and importance with the association of a falling

apple with the discovery of the principle of universal

gravitation. Sailing on the river Thames, Bradley repeatedly

observed the shifting of a vane on the mast as the boat altered

its courser and, having been assured that the motion of the

vane meant that the boat, and not the wind, had altered its

direction, he realized that the position taken up by the vane

was determined by the motion of the boat and the direction of the

wind. The application of this observation to the phenomenon

which had so long perplexed him was not difficult, and, in

1727, he published his theory of the aberration of light--a

corner-stone of the edifice of astronomical science. Let

S (fig. 2) be a star and the observer be carried along the

line AB; let SB be perpendicular to AB. If the observer be

stationary at B, the star will appear in the direction BS;

if, however, he traverses the distance BA in the same time

as light passes from the star to his eye, the star will E

appear in the direction AS. Since, however, the observer is

not conscious of his own translatory motion with the earth

in its orbit, the star appears to have a displacement which

is at all times parallel to the motion of the observer. To

generalize this, let S (fig. 3) be the sun, ABCD the earth's

orbit, and s the true position of a star. When the earth

is at A, in consequence of aberration, the star is displaced

to a point a, its displacement sa being parallel to the

earth's motion at A; when the earth is at B, the star appears

at b; and so on throughout an orbital revolution of the

earth. Every star, therefore, describes an apparent orbit,

which, if the line joining the sun and the star be perpendicular

to the plane ABCD, will be exactly similar to that of the

earth, i.e. almost a circle. As the star decreases in

latitude, this circle will be viewed more and more obliquely,

becoming a flatter and flatter ellipse until, with zero

latitude, it degenerates into a straight line (fig. 4).

The major axis of any such aberrational ellipse is always parallel

to AC, i.e. the ecliptic, and since it is equal to the ratio

of the velocity of light to the velocity of the earth, it is

necessarily constant. This constant length subtends an angle

of about 40" at the earth; the ``constant of aberration'' is

half this angle. The generally accepted value is 20.445", due

to Struve; the last two figures are uncertain, and all that can

be definitely affirmed is that the value lies between 20.43" and

20.48". The minor axis, on the other hand, is not constant,

but, as we have already seen, depends on the latitude, being

the product of the major axis into the sine of the latitude.

Assured that his explanation was true, Bradley corrected his

observations for aberration, but he found that there still

remained a residuum which was evidently not a parallax, for

it did not exhibit an annual cycle. He reverted to his early

idea of a nutation of the earth's axis, and was rewarded by the

discovery that the earth did possess such an osculation (see

ASTRONOMY). Bradley recognized the fact that the experimental

determination of the aberration constant gave the ratio of the

velocities of light and of the earth; hence, if the velocity

of the earth be known, the velocity of light is determined.

In recent years much attention has been given to the nature

of the propagation of light from the heavenly bodies to the

earth, the argument generally being centred about the relative

effect of the motion of the aether on the velocity of light.

This subject is discussed in the articles AETHER and LIGHT.

REFERENCES.--A detailed account of Bradley's work is

given in S. Rigaud, Memoirs of Bradley (1832), and in

Charles Hutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary

(1795); a particularly clear and lucid account is given

in H. H. Turner, Astronomical Discovery (1904). The

subject receives treatment in all astronomical works.

II. ABERRIATION IN OPTICAL SYSTEMS Aberration in optical

systems, i.e. in lenses or mirrors or a series of them,

may be defined as the non-concurrence of rays from the

points of an object after transmission through the system;

it happens generally that an image formed by such a system

is irregular, and consequently the correction of optical

systems for aberration is of fundamental importance to the

instruunent-maker. Reference should he made to the articles

REFLEXION, REFRACTION and CAUSTIC for the general characters

of reflected and refracted rays (the article LENS considers

in detail the properties of this instrument, and should also

be consulted); in this article will be discussed the nature,

varieties and modes of aberrations mainly from the practical

point of view, i.e. that of the optical-instrument maker.

Aberrations may be divided in two classes: chromatic (Gr.

oroma, colour) aberrations, caused by the composite

nature of the light generally applied (e.g. white light),

which is dispersed by refraction, and monochromatic (Gr.

monos, one) aberrations produced without dispersion.

Consequently the monochromatic class includes the aberrations

at reflecting surfaces of any coloured light, and at refracting

surfaces of monochromatic or light of single wave length.

(a) Monochromatic Aberration. The elementary theory of optical

systems leads to the theorem; Rays of light proceeding from

any ``object point,' unite in an ``image point''; and therefore

an ``object space'' is reproduced in an ``image space.'' The

introduction of simple auxiliary terms, due to C. F. Gauss

(Dioptrische Untersuchungen, Gottingen, 1841), named the

focal lengths and focal planes, permits the determination

of the image of any object for any system (see LENS). The

Gaussian theory, however, is only true so long as the angles

made by all rays with the optical axis (the symmetrical axis

of the system) are infinitely small, i.e. with infinitesimal

objects, images and lenses; in practice these conditions are

not realized, and the images projected by uncorrected systems

are, in general, ill defined and often completely blurred,

if the aperture or field of view exceeds certain limits.

The investigations of James Clerk Maxwell (Phil.Mag., 1856;

Quart. Journ. Math., 1858, and Ernst Abbe1) showed that

the properties of these reproductions, i.e. the relative

position .and magnitude of the images, are not special

properties of optical systems, but necessary consequences of

the supposition (in Abbe) of the reproduction of all points

of a space in image points (Maxwell assumes a less general

hypothesis), and are independent of the manner in which the

reproduction is effected. These authors proved, however, that

no optical system can justify these suppositions, since they

are contradictory to the fundamental laws of reflexion and

refraction. Consequently the Gaussian theory only supplies

a convenient method of approximating to reality; and no

constructor would attempt to realize this unattainable ideal.

All that at present can be attempted is, to reproduce a single

plane in another plane; but even this has not been altogether

satisfactorily accomplished, aberrations always occur, and

it is improbable that these will ever be entirely corrected.

This, and related general questions, have been treated--besides

the above-mentioned authors--by M. Thiesen (Berlin.

Akad. Sitzber., 1890, xxxv. 799; Berlin.Phys.Ges.

Verb., 1892) and H. Bruns (Leipzig. Math. Phys.

Ber., 1895, xxi. 325) by means of Sir W. R. Hamilton's

``characteristic function'' (Irish Acad. Trans., ``Theory

of Systems of Rays,,' 1828, et seq.). Reference may also

be made to the treatise of Czapski-Eppenstein, pp. 155-161.

A review of the simplest cases of aberration will now be

given. (1) Aberration of axial points (Spherical aberration

in the restricted sense). If S (fig.5) be any optical

system, rays proceeding from an axis point O under an angle

u1 will unite in the axis point O'1; and those under an

angle u2 in the axis point O'2. If there be refraction

at a collective spherical surface, or through a thin positive

lens, O'2 will lie in front of O'1 so long as the angle