A Barren Waste of Rock. While the Grand Canyon, its vast system of
tributaries, and its plateau were being uplifted from the primeval ocean,
it consisted of nothing but a wild, barren waste of rock. Not a tree, not a
shrub, not a flower, not a blade of grass relieved the monotony of the
wilderness of rocks which emerged from the great Eocene sea. Not a lizard,
horned toad, centipede, tarantula, chuckwalla, campamouche,* frog,
tree-toad, turtle or snake was to be found on the long stretching areas of
its lifeless shores. Not a chipmunk, prairie-dog, coyote, rat, mouse,
porcupine, fox, bear, mountain-lion, badger, deer, antelope or other
four-footed creature ran over its new-born surfaces. The sun
shone unhindered; the rain beat with pitiless fury; the winds swept
unhampered; the snows piled up undeterred over the whole plateau and canyon
country. It was plateau and canyon, canyon and plateau; red rock, gray
rock, creamy rock, yellow, pink, blue, chocolate, carmine, crimson rock,
soft rock, hard rock; sunshine, shadow, wind and quietude; winter, summer,
autumn, spring-and that was all! A lifeless world, as yet unprepared for
insect, reptile, beast, man, flower or tree. Perhaps a solitary sea-bird
with strong pinion flew over it, and gazed into its lifeless depths with
wonder, or a dove flew from some earlier and habitable land over this
wonderful mass of rock, and returned to its nest and its mate. But no olive
or other leaf was in its bill.
*An insect that looks like a tiny dried wisp of hay, well-known in Arizona.
And so the land was born, and rested; while silence, sunshine and solitude
brooded over it.
Creation of Soil and Verdure. But in the course of ages, soil was created
by the disintegration of the rocks by the weather and the atmosphere, seeds
were blown in from regions where flowers and plants bloomed, or were
carried in by birds, and later distributed by the four-footed creatures.
Then verdure sprang into life; the gentle grasses and flowers began to
cover the slopes and level places where soil had gathered, and the trees
came to sway and swing in the breezes, and sing their songs of coming life
to the hitherto barren rocks.
Fossils of Sea Creatures. Yet they had not been altogether lifeless. Many
of the rocks had known life, but it was not insect, reptile, bird, beast or
man life; neither did they known anything of grass, flower, shrub or tree
life. In the far-away ages, when they were being deposited deep under the
surface of the Eocene sea, they saw vast monsters floating in the salty
deep, and later, fishes of all sizes, and even great beds of waving
sea-moss and ferns floated back and forth, as the tides ebbed and flowed.
And fishes and ferns, monsters and moss were occasionally caught in the
flowing deposits of lime and sand and silt and clay, and were embedded in
their mass. Thus imprisoned, their otherwise forgotten life and history is
told to the ages of man that were as yet unborn.
Coming of Man. But now the new life is coming! With verdure and animal life
in existence, these hitherto uninhabitable regions became capable of
sustaining human life. And the restless spirit of the human race, wherever
and howsoever it originated, drove bands of men and women into this region.
Who were they? What were they like? Whence did they come? How long did they
stay? Whither did they go? are questions one naturally asks in regard to
these first discoverers and inhabitants. If I were to say "I do not know,"
I would be saying what every other thinking man is compelled to say. Yet
there is pleasure in conjecture.
Traces of Ruins. Before looking at these conjectures, however, it is
appropriate that we look first at what facts there are to justify them.
Suppositions without any facts are mere fictions of the imagination, and
this we are not indulging in. When in our day men began to explore the
Grand Canyon and its numberless tributaries, a great number of indications
of man's presence were found on the rim, on the fault lines or breaks in the
sheer precipitous walls, on the plateaus and in the Canyon beneath, in the
shape of crude house ruins, lookout houses or forts, indifferent trails,
cliff-dwellings, hewn-out water cisterns, mescal pits, with countless
pieces of broken pottery, arrowheads, stone axes, hammers, mortars, pestles
and even cemeteries. or places of cremation.
Evidences of Superior Civilization. Major J. W. Powell, in his journal of
explorations, writes that when he and his party reached the mouth of the
Uinta River, they went up to the agency of the Indians of the same name.
