MALDONADO
Monte Video--Excursion to R. Polanco--Lazo and
Bolas--Partridges--Absence of Trees--Deer--Capybara, or River
Hog--Tucutuco--Molothrus, cuckoo-like
habits--Tyrant-flycatcher--Mocking-bird--Carrion Hawks--Tubes formed by
Lightning--House struck.
July 5th, 1832--In the morning we got under way, and stood out of the
splendid harbour of Rio de Janeiro. In our passage to the Plata, we
saw nothing particular, excepting on one day a great shoal of
porpoises, many hundreds in number. The whole sea was in places
furrowed by them; and a most extraordinary spectacle was presented, as
hundreds, proceeding together by jumps, in which their whole bodies
were exposed, thus cut the water. When the ship was running nine knots
an hour, these animals could cross and recross the bows with the
greatest of ease, and then dash away right ahead. As soon as we
entered the estuary of the Plata, the weather was very unsettled. One
dark night we were surrounded by numerous seals and penguins, which
made such strange noises, that the officer on watch reported he could
hear the cattle bellowing on shore. On a second night we witnessed a
splendid scene of natural fireworks; the mast-head and yard-arm-ends
shone with St. Elmo's light; and the form of the vane could almost be
traced, as if it had been rubbed with phosphorus. The sea was so
highly luminous, that the tracks of the penguins were marked by a fiery
wake, and the darkness of the sky was momentarily illuminated by the
most vivid lightning.
When within the mouth of the river, I was interested by observing how
slowly the waters of the sea and river mixed. The latter, muddy and
discoloured, from its less specific gravity, floated on the surface of
the salt water. This was curiously exhibited in the wake of the
vessel, where a line of blue water was seen mingling in little eddies,
with the adjoining fluid.
July 26th.--We anchored at Monte Video. The Beagle was employed in
surveying the extreme southern and eastern coasts of America, south of
the Plata, during the two succeeding years. To prevent useless
repetitions, I will extract those parts of my journal which refer to
the same districts without always attending to the order in which we
visited them.
MALDONADO is situated on the northern bank of the Plata, and not very
far from the mouth of the estuary. It is a most quiet, forlorn, little
town; built, as is universally the case in these countries, with the
streets running at right angles to each other, and having in the middle
a large plaza or square, which, from its size, renders the scantiness
of the population more evident. It possesses scarcely any trade; the
exports being confined to a few hides and living cattle. The
inhabitants are chiefly landowners, together with a few shopkeepers and
the necessary tradesmen, such as blacksmiths and carpenters, who do
nearly all the business for a circuit of fifty miles round. The town
is separated from the river by a band of sand-hillocks, about a mile
broad: it is surrounded, on all other sides, by an open
slightly-undulating country, covered by one uniform layer of fine green
turf, on which countless herds of cattle, sheep, and horses graze.
There is very little land cultivated even close to the town. A few
hedges, made of cacti and agave, mark out where some wheat or Indian
corn has been planted. The features of the country are very similar
along the whole northern bank of the Plata. The only difference is,
that here the granitic hills are a little bolder. The scenery is very
uninteresting; there is scarcely a house, an enclosed piece of ground,
or even a tree, to give it an air of cheerfulness Yet, after being
imprisoned for some time in a ship, there is a charm in the unconfined
feeling of walking over boundless plains of turf. Moreover, if your
view is limited to a small space, many objects possess beauty. Some of
the smaller birds are brilliantly coloured; and the bright green sward,
browsed short by the cattle, is ornamented by dwarf flowers, among
which a plant, looking like the daisy, claimed the place of an old
friend. What would a florist say to whole tracts, so thickly covered
by the Verbena melindres, as, even at a distance, to appear of the most
gaudy scarlet?
