of the law of universal gravitation, it shines with no less lustre in the
patience and sagacity with which he traced the consequences of this fertile
principle. The discovery of the spheroidal form of Jupiter by Cassini had
probably directed the attention of Newton to the determination of its
cause, and consequently to the investigation of the true figure of the
earth. The next subject to which Newton applied the principle of gravity
was the tides of the ocean.
The philosophers of all ages had recognized the connection between the
phenomena of the tides and the position of the moon. The College of Jesuits
at Coimbra, and subsequently Antonio de Dominis and Kepler, distinctly
referred the tides to the attraction of the waters of the earth by the
moon; but so imperfect was the explanation which was thus given of the
phenomena that Galileo ridiculed the idea of lunar attraction, and
substituted for it a fallacious explanation of his own. That the moon is
the principal cause of the tides is obvious from the well-known fact that
it is high water at any given place about the time when she is in the
meridian of that place; and that the sun performs a secondary part in their
production may be proved from the circumstance that the highest tides take
place when the sun, the moon, and the earth are in the same straight line;
that is, when the force of the sun conspires with that of the moon; and
that the lowest tides take place when the lines drawn from the sun and moon
to the earth are at right angles to each other; that is, when the force of
the sun acts in opposition to that of the moon.
By comparing the spring and neap tides Newton found that the force with
which the moon acted upon the waters of the earth was to that with which
the sun acted upon them as 4.48 to 1; that the force of the moon produced
a tide of 8.63 feet; that of the sun, one of 1.93 feet; and both of them
combined, one of 10-1/2 French feet, a result which in the open sea does
not deviate much from observation. Having thus ascertained the force of the
moon on the waters of our globe, he found that the quantity of matter in
the moon was to that in the earth as 1 to 40, and the density of the moon
to that of the earth as 11 to 9.
The motions of the moon, so much within the reach of our own observation,
presented a fine field for the application of the theory of universal
gravitation. The irregularities exhibited in the lunar motions had been
known in the time of Hipparchus and Ptolemy. Tycho had discovered the great
inequality, called the "variation," amounting to 37', and depending on the
alternate acceleration and retardation of the moon in every quarter of
a revolution, and he had also ascertained the existence of the annual
equation. Of these two inequalities Newton gave a most satisfactory
explanation.
Although there could be little doubt that the comets were retained in their
orbits by the same laws which regulated the motions of the planets, yet
it was difficult to put this opinion to the test of observation. The
visibility of comets only in a small part of their orbits rendered it
difficult to ascertain their distance and periodic times; and as their
periods were probably of great length, it was impossible to correct
approximate results by repeated observations. Newton, however, removed this
difficulty by showing how to determine the orbit of a comet, namely,
the form and position of the orbit, and the periodic time, by three
observations. By applying this method to the comet of 1680 he calculated
the elements of its orbit, and, from the agreement of the computed places
with those which were observed, he justly inferred that the motions of
comets were regulated by the same laws as those of the planetary bodies.
This result was one of great importance; for as the comets enter our system
in every possible direction, and at all angles with the ecliptic, and as
a great part of their orbits extends far beyond the limits of the solar
system, it demonstrated the existence of gravity in spaces far removed
beyond the planet, and proved that the law of the inverse ratio of the
squares of the distance was true in every possible direction, and at very
remote distances from the centre of our system.
Such is a brief view of the leading discoveries which the _Principia_ first
announced to the world. The grandeur of the subjects of which it treats,
the beautiful simplicity of the system which it unfolds, the clear and
concise reasoning by which that system is explained, and the irresistible
evidence by which it is supported might have insured it the warmest
admiration of contemporary mathematicians and the most welcome reception in
all the schools of philosophy throughout Europe. This, however, is not the
way in which great truths are generally received. Though the astronomical
discoveries of Newton were not assailed by the class of ignorant pretenders
who attacked his optical writings, yet they were everywhere resisted by the
errors and prejudices which had taken a deep hold even of the strongest
minds.