While visiting the Indians, and noting their fertile, irrigated farms, he
found many evidences that "this beautiful valley has been the home of a
people of a higher grade of cultivation than the present Utes. On our way
here yesterday, we discovered, in many places along the trail, fragments of
pottery, and wandering about the little farms to-day I find the foundations
of ancient houses and mealing stones that were not used by nomadic people,
as they are too heavy to be transported by such tribes, and are deeply
worn. The Indians, seeing that I am interested in these matters, take pains
to show me several other places where these evidences remain, and tell me.
that they know nothing about the people who formerly dwelt here. They
further tell me that up in the Canyon the rocks are covered with pictures."
Ancient Dwellings. When Powell and his party reached the junction of the
San Juan with the Colorado, they might have found a large number of ancient
dwellings in the cliffs not far away from where Bluff City now stands.
Further on, when the Bright Angel was discovered (the beautiful stream and
canyon on the north side of the Canyon directly opposite El Tovar), the
story of which is told in a separate chapter, Major Powell went up a little
gulch, just above Bright Angel Creek, about two hundred yards from their
camp on the Colorado, and there he discovered the ruins of two or three old
houses, which were originally of stone, laid in mortar. Only the
foundations were left, but irregular blocks, of which the houses were
constructed, were found lying scattered about. In one room he found an old
mealing stone, deeply worn, as if it had been much used. A great deal of
pottery was strewn around, and old trails, which in some places were deeply
worn into the rocks, were seen.
Ruins of a Village. Between the foot of what is now the Bright Angel Trail
and Bass's Cable Crossing, Major Powell discovered another group of ruins.
"There was evidently quite a village on this rock. Again we find the
mealing stones, and much broken pottery, and up in a little natural shelf
in the rock, back of the ruins, we find a globular basket, that would hold
perhaps a third of a bushel. It is badly broken, and, as I attempt to take
it up, it falls to pieces. There are many beautiful flint chips, as if this
had been the home of an old arrow-maker."
Old Gardens. Later, when white men began to go down the trail now known as
the Bright Angel Trail (the one near to El Tovar), the remnants of gardens,
with irrigating ditches, in which small pieces of Indian pottery were
scattered about, were discovered. The place is known today as Indian
Garden, and is seen from the upper porch of the hotel.
Stone Huts. In his account of Powell's second expedition, Dellenbaugh tells
of ancient ruins found below Labyrinth Canyon. "Small huts for storage were
found there in the cliffs, and on a promontory, about thirty feet above the
water, were the ruins of stone buildings, one of which, twelve by twenty
feet in dimensions, had walls still standing about six feet high. The
Canyon here was some six hundred feet high, though the top of the plateau
through which the Canyon is carved is at least fifteen hundred feet above
the river. We discovered the trail by which the old Puebloans had made
their way in and out. Where necessity called for it, poles and tree-trunks
had been placed against the rocks to aid the climbers. Some of our party
trusted themselves to these ancient ladders, and with the aid of a rope
also, reached the summit." These Indians had tilled a small piece of arable
land in an alcove near by.
An Old Indian Fortress. Hance found a number of cliff ruins and the
remnants of old houses on and near his trail, and on the Red Canyon Trail.
It was the discovery of an old Indian lookout fortress, located on the very
edge of the Canyon where Bass Camp now is, that led Bass to hunt for the
trail into the Canyon. This fortress is about fifteen feet square, outside
measurement, and consists of one room, twelve feet square, with a lookout
in the eastern wall, which is still to be seen. Remnants of the walls still
stand, and at one corner are fully ten feet high. About a mile below this
fortress, were discovered two large native water-storage tanks or
reservoirs, which, when cleaned out, were capable of holding many hundreds
of gallons of water. Further down, on the plateaus beneath, several large
pits for the cooking of mescal were discovered.
Cooking of Mescal. This mescal is the succulent and sweet inner leaf of the
agave deserti, which is found in large quantities in this region. The
Indians still prepare it in the same manner as did their forefathers. The
larger thick leaves are taken from the plants when they are full of sap.
