China--Limited opportunities--The Chinese nation compared
with others--Its antiquity--Magnitude of territory and
practicability of laws--Supposed origin of the Chinese--
Fables of their early writers--Explanation of their
exaggerations--Foundation of the Empire--Chinese traditions
compared with sacred history--Similarity of events--Wise men
of the East--Introduction of Buddhism--Arts and Sciences--
The Magnetic Needle--Discovery of Gunpowder--Origin of the
name--China--Che-Hwang-te, King of Tsin--Parallel between
him and Napoleon--Religion--Confucius--The Taouists--
Buddhism--A Buddhist's idea of Heaven.
A chapter descriptive of China may not inappropriately fill up a period,
during which I was ill and convalescent at Macào; although, for a person
situated as I was, the attempt to describe the character of a people,
covering such an extensive portion of the globe (having only had a peep
at them through a few of their outermost ports, and these considerably
Europeanized), is somewhat like the efforts of one to give an idea of
Saint Peter's at Rome, after a single glimpse through its portals.
However, I may venture to speak of these people from what I have seen,
fully aware that plenty of more potential pens, held by persons who have
lived longer among them, and penetrated their country to a greater
extent than I shall ever be able to do, have given their peculiarities
to the public.
Another difficulty prevents a better knowledge of their forms and
systems, and that is ignorance of their language, and the disposition of
those with whom one can communicate to mislead and misinform the
inquirer. For much as their interests may lead them to pretend to it,
they really have but little respect for the "outside barbarian."
The Chinese are, not only numerically but comparatively, a great people,
and their government (the oldest now known) a marvel and a wonder. As a
nation, they have consistently carried on their system, whilst other
congregations of people, arising successively upon the sea of Time, have
spent their force and dashed their sparkling particles upon the shores
of Oblivion. They, like the ocean, though occasionally vexed by storms
and convulsions, still cover the expanse allotted to them.
The Egyptian, who held the Jew captive, became himself a slave. The
"people of God," who broke through and displaced the nations of the
plain, vainly opposing their passage to the promised land, themselves at
last dispersed, sought refuge throughout the world; when the "Holy City"
Jerusalem became in turn a prey to the Roman. And Rome, the mistress of
the world! Rome, too, was blotted from the list of nations.
An empire, which, extending from ninety-eight to one hundred and
twenty-three degrees of east longitude, and eighteen to forty-two north
latitude; bounded on the north by Russia and Siberia, on the east by the
great Pacific Ocean; south by the islands (many of them independent
powers) which fill the China Sea, and disconnect it from the Indian
Ocean; and westward by the independent Tartar nations, covering with
its dependent provinces an area of five millions of square miles, of
which only about one-fourth is included within the geographical limits
of China proper, governs, at the present time, a population of four
hundred millions of souls (a proportion of one-third of the estimated
inhabitants of the globe), with a code of laws which has been handed
down from the earliest ages of which we have a knowledge.
Situated on a continent, supposed to have been selected by the Creator
as the spot on which to place the first of the human race; upon which,
as is told in holy writ, at the Divine command, light first burst upon
the world, it is singular that this part of Asia should so long have
remained in darkness, and that even now conjecture loses itself in
searching for the origin of this peculiar people.
If we take the first book of the Pentateuch for our guide, we must come
to the conclusion, that in the confusion of tongues at the building of
Babel, when the Lord said, as is described in the eleventh chapter of
that book, "Let us go down and there confound their language, so that
they may not understand one another's speech;" "and from thence the Lord
did scatter them abroad upon the face of the earth;" that this nation
formed a portion of those presumptuous builders, who, in their
migrations, settled down upon the banks of the Yellow River, and there
multiplying, gradually peopled this vast surface.
Their early traditions, indeed, appear to extend beyond the period of
the flood, and from these the "dark idolater of chance," who would
rejoice to prove that "Book of Books" a splendid fable, draws his
deductions. But how he fails. The learned men of China, those held in
the greatest repute amongst a people where such a reputation is not
easily obtained, themselves admit, that the history of their empire in
its infancy, is, for the most part, apocryphal, and that the myths of
these early writers are only to be considered as such, and are not to
affect its chronology.
Indeed, the character of the language, when it refers to superior
powers, has such a tendency to exaggeration, as to afford great
facilities to those who would construe it to suit this particular
purpose.[1]
The Chinese historians speak of their Celestial Emperor, who reigned
forty-five thousand years! They also name a Terrestrial Emperor, whose
reign extended eighteen thousand years! And they had, in addition, a
Human Emperor, who occupied the throne for the same period, in
succession. There is then their fabulous period, which commences with
the creation of man, when Pwan-Koo (First Man) was produced. After
which the Celestial Emperor, Teen-Hwang-She, "Imperial Heaven,"
settled the years, taking eighteen thousand years to perform this
task. Succeeded by Te-Hwang-She, "Royal Earth,"--who is said to have
devoted the same period to fix the months. After Royal Earth comes
Jin-Hwang-She,--"Sovereign Man,"--who divided the land, and was
forty-five thousand years about it.