I stayed ten weeks at Maldonado, in which time a nearly perfect
collection of the animals, birds, and reptiles, was procured. Before
making any observations respecting them, I will give an account of a
little excursion I made as far as the river Polanco, which is about
seventy miles distant, in a northerly direction. I may mention, as a
proof how cheap everything is in this country, that I paid only two
dollars a day, or eight shillings, for two men, together with a troop
of about a dozen riding-horses. My companions were well armed with
pistols and sabres; a precaution which I thought rather unnecessary but
the first piece of news we heard was, that, the day before, a traveller
from Monte Video had been found dead on the road, with his throat cut.
This happened close to a cross, the record of a former murder.
On the first night we slept at a retired little country-house; and
there I soon found out that I possessed two or three articles,
especially a pocket compass, which created unbounded astonishment. In
every house I was asked to show the compass, and by its aid, together
with a map, to point out the direction of various places. It excited
the liveliest admiration that I, a perfect stranger, should know the
road (for direction and road are synonymous in this open country) to
places where I had never been. At one house a young woman, who was ill
in bed, sent to entreat me to come and show her the compass. If their
surprise was great, mine was greater, to find such ignorance among
people who possessed their thousands of cattle, and "estancias" of
great extent. It can only be accounted for by the circumstance that
this retired part of the country is seldom visited by foreigners. I
was asked whether the earth or sun moved; whether it was hotter or
colder to the north; where Spain was, and many other such questions.
The greater number of the inhabitants had an indistinct idea that
England, London, and North America, were different names for the same
place; but the better informed well knew that London and North America
were separate countries close together, and that England was a large
town in London! I carried with me some promethean matches, which I
ignited by biting; it was thought so wonderful that a man should strike
fire with his teeth, that it was usual to collect the whole family to
see it: I was once offered a dollar for a single one. Washing my face
in the morning caused much speculation at the village of Las Minas; a
superior tradesman closely cross-questioned me about so singular a
practice; and likewise why on board we wore our beards; for he had
heard from my guide that we did so. He eyed me with much suspicion;
perhaps he had heard of ablutions in the Mahomedan religion, and
knowing me to be a heretick, probably he came to the conclusion that
all hereticks were Turks. It is the general custom in this country to
ask for a night's lodging at the first convenient house. The
astonishment at the compass, and my other feats of jugglery, was to a
certain degree advantageous, as with that, and the long stories my
guides told of my breaking stones, knowing venomous from harmless
snakes, collecting insects, etc., I repaid them for their hospitality.
I am writing as if I had been among the inhabitants of central Africa:
Banda Oriental would not be flattered by the comparison; but such were
my feelings at the time.
The next day we rode to the village of Las Minas. The country was
rather more hilly, but otherwise continued the same; an inhabitant of
the Pampas no doubt would have considered it as truly Alpine. The
country is so thinly inhabited, that during the whole day we scarcely
met a single person. Las Minas is much smaller even than Maldonado. It
is seated on a little plain, and is surrounded by low rocky mountains.
It is of the usual symmetrical form, and with its whitewashed church
standing in the centre, had rather a pretty appearance. The
outskirting houses rose out of the plain like isolated beings, without
the accompaniment of gardens or courtyards. This is generally the case
in the country, and all the houses have, in consequence an
uncomfortable aspect. At night we stopped at a pulperia, or
drinking-shop. During the evening a great number of Gauchos came in to
drink spirits and smoke cigars: their appearance is very striking; they
are generally tall and handsome, but with a proud and dissolute
expression of countenance. They frequently wear their moustaches and
long black hair curling down their backs. With their brightly coloured
garments, great spurs clanking about their heels, and knives stuck as
daggers (and often so used) at their waists, they look a very different
race of men from what might be expected from their name of Gauchos, or
simple countrymen. Their politeness is excessive; they never drink
their spirits without expecting you to taste it; but whilst making
their exceedingly graceful bow, they seem quite as ready, if occasion
offered, to cut your throat.
On the third day we pursued rather an irregular course, as I was
employed in examining some beds of marble. On the fine plains of turf
we saw many ostriches (Struthio rhea). Some of the flocks contained as
many as twenty or thirty birds. These, when standing on any little
eminence, and seen against the clear sky, presented a very noble
appearance. I never met with such tame ostriches in any other part of
the country: it was easy to gallop up within a short distance of them;
but then, expanding their wings, they made all sail right before the
wind, and soon left the horse astern.