Great pits are dug and lined with rocks. Into these pits dry wood, roots,
pine cones, etc., are thrown and set on fire, until the whole oven is
thoroughly heated. On the hot rocks are then laid the pulpy stalks of the
agave; over these is placed a layer of wet grass; then more agave or mescal
leaves, more grass, and so on, until the pit is full. Then the oven and its
contents are banked over with earth, and allowed to steam and cook for
three or four days. The woman in charge is an expert in determining when
her "bread is baked." She thrusts stalks of the agave into the heart of the
pit before it is finally closed up, and when she deems "time up," she pulls
forth one of these stalks. If it is not done to her liking, she allows the
process to continue; otherwise the banked up earth is removed, and the
contents of the pit withdrawn and placed upon adjacent rocks to dry. It now
looks like large cakes of brownish fibres, thoroughly saturated in
molasses. In taste it is sweet and fairly palatable, though the fibres
render it a food that requires a large amount of mastication. It has great
staying qualities, contains much nutrition, and will keep for months, even
years. I have eaten pieces of it that were sweet and good over three years
after it was made.
Unlimited Fragments of Pottery. In my own wanderings of nearly twenty years
in the Grand and Havasu Canyons and their smaller tributary gorges, I have
discovered scores of these cliff-dwellings. Ruins uncounted are to be found
scattered along the rim, within five to ten miles of the Canyon, and
thousands of pieces of pottery of old design have been picked up by the
visitors of the past fifteen years.
On the Shinumo, opposite the Bass Trail, are several cliff-dwellings, and
as late as the summer of 1908 a young couple camped there for a month on
their wedding trip, excavated and discovered a fine stone axe, numbers of
pieces of pottery of three different kinds, several pieces with holes bored
with the primitive drill of flint or obsidian, a fine spearhead of flint,
and a number of arrow points.
Similarity of Cliff Ruins. The whole region of Arizona, New Mexico,
Southern Utah, and Southern Colorado abounds in these cliff ruins. The
likeness of their appearance, and the fact that everything excavated is of
a similar kind, seems to indicate a relationship, both in time of
occupancy and in the peoples who built and tenanted them.
The questions now naturally arise: Who were these people? What was their
life? Whence did they come? Whither have they gone?
The Race of the Cliff Dwellers. In the earlier days of America's serious
researches into her own archaeology, those who led our thought on the
subject, though personally they had not seen the cliff-dwellings, declared
them to be the homes of the Aztecs, one of the Mexican races found by
Cortes below the City of Mexico. Hence today we find people talking about
the Aztecs and their ruined homes in Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado and
Utah. We used to read of the wonder of the discoverers of these dwellings,
at finding them so small. The doorways were small, the rooms themselves
less than six feet in width and length, and the ceilings so low that a
five-foot man could not stand upright in them. It was reasonable therefore
to infer, said these discoverers, that the builders and inhabitants of the
cliff-dwellings were an exceedingly small people, dwarfs, as in no other
way could the rooms be occupied. And thousands of people who have read
about these ruins still hold to the idea that they were inhabited by
dwarfs. But who the dwarfs were, or where they have gone to, no one seems
to have the remotest idea. But by and by, such men as Bandelier, the
Mendeleffs, Stevenson, Cushing, Fewkes, Hough, Hodge and Hewett, began to
investigate. They took the field, and carefully explored hundreds of ruins.
Then, some of them with a profound knowledge of the Spanish tongue, went
through all the records and diaries of the old conquistadores and the
padres who accompanied them. They found out all that the early Spaniards
had discovered and conjectured. In the meantime, they began to study the
languages of the Indians of the regions nearest to the ruins, and question
them as to their myths, legends, and traditions bearing upon the ruins, and
their researches speedily bore fruit.
Storage Houses. First of all they classified their discoveries. Though
scores of skeletons were found, there was not a single dwarf specimen among
them. This seemed to be a death blow to the dwarf theory. Stone slabs were
used as doors. Necessarily these were comparatively small, since even
though large slabs might have been found, they could not have been moved by
the cliff-dwellers, on account of their weight. This, in itself, accounted
for the size of the doorways. It had long been noticed that these small
dwellings were scattered profusely where there were larger dwellings, and
finally it became known that the small dwellings were not used for
habitations at all. They were merely storage houses for corn and other
edibles, farmed by the inhabitants of the larger dwellings. On one
occasion, some years ago, I was exploring one of the side gorges of the
Havasu. We had seen scores of the cliff dwellings, perched high in the
walls of the canyons, until at length one particularly well-built, though
exceedingly small structure attracted my attention. My guide was the most
intelligent and communicative of the Havasupai Indians, and he immediately
responded to my query by crying out: "Meala-hawa! Meala-hawa!" (Corn
house). Further inquiry revealed the fact that all the small dwellings were
but storage houses for corn and other foods.