The philosophy of Descartes was predominant throughout Europe. Appealing to
the imagination, and not to the reason, of mankind it was quickly received
into popular favor, and the same causes which facilitated its introduction,
extended its influence and completed its dominion over the human mind. In
explaining all the movements of the heavenly bodies by a system of vortices
in a fluid medium diffused through the universe Descartes had seized upon
an analogy of the most alluring and deceitful kind. Those who had seen
heavy bodies revolving in the eddies of a whirlpool or in the gyrations
of a vessel of water thrown into a circular motion had no difficulty in
conceiving how the planets might revolve round the sun by an analogous
movement. The mind instantly grasped at an explanation of so palpable a
character and which required for its development neither the exercise
of patient thought nor the aid of mathematical skill. The talent and
perspicuity with which the Cartesian system was expounded, and the show by
which it was sustained, contributed powerfully to its adoption, while
it derived a still higher sanction from the excellent character and the
unaffected piety of its author.
Thus intrenched, as the Cartesian system was, in the strongholds of the
human mind, and fortified by its most obstinate prejudices, it was not to
be wondered at that the pure and sublime doctrines of the _Principia_, were
distrustfully received and perseveringly resisted. The uninstructed mind
could not readily admit the idea that the great masses of the planets were
suspended in empty space and retained in their orbits by an invisible
influence residing in the sun; and even those philosophers who had been
accustomed to the rigor of true scientific research, and who possessed
sufficient mathematical skill for the examination of the Newtonian
doctrines, viewed them at first as reviving the occult qualities of the
ancient physics, and resisted their introduction with a pertinacity which
it is not easy to explain.
Prejudiced, no doubt, in favor of his own metaphysical views, Leibnitz
himself misapprehended the principles of the Newtonian philosophy, and
endeavored to demonstrate the truths in the _Principia_ by the application
of different principles. Huygens, who above all other men was qualified
to appreciate the new philosophy, rejected the doctrine of gravitation as
existing between the individual particles of matter and received it only
as an attribute of the planetary masses. John Bernouilli, one of the first
mathematicians of his age, opposed the philosophy of Newton. Mairan, in the
early part of his life, was a strenuous defender of the system of vortices.
Cassini and Maraldi were quite ignorant of the _Principia_, and occupied
themselves with the most absurd methods of calculating the orbits of
comets long after the Newtonian method had been established on the most
impregnable foundation; and even Fontenelle, a man of liberal views and
extensive information, continued, throughout the whole of his life, to
maintain the doctrines of Descartes.
The chevalier Louville of Paris had adopted the Newtonian philosophy
before 1720; Gravesande had introduced it into the Dutch universities at a
somewhat earlier period; and Maupertuis, in consequence of a visit which
he paid to England in 1728, became a zealous defender of it; but
notwithstanding these and some other examples that might be quoted, we must
admit the truth of the remark of Voltaire, that though Newton survived the
publication of the _Principia_ more than forty years, yet at the time of
his death he had not above twenty followers out of England.
%MORGAN, THE BUCCANEER, SACKS PANAMA%
A.D. 1671
JOHANN W. VON ARCHENHOLZ
In the seventeenth century appeared "a class of rovers wholly distinct from
any of their predecessors in the annals of the world, differing as widely
in their plans, organizations, and exploits as in the principles that
governed their actions." These adventurers were a piratical gang called
buccaneers, or sometimes, as in the following narrative, freebooters, who
became noted for their exploits in the West Indies and on South American
coasts.
The nucleus of this association of pirates is traced to bands of
smugglers--English, French, and Dutch--who carried on a secret trade with
the island of Santo Domingo. Later they settled there and on other islands,
and after a while began to prey upon Spanish commerce. In 1630 they made
their chief head-quarters on the island of Tortuga; in 1655 they aided in
the English conquest of Jamaica, and ten years later settled the Bahamas.
All these islands became centres of their activities.