At night we came to the house of Don Juan Fuentes, a rich landed
proprietor, but not personally known to either of my companions. On
approaching the house of a stranger, it is usual to follow several
little points of etiquette: riding up slowly to the door, the
salutation of Ave Maria is given, and until somebody comes out and asks
you to alight, it is not customary even to get off your horse: the
formal answer of the owner is, "sin pecado concebida"--that is,
conceived without sin. Having entered the house, some general
conversation is kept up for a few minutes, till permission is asked to
pass the night there. This is granted as a matter of course. The
stranger then takes his meals with the family, and a room is assigned
him, where with the horsecloths belonging to his recado (or saddle of
the Pampas) he makes his bed. It is curious how similar circumstances
produce such similar results in manners. At the Cape of Good Hope the
same hospitality, and very nearly the same points of etiquette, are
universally observed. The difference, however, between the character
of the Spaniard and that of the Dutch boer is shown, by the former
never asking his guest a single question beyond the strictest rule of
politeness, whilst the honest Dutchman demands where he has been, where
he is going, what is his business, and even how many brothers sisters,
or children he may happen to have.
Shortly after our arrival at Don Juan's, one of the largest herds of
cattle was driven in towards the house, and three beasts were picked
out to be slaughtered for the supply of the establishment. These
half-wild cattle are very active; and knowing full well the fatal lazo,
they led the horses a long and laborious chase. After witnessing the
rude wealth displayed in the number of cattle, men, and horses, Don
Juan's miserable house was quite curious. The floor consisted of
hardened mud, and the windows were without glass; the sitting-room
boasted only of a few of the roughest chairs and stools, with a couple
of tables. The supper, although several strangers were present,
consisted of two huge piles, one of roast beef, the other of boiled,
with some pieces of pumpkin: besides this latter there was no other
vegetable, and not even a morsel of bread. For drinking, a large
earthenware jug of water served the whole party. Yet this man was the
owner of several square miles of land, of which nearly every acre would
produce corn, and, with a little trouble, all the common vegetables.
The evening was spent in smoking, with a little impromptu singing,
accompanied by the guitar. The signoritas all sat together in one
corner of the room, and did not sup with the men.
So many works have been written about these countries, that it is
almost superfluous to describe either the lazo or the bolas. The lazo
consists of a very strong, but thin, well-plaited rope, made of raw
hide. One end is attached to the broad surcingle, which fastens
together the complicated gear of the recado, or saddle used in the
Pampas; the other is terminated by a small ring of iron or brass, by
which a noose can be formed. The Gaucho, when he is going to use the
lazo, keeps a small coil in his bridle-hand, and in the other holds the
running noose which is made very large, generally having a diameter of
about eight feet. This he whirls round his head, and by the dexterous
movement of his wrist keeps the noose open; then, throwing it, he
causes it to fall on any particular spot he chooses. The lazo, when
not used, is tied up in a small coil to the after part of the recado.
The bolas, or balls, are of two kinds: the simplest, which is chiefly
used for catching ostriches, consists of two round stones, covered with
leather, and united by a thin plaited thong, about eight feet long. The
other kind differs only in having three balls united by the thongs to a
common centre. The Gaucho holds the smallest of the three in his hand,
and whirls the other two round and round his head; then, taking aim,
sends them like chain shot revolving through the air. The balls no
sooner strike any object, than, winding round it, they cross each
other, and become firmly hitched. The size and weight of the balls
vary, according to the purpose for which they are made: when of stone,
although not larger than an apple, they are sent with such force as
sometimes to break the leg even of a horse. I have seen the balls made
of wood, and as large as a turnip, for the sake of catching these
animals without injuring them. The balls are sometimes made of iron,
and these can be hurled to the greatest distance. The main difficulty
in using either lazo or bolas is to ride so well as to be able at full
speed, and while suddenly turning about, to whirl them so steadily
round the head, as to take aim: on foot any person would soon learn the
art. One day, as I was amusing myself by galloping and whirling the
balls round my head, by accident the free one struck a bush, and its
revolving motion being thus destroyed, it immediately fell to the
ground, and, like magic, caught one hind leg of my horse; the other
ball was then jerked out of my hand, and the horse fairly secured.