Textiles. Excavation brought forth delicate textiles in cotton and yucca
fibre, well-woven, and in a remarkable state of preservation--silent
testimony to the dry climate, and the fact that the dwellings were so
constructed that rain and snow were practically excluded. Basketry and
pottery in large quantities were found, all showing ability in
manufacture, also artistic skill, anti-aesthetic conception in the form of
the articles and the designs portrayed upon them.
Excavated Relics. Stone hammers and axes, obsidian, flint and other
arrow-heads, spear-heads, and knives, mortars and pestles, metates or meal
grinders, obsidian and flint drills for making holes through stone or
shell, bows and arrows,--the bows of tough wood often brought from afar,
and the arrows pointed with chipped flint or obsidian, deftly and securely
tied to the shaft with tough and durable strings of sinews; shell beads,
pipes, bone awls, punches, needles, etc.; stone fetiches in semblance of
animals, the like of which were never seen on land or sea; ornaments of
shell, turquoise and onyx, and even a kind of jade; sandals and mats of
yucca fibre, and exquisitely delicate feather robes,--these are some of the
things that the excavators have found. Corn-cobs, melon rinds and grass
seeds may be added to the list.
Old Cemeteries. Then--most interesting of finds--a number of cemeteries
were located, and these were raked and scraped over until every visible
secret hidden in their depths was brought into the light of the sun.
Tracing the Indian Races. Now here were numbers of facts to work upon. Then
the myths, legends and traditions of the Indians living near by were
carefully collected and studied, and light began to dawn in the minds of
our archaeologists. The Hopis in Northern Arizona, the Zunis in New
Mexico, the Acomas who live on the massive cliff twenty miles south of the
Santa Fe Railway at Laguna Station, the score of pueblos on the banks of
the Rio Grande, even to far-away Taos,--all contributed their share to the
elucidation of the mystery. Even the semi-nomadic Navaho had something to
say which helped. Cushing found among the Zuni stories galore of their
struggles with the fierce and warlike wandering tribes, who constantly
harassed the home-loving people who built their rude villages. Fewkes not
only unearthed whole cities of the past, but, gained from the nearby Hopis
their traditions, which told in reasonable and intelligible form what was
most probably their history. He listened while their old men and women
recited the stories and legends of their migration from the south
northwards, and how certain families or clans came from this or that
direction, building and inhabiting certain now ruined dwellings in ages
long past. Others heard similar stories, which they investigated as far as
possible, compared with the ruins named, and then recorded, with such
discovered facts as helped in the elucidation of the problems involved.
Ancestors of the Pueblo People. All these investigations pointed to one
great fact, and that was that the cliff and cave dwellers of the Grand
Canyon region and all the contiguous country were none other than the
ancestors of the present pueblo people,--those who live in the Hopi
villages, the Zuni villages, Acoma, Laguna, Santo Domingo, Isleta, Teseque,
Jemez, Taos, San Ildefonso, Zia and the rest.
With this luminous fact before them, a greater study began of these pueblo
people, and it was then found that, to this day, they use the same
utensils, make the same implements, wear the same ornaments, follow the
same burial customs, and generally live the same life that these ancient
cliff-dwellers did. The conclusions, therefore, are obvious and inevitable.
The cliff-dwellers were none other than the ancestors of the pueblo people,
a little less advanced, doubtless, in the march of civilization, yet
already far progressed from the rude civilization of the nomad. They were
driven to occupy the inaccessible cliffs by the constant attacks of the
warlike nomads.