Most renowned among the leaders of the buccaneers was Sir Henry Morgan, a
Welshman, who died in Jamaica in 1688. For years he carried stolen riches
to England, and Charles II rewarded him with knighthood. Having pillaged
parts of Cuba, he took and ransomed Puerto Bello, in Colombia (1668), and
Maracaibo, in Venezuela (1669). In 1670 Morgan gathered a fleet of nearly
forty vessels, and a force of over two thousand men, for the greatest of
the exploits of the buccaneers, the capture and plunder of the wealthy city
of Panama.
By the end of the century the buccaneers had become dispersed among
contending European armies, and little more was heard of them.
Morgan's plan of capturing Panama was apparently attended with innumerable
difficulties. The chief obstacle was the position of that city on the
Pacific coast at such a great distance from the Caribbean Sea; and not an
individual on board the fleet was acquainted with the road that led to
the goal. To remedy this inconvenience, Morgan determined, in the first
instance, to go to the island of St. Catharine, where the Spaniards
confined their criminals, and thence to supply himself with guides.
The passage was rapid. Morgan landed in that island one thousand men, who,
by threatening to put to death everyone that hesitated for a moment to
surrender, so terrified the Spaniards that they speedily capitulated. It
was stipulated that, to save at least the honor of the garrison, there
should be a sham fight. In consequence of this, a very sharp fire ensued,
from the forts on one side, and on the other from the ships; but on both
sides the cannons discharged only powder. Further, to give a serious
appearance to this military comedy, the governor suffered himself to be
taken, while attempting to pass from Fort Jerome to another fort. At the
beginning the crafty Morgan did not rely too implicitly on this feint; and
to provide for every event, he secretly ordered his soldiers to load
their fusees with bullets, but to discharge them in the air, unless they
perceived some treachery on the part of the Spaniards. But his enemies
adhered most faithfully to their capitulation; and this mock engagement, in
which neither party was sparing of powder, was followed for some time with
all the circumstances which could give it the semblance of reality. Ten
forts surrendered, one after another, after sustaining a kind of siege or
assault; and this series of successes did not cost the life of a single
man, nor even a scratch, on the part either of the victors or of the
conquered.
All the inhabitants of the island were shut up in the great fort of Santa
Teresa, which was built on a steep rock; and the conquerors, who had not
taken any sustenance for twenty-four hours, declared a most serious war
against the horned cattle and game of the district.
In the isle of St. Constantine Morgan found four hundred fifty-nine
persons of both sexes; one hundred ninety of whom were soldiers, forty-two
criminals, eighty-five children, and sixty-six negroes. There were ten
forts, containing sixty-eight cannons, which were so defended in other
respects by nature that very small garrisons were deemed amply sufficient
to protect them. Besides an immense quantity of fusees and grenades--which
were at that time much used--upward of three hundred quintals of gunpowder
were found in the arsenal. The whole of this ammunition was carried on
board the pirate's ships; the cannon, which could be of no service to them,
were spiked; their carriages were burned, and all the forts demolished
excepting one, which the freebooters themselves garrisoned. Morgan
selected three of the criminals to serve him as guides to Panama. These he
afterward, on his return to Jamaica, set at liberty, even giving them a
share in the booty.
The plan, conceived by this intrepid chieftain, inspired all his companions
in arms with genuine enthusiasm; it had a character of grandeur and
audacity that inflamed their courage; how capable they were of executing it
the subsequent pages will demonstrate.
Panama, which stood on the shore of the Pacific Ocean, in the ninth degree
of northern latitude, was at that time one of the greatest, as well as most
opulent cities in America. It contained two thousand large houses, the
greater number of which were very fine piles of building, and five thousand
smaller dwellings, each mostly three stories in height. Of these, a pretty
considerable number were erected of stone, all the rest of cedar-wood, very
elegantly constructed and magnificently furnished. That city was defended
by a rampart and was surrounded with walls. It was the emporium for the
silver of Mexico and the gold of Peru, whence those valuable metals were
brought on the backs of mules--two thousand of which animals were kept for
this purpose only--across the isthmus toward the northern coast of the
Pacific. A great commerce was also carried on at Panama in negroes; which
trade was at that time almost exclusively confined to the English,
Dutch, French, and Danes. With this branch of commerce the Italians were
intimately acquainted. They gave lessons in it to all the rest of Europe;
and, as two things were necessary, in which the Genoese were by no means
deficient--money and address--they were chiefly occupied in the slave
trade, and supplied the provinces of Peru and Chile with negroes.