Following the string of their traditions, we come down to two thousand
three hundred and fifty-six years before Christ, when was founded the
first dynasty,--that of Te-yaou,--according to their chronology, Hea
being Emperor, or Chief, as De Guignes rationally supposes. This is
about the time of the dispersion of the human family, and, I think, the
proper date for the birth of this nation. Let that be as it may, there
is a great similarity between their traditions and our sacred record.
Their first man was produced by superior power, and was placed over the
inferior animals.
In the reign of Te-yaou there was an account of a great flood. Shortly
after, wine was discovered, and its intoxicating effects found out in
the reign of Fohi, who answers the description of Noah. Then came a
prince noted for his fondness for hunting, who was contemporary with
Nimrod. And there was a seven years' drought, like that described in
Genesis, ch. xli.
Another singular coincidence in their chronology, which I may be allowed
to refer to before dismissing this part of the subject, is the fact set
down by one of their historians, that in the fifty-fifth year of the
forty-fifth cycle, the Emperor Ming-te, in about the tenth year of his
reign, sent messengers to look for "_the holy man of the West_." Now
this period corresponds with the commencement of the Christian era: and
allowing for discrepancies unavoidable in such a calculation, could it
not have been possible that a faint glimmering of the "Star of
Bethlehem" had crossed this monarch's vision, and that, but for their
dilatory footsteps, these ambassadors of the Chinese Emperor might have
knelt by the side of those other "wise men of the East," who were guided
by its beams to the cradle of the infant Saviour? Certain it is, that
Buddhism was introduced into China about that time, and that this ruler
felt the need of a holy man, as if by inspiration!
The Chinese appear rapidly to have progressed in the arts, and to have
been foremost in all those inventions, which in their application have
conduced so much to the amelioration and welfare of the human race.
Eleven hundred and eight years before we commence to count our era
(B. C. 1108,) the unerring magnet that points so steadily to the pole,
was discovered by this ingenious people; and who may say what other
progress may have been made in science and literature up to B. C. 220,
when the cruel and ambitious Che-Hwang-te, who, having finished the
Great Wall, and wishing to date the foundation of his empire from his
reign, collected and burned all such records as he could obtain, and
destroyed by a cruel death the wise men within his dominions.[2]
Since then, at a very early part of the Christian era, they are known to
have made a representative of money in the shape of paper,[3] and a
stamp duty was imposed upon the sale of lands (A. D. 369). Shortly
after, learning became much cherished; literary men rose to dignities
and honor, and colleges were endowed in different parts of the empire.
Types had been invented some time in the early part of the ninth
century,[4] and the art of book-binding was known as early as A. D.
750.[5] The application of Gunpowder as a projectile was made in 1225;
and the invention of the Loom is dated a few years later.
The name, China, is derived from 'Tsin; and it became known by this name
to the other nations of the world through the ambition of Che-Hwang-te,
before mentioned, who assumed the title of King of 'Tsin; and who, if he
was cruel, appears to have been also able and talented. He not only
enlarged and extended the empire, but what was gained to it he
consolidated and strengthened. The Great Wall was not the only monument
of his reign. Splendid roads afforded facilities for trade, which he
greatly encouraged. Overflown lands were redeemed, and stagnant and
unwholesome marshes became, by the magic of his mind, fertile and
healthy plains. His capital was enlarged and beautified, and employment
given by his great works to thousands who else had starved. As he was
the greatest, so was he the last of his dynasty; for it ended in the
death of his son, but a short time after his own demise, and a new
dynasty,--that of Han,--was erected upon its ruins; thus destroying
plans for the furtherance of which much blood had been shed.
There is a strong parallel between the life and fate of this monarch and
that of the Emperor Napoleon. Both of humble origin,[6] each made
himself a NAME, and from each a name descended to his country. Under the
influence of that insanity of great minds,--Ambition,--each filled the
world with his reflected glory, and each failed in his dearest and most
cherished wish, the perpetuation of his name through his offspring. Much
good did either do, but in the prosecution of the plans of each, much
innocent blood was spilled. They both were great! Was either good?
The name of Kathay, or Cathay, was applied to this country by ancient
writers, among whom was Marco Polo, a Venetian, who was about the first
who penetrated its boundaries. I have assumed it, therefore, as a title,
as much from its antiquity as for its euphony.