Sedentary and Home-loving Indians. Thus the cliff dwellings become
interesting memorials of the great fight for existence, where one race has
striven to the very death with other races, and the weaker have either
given way or been swept out of existence. The picture is easy to draw. The
country was peopled with these sedentary and home-loving Indians. They had
come largely from the south, had settled down, had built their humble
villages, tilled their fields and cultivated their crops. The women made
baskets and pottery, and the men hunted game, while the women prepared it
for food, and gathered seeds, nuts and roots to eke out their not
overextensive dietary. Young men and women grew up, felt the dawnings of
love and the final awakenings of the great passion, and then married,
settled down in a house the community helped them to build, and began to
work a piece of land selected for them, or at least approved, by the town
council. For, even in those early days, there is every evidence that these
people had a definite and distinct form of democratic government, to the
elected officials of which they yielded an almost perfect reverence and
obedience. In due time, happy and healthy children were born to them.
Peaceful and Religious. They were a religious people, were these early
dwellers in the land. They built kivas and estufas,--under and above ground
ceremonial chambers,--where they regularly and decorously met to worship by
dance, recitation of ancient songs, telling of divine leadings and
interpositions on their behalf, smoking, singing, prayer, and the
observance of other ritual. Thus happy, contented and basking in the favor
of Those Above, they dwelt, until suddenly a new and unfavorable element
was injected into their hitherto peaceful life. The buffetings of nature
they had become accustomed to, and they had kept their bodies healthy so as
to resist these assaults, but now human storms were about to burst upon
them. Apaches in the south, Comanches and Navahos in the east, Utes and
Navahos in the north, Mohaves and Yumas in the west began to encroach upon
them. Envious eyes gazed upon their houses and the goods that industry and
skill had gathered within. Those who had no food stored when famine swooped
upon them, came and begged from those who had. By and by jealousy and envy
prompted theft, and then strife began. Strife spread and grew, until war in
all its horrors became the normal condition. In self preservation, these
peaceable, friendly, hospitable peoples were compelled to be warriors. But
their foes were many and crafty, skilful in war, wary in attack and
retreat. Their harassments became more than could be borne, so, in their
desperation, the peaceable people retreated to the cliffs and walls of the
Canyons, where surprise could be guarded against, where a small supply of
water could be reasonably sure, and where, not too far away, when permitted
to do so, they might cultivate a small piece of arable land.
Compelled to Wage War. Think of the state of affairs! A state of perpetual
siege and watchfulness, of readiness to fight at any moment, of keeping
lookouts on the alert day and night, of working in the fields with one hand
on the implements of peace and industry, and the other on the implements of
war. The night attack, murder, rapine, fire and bloodshed became common
experiences, and the discovery of many bodies, the skulls crushed with
battleaxes, of skeletons of men slain with the deadly arrow, of bodies
twisted by torture and charred by fire, reveal what a reign of terror and
dread that epoch must have been in the land of the cliff-dweller.
Houses Became Fortresses. For how many decades or centuries this lasted, we
do not know. Somewhat uncertain tradition is all we have to rely upon. But
ultimately the pressure became less severe. In some cases, hostilities
largely ceased; in others, they became less constant. So the pueblos we
find in existence to-day slowly began to arise. One by one, the bands of
cliff-dwellers dared to leave their wall fortresses and to build in more
congenial places, nearer to their fields and springs or water-courses. But,
taught by past experience, they made their homes into fortresses. The
houses were massed together, largely for protective purposes; there was no
means of easy entrance to the bottom story (they were built from two to
seven stories high), the only way provided being by a hatchway and ladder
from the roof. The rooms of the second story were thrust back a little, so
that the roof of the first story formed a kind of courtyard for its
inhabitants. Ladders that could easily be removed afforded ingress and
egress, and the doorways could be guarded by flat slabs of rock. Numerous
loop-holes afforded outlook points, and also opportunity for the shooting
of poisoned arrows upon an oncoming foe.
Buildings in Inaccessible Places. In some cases, as that of the Hopi
villages, Acoma and old Zuni, the new towns were erected upon almost
inaccessible mesas, the steep trails of which could be securely guarded
against an army by a handful of hidden men.
Arrival of Spaniards. This was the state of affairs when the Spaniards
marched into the country (after the reconnaissance of Fray Marcos), under
the leadership of Coronado and his lieutenant, the ensign Tovar. Hence it
will be seen that the original discoverers and inhabitants of the Grand
Canyon were evidently the ancestors of the present pueblo peoples.