At the period now referred to, the President of Panama was the principal
intendant or overseer of the civil department, and captain-general of all
the troops in the viceroyalty of Peru. He had in his dependency Puerto
Bello and Nata, two cities inhabited by the Spaniards, together with the
towns of Cruces, Panama, Capira, and Veragua. The city of Panama had also a
bishop, who was a suffragan of the Archbishop of Lima.
The merchants lived in great opulence; and their churches were decorated
with uncommon magnificence. The cathedral was erected in the Italian
style, surmounted with a large cupola, and enriched with gold and silver
ornaments; as also were the eight convents which this city comprised. At
a small distance from its walls there were some small islands, alike
embellished by art and by nature, where the richest inhabitants had their
country houses; from which circumstance they were called the "gardens of
Panama." In short, everything concurred to render this place important and
agreeable. Here several of the European nations had palaces for carrying on
their commerce; and among these were the Genoese, who were held in great
credit, and who had vast warehouses for receiving the articles of their
immense trade, as also a most magnificent edifice. The principal houses
were filled with beautiful paintings and the masterpieces of the arts,
which had here been accumulated--more from an intense desire of being
surrounded with all the splendor of luxury--since they possessed the means
of procuring it--than from a refined taste. Their superabundance of gold
and silver had been employed in obtaining these splendid superfluities,
which were of no value but to gratify the vanity of their possessors.
Such was Panama in 1670, when the freebooters selected it as the object
of their bold attempt, and as the victim of their extravagancies, and
immortalized their name by reducing it to a heap of ruins.
In the execution of this design, which stupefied the New World, they
displayed equal prudence and cruelty. Previous to the adoption of any other
measure, it was necessary that the pirates should get possession of Fort
St. Laurent, which was situated on the banks of the river Chagres. With
this view, Morgan detached four ships, with four hundred men, under the
command of the intrepid Brodely, who had happily succeeded in victualling
the fleet, and who was intimately acquainted with the country. Morgan
continued at the island of St. Catharine with the rest of his forces.
His plan was to dissemble his vast projects against Panama as long as it
was possible, and to cause the pillage of Fort St. Laurent to be regarded
as a common expedition to which he would confine himself. Brodely
discharged his commission with equal courage and success. That castle
was situated on a lofty mountain, at the mouth of the river, and was
inaccessible on almost every side. The first attempts were fruitless; and
the freebooters, who advanced openly, without any other arms than their
fusees and sabres, at first lost many of their comrades; for the Spaniards
not only made use of all their artillery and musketry against them, but
were also seconded by the Indians that were with them in the fort and whose
arrows were far more fatal than the bullets.
The assailants saw their companions-in-arms fall by their side without
being able to avenge them. The danger of their present situation and
the nature of their arms seemed to render the enterprise altogether
impracticable. Their courage began to waver, their ranks were thrown into
disorder, and they already thought of retiring, when the provocations of
the Spaniards inspired them with new vigor. "You heretic dogs," cried they
in a triumphant tone; "you cursed English, possessed by the devil! Ah, you
will go to Panama, will you? No, no; that you shall not; you shall all bite
the dust here, and all your comrades shall share the same fate."