When one would speak of the religious institutions of China, he is
indeed in the position of the person named in the commencement of this
chapter. There appears to be three systems of religions, viz., that of
Confucius, the system of Laou-tze, and that of Buddha. But when you
attempt to find out his belief, a Chinaman is very apt to confound you
with a part of each doctrine, and it is only by much sifting that you
can come at his real sentiments. The superior men of China affect the
doctrines of the two first-named philosophers, whilst the dark and
ambiguous creed of Buddha obtains with the lower classes.
The system of Confucius is well known to the general reader. It is an
excellent code of morals. He advocates a control over the passions, and
a proper management of the affections, and comes as near as he can to
the rule laid down in the New Testament, "to do to others, as we would
have others do unto us." His virtues are benevolence, righteousness,
_politeness_, (!) wisdom and truth. Filial piety is inculcated as the
first and primary duty. In fact, he considers it the foundation of all;
and teaches that ancestors are to be worshipped after death, and their
slightest command obeyed throughout life. He advocates subjection to
superiors, and contentment with our lot, but appears to have no idea of
retribution beyond this life; and although in his works the existence of
a superior power is admitted, and he even says, in one instance,
"Imperial Heaven has no kindred to serve, and will only assist Virtue,"
yet a favorite maxim of his, "Respect the gods, but keep them at a
distance," proves that he considered the superior influences as having
but little affinity with man.
The religion of Laou-tze comes next for our consideration. Its followers
are called Taouists, from the word Taou,--Reason,--the active
principle,--eternal reason. Its founder lived about the same time as
Confucius, who is said to have had an interview with him. Confucius
describes Laou-tze as resembling the dragon, and received from him a
lecture, in which he accuses him of worldly-mindedness and vanity, and
concludes by telling him to make the best of it he can. He is called
the "Venerable Philosopher," and is said to have appeared thrice upon
earth; in one instance as Lavu-Tan, when he honored Confucius with a
visit; another time as Laou-Keun, "The venerable Prince."
He has left some good maxims, but his religion is tinged with error, and
is filled with superstition. I have hardly time, and it would be
scarcely worth while, to describe the peculiar tenets he inculcates; but
he allows extensive powers to evil and malignant spirits, and the
priests make great use of their supposed influence. The belief that
ghosts will return to haunt and disturb the places in which the spirit
has left the body, causes many a poor believer of this doctrine to be
cast out, and deserted by its disciples in the agonies of death!
The doctrines of Buddha, from their prevalence in India, are generally
known to the reading public. Buddhism is the basest kind of idolatry,
and its rites are debasing and revolting. The worshipper is to infuse
himself into Buddha by a constant repetition of his name, and
continually thinking of him.
The Buddhists sacrifice to their ancestors, and feed the hungry ghosts.
They also furnish them with clothing, and other necessaries, by shaping
the article required from paper, and destroying it by fire. In this
manner houses, and household utensils, money, and even slaves, are
remitted to such ghosts as are thought to need them.
I have only space within the limits assigned to this chapter to give a
description of heaven, copied from a Buddhistic work, before I leave the
subject to continue the incidents of the cruise.
"The land of Heaven--Buddha's--is perfect gold. Its gardens and palaces
are adorned with gems. They are encircled with rows of trees, and
borders of net-work. There are lovely birds, of sparkling plumage and
exquisite notes. The great god O-lo-han; the goddess of Mercy; the
unnumbered Buddhas; the host of demigods, and the sages of heaven and
earth, will all be assembled on that sacred spot. But in that sacred
kingdom there are _no women_; (!) for the women who will live in that
country are first changed _into men_. The inhabitants are produced from
the Lotus flower, and have pure and fragrant bodies, fair and
well-formed countenances, with hearts full of wisdom, and free from
vexation. They are without pain or sickness, and never become old. This
is the Paradise of the West; and the way to obtain it the most simple
imaginable, depending on one sentence, O-me-to-fuh. Amida Buddha!"
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 1: One of the causes which have led the Chinese themselves
into great errors with regard to the ancient state of their country, is
the having given to their ancient characters the acceptations which they
did not acquire until later times.
The characters which are now translated by the words emperor, province,
city, palace, meant no more in former times than the chief of a tribe, a
district, a camp, a house. These simple meanings did not flatter their
vanity sufficiently, and they therefore preferred employing terms which
would represent their ancestors as rich and powerful, and their empire
vast and flourishing in the _first year_ of its foundation as if _by
magic_.--M. DE GUIGNES' LITTERA.]
[Footnote 2: This presumption was overruled by an all-wise Providence,
by the subsequent discovery of some books of Confucius in repairing an
old house.--MONTGOMERY MARTIN.]
[Footnote 3: Anno Domini 297.]
[Footnote 4: Anno Domini 924.]
[Footnote 5: The Chinese made paper about 350 years before Christ; and
Confucius, about a century before, wrote his admirable maxims on a
bamboo, with a stylus.]
[Footnote 6: The mother of Che-Hwang-te had been a concubine of a
merchant of Ho-nan.]