Luckily he was an old practised animal, and knew what it meant;
otherwise he would probably have kicked till he had thrown himself
down. The Gauchos roared with laughter; they cried out that they had
seen every sort of animal caught, but had never before seen a man
caught by himself.
During the two succeeding days, I reached the furthest point which I
was anxious to examine. The country wore the same aspect, till at last
the fine green turf became more wearisome than a dusty turnpike road.
We everywhere saw great numbers of partridges (Nothura major). These
birds do not go in coveys, nor do they conceal themselves like the
English kind. It appears a very silly bird. A man on horseback by
riding round and round in a circle, or rather in a spire, so as to
approach closer each time, may knock on the head as many as he pleases.
The more common method is to catch them with a running noose, or little
lazo, made of the stem of an ostrich's feather, fastened to the end of
a long stick. A boy on a quiet old horse will frequently thus catch
thirty or forty in a day. In Arctic North America [1] the Indians
catch the Varying Hare by walking spirally round and round it, when on
its form: the middle of the day is reckoned the best time, when the sun
is high, and the shadow of the hunter not very long.
On our return to Maldonado, we followed rather a different line of
road. Near Pan de Azucar, a landmark well known to all those who have
sailed up the Plata, I stayed a day at the house of a most hospitable
old Spaniard. Early in the morning we ascended the Sierra de las
Animas. By the aid of the rising sun the scenery was almost
picturesque. To the westward the view extended over an immense level
plain as far as the Mount, at Monte Video, and to the eastward, over
the mammillated country of Maldonado. On the summit of the mountain
there were several small heaps of stones, which evidently had lain
there for many years. My companion assured me that they were the work
of the Indians in the old time. The heaps were similar, but on a much
smaller scale, to those so commonly found on the mountains of Wales.
The desire to signalize any event, on the highest point of the
neighbouring land, seems an universal passion with mankind. At the
present day, not a single Indian, either civilized or wild, exists in
this part of the province; nor am I aware that the former inhabitants
have left behind them any more permanent records than these
insignificant piles on the summit of the Sierra de las Animas.
The general, and almost entire absence of trees in Banda Oriental is
remarkable. Some of the rocky hills are partly covered by thickets,
and on the banks of the larger streams, especially to the north of Las
Minas, willow-trees are not uncommon. Near the Arroyo Tapes I heard of
a wood of palms; and one of these trees, of considerable size, I saw
near the Pan de Azucar, in lat. 35 degs. These, and the trees planted
by the Spaniards, offer the only exceptions to the general scarcity of
wood. Among the introduced kinds may be enumerated poplars, olives,
peach, and other fruit trees: the peaches succeed so well, that they
afford the main supply of firewood to the city of Buenos Ayres.
Extremely level countries, such as the Pampas, seldom appear favourable
to the growth of trees. This may possibly be attributed either to the
force of the winds, or the kind of drainage. In the nature of the
land, however, around Maldonado, no such reason is apparent; the rocky
mountains afford protected situations; enjoying various kinds of soil;
streamlets of water are common at the bottoms of nearly every valley;
and the clayey nature of the earth seems adapted to retain moisture. It
has been inferred with much probability, that the presence of woodland
is generally determined [2] by the annual amount of moisture; yet in
this province abundant and heavy rain falls during the winter; and the
summer, though dry, is not so in any excessive degree. [3] We see
nearly the whole of Australia covered by lofty trees, yet that country
possesses a far more arid climate. Hence we must look to some other
and unknown cause.
Confining our view to South America, we should certainly be tempted to
believe that trees flourished only under a very humid climate; for the
limit of the forest-land follows, in a most remarkable manner, that of
the damp winds. In the southern part of the continent, where the
western gales, charged with moisture from the Pacific, prevail, every
island on the broken west coast, from lat. 38 degs. to the extreme
point of Tierra del Fuego, is densely covered by impenetrable forests.