From these insulting speeches the pirates learned that the design of their
expedition was discovered; and from that moment they determined to carry
the fort or die to a man upon the spot. They immediately commenced the
assault in defiance of the shower of arrows that were discharged against
them, and undismayed by the loss of their commander, both of whose legs had
been carried away by a cannon-ball. One of the pirates, in whose shoulder
an arrow was deeply fixed, tore it out himself, exclaiming: "Patience,
comrades, an idea strikes me; all the Spaniards are lost!" He tore some
cotton out of his pocket, with which he covered his ramrod, set the cotton
on fire, and shot this burning material, in lieu of bullets, at the houses
of the fort, which were covered with light wood and the leaves of palm
trees. His companions collected together the arrows which were strewed
around them upon the ground, and employed them in a similar manner. The
effect of this novel mode of attack was most rapid; many of the houses
caught fire; a powder-wagon blew up. The besieged, being thus diverted from
their means of defence, thought only of stopping the progress of the fire.
Night came on; under cover of the darkness the freebooters attempted also
to set on fire the palisades, which were made of a kind of wood that was
easily kindled. In this attempt likewise they were crowned with success.
The soil, which the palisades supported, fell down for want of support,
and filled up the ditch. The Spaniards nevertheless continued to defend
themselves with much courage, being animated by the example of their
commander, who fought till the very moment he received a mortal blow. The
garrison had, throughout, the use of their cannon, which kept up a most
violent fire; but the enemy had already made too much progress to be
disconcerted with it; they persevered in their attack, until they at length
became masters of the fort.
A great number of Spaniards, finding themselves deprived of all resource,
precipitated themselves from the top of the walls into the river, that
they might not fall alive into the hands of the freebooters, who made only
twenty-four prisoners, and ten of these were wounded men, who had concealed
themselves among the dead, in the hope of escaping their ferocious
conquerors. These twenty-four men were all that remained of three hundred
forty who had composed the garrison, which had shortly before been
reënforced, for the President of Panama, having been apprised from
Carthagena of the real object of the pirates' expedition, came to encamp,
with thirty-six hundred men, in the vicinity of the threatened city. This
information was confirmed to the freebooters after the capture of the fort.
At the same time they learned that among this body of troops there were
four hundred horsemen, six hundred Indians, and two hundred mulat-toes; the
last of whom, being very expert in hunting bulls, were intended, in case of
necessity, to send two thousand of those animals among the freebooters.
It is scarcely credible that Brodely continued to command, notwithstanding
the severity of his wounds; but he would not, by retiring, compromise the
advantages which he had so dearly purchased; for out of four hundred men
who had composed his little army, one hundred sixty had been killed, eighty
wounded; and of these eighty, sixty were altogether out of the battle.
The bodies of the French and English were interred; but those of the
Spaniards were thrown down from the top of the fort and remained in a heap
at the foot of its walls. Brodely found much ammunition and abundance of
provisions, with which he was the more satisfied, as he knew that the grand
fleet was greatly in want of both those articles. He caused the fort to be
rebuilt, as far as was practicable, in order that he might defend himself
there in case the Spaniards should make a speedy attempt to retake it. In
this situation he waited for Morgan, who in a short time appeared with his
fleet.
As the pirates approached, they beheld the English flag flying on the fort,
and abandoned themselves to the most tumultuous joy and excessive drinking,
without dreaming of the dangers occurring at the mouth of the river
Chagres, beneath whose waters there was a sunken rock. The coasting pilots
of those latitudes came to their assistance, but their intoxication and
their impatience would not permit them to attend to the latter. This
negligence was attended with most fatal consequences and cost them four
ships, one of which was the admiral's vessel. The crews, however, together
with their ladings, were saved. This loss greatly affected Morgan, who
was wholly intent upon his vast designs, but who, nevertheless, made his
entrance into St. Laurent, where he left a garrison of five hundred men. He
also detached from his body of troops one hundred fifty men for the purpose
of seizing several Spanish vessels that were in the river.
The remainder of his forces Morgan directed to follow himself. They carried
but a small supply of provisions, not only that his march might not be
impeded, but also because the means of conveyance were very limited.
Besides, he was apprehensive lest he should expose to famine the garrison
he had left in the fort, which did not abound with provisions, and was cut
off on every side from receiving supplies; and it was likewise necessary
that he should leave sufficient for the support of all the prisoners and
slaves, whose number amounted very nearly to one thousand.