On the eastern side of the Cordillera, over the same extent of
latitude, where a blue sky and a fine climate prove that the atmosphere
has been deprived of its moisture by passing over the mountains, the
arid plains of Patagonia support a most scanty vegetation. In the more
northern parts of the continent, within the limits of the constant
south-eastern trade-wind, the eastern side is ornamented by magnificent
forests; whilst the western coast, from lat. 4 degs. S. to lat. 32
degs. S., may be described as a desert; on this western coast,
northward of lat. 4 degs. S., where the trade-wind loses its
regularity, and heavy torrents of rain fall periodically, the shores of
the Pacific, so utterly desert in Peru, assume near Cape Blanco the
character of luxuriance so celebrated at Guyaquil and Panama. Hence in
the southern and northern parts of the continent, the forest and desert
lands occupy reversed positions with respect to the Cordillera, and
these positions are apparently determined by the direction of the
prevalent winds. In the middle of the continent there is a broad
intermediate band, including central Chile and the provinces of La
Plata, where the rain-bringing winds have not to pass over lofty
mountains, and where the land is neither a desert nor covered by
forests. But even the rule, if confined to South America, of trees
flourishing only in a climate rendered humid by rain-bearing winds, has
a strongly marked exception in the case of the Falkland Islands. These
islands, situated in the same latitude with Tierra del Fuego and only
between two and three hundred miles distant from it, having a nearly
similar climate, with a geological formation almost identical, with
favourable situations and the same kind of peaty soil, yet can boast of
few plants deserving even the title of bushes; whilst in Tierra del
Fuego it is impossible to find an acre of land not covered by the
densest forest. In this case, both the direction of the heavy gales of
wind and of the currents of the sea are favourable to the transport of
seeds from Tierra del Fuego, as is shown by the canoes and trunks of
trees drifted from that country, and frequently thrown on the shores of
the Western Falkland. Hence perhaps it is, that there are many plants
in common to the two countries but with respect to the trees of Tierra
del Fuego, even attempts made to transplant them have failed.
During our stay at Maldonado I collected several quadrupeds, eighty
kinds of birds, and many reptiles, including nine species of snakes. Of
the indigenous mammalia, the only one now left of any size, which is
common, is the Cervus campestris. This deer is exceedingly abundant,
often in small herds, throughout the countries bordering the Plata and
in Northern Patagonia. If a person crawling close along the ground,
slowly advances towards a herd, the deer frequently, out of curiosity,
approach to reconnoitre him. I have by this means, killed from one
spot, three out of the same herd. Although so tame and inquisitive,
yet when approached on horseback, they are exceedingly wary. In this
country nobody goes on foot, and the deer knows man as its enemy only
when he is mounted and armed with the bolas. At Bahia Blanca, a recent
establishment in Northern Patagonia, I was surprised to find how little
the deer cared for the noise of a gun: one day I fired ten times from
within eighty yards at one animal; and it was much more startled at the
ball cutting up the ground than at the report of the rifle. My powder
being exhausted, I was obliged to get up (to my shame as a sportsman be
it spoken, though well able to kill birds on the wing) and halloo till
the deer ran away.
The most curious fact with respect to this animal, is the
overpoweringly strong and offensive odour which proceeds from the buck.
It is quite indescribable: several times whilst skinning the specimen
which is now mounted at the Zoological Museum, I was almost overcome by
nausea. I tied up the skin in a silk pocket-handkerchief, and so
carried it home: this handkerchief, after being well washed, I
continually used, and it was of course as repeatedly washed; yet every
time, for a space of one year and seven months, when first unfolded, I
distinctly perceived the odour. This appears an astonishing instance
of the permanence of some matter, which nevertheless in its nature must
be most subtile and volatile. Frequently, when passing at the distance
of half a mile to leeward of a herd, I have perceived the whole air
tainted with the effluvium. I believe the smell from the buck is most
powerful at the period when its horns are perfect, or free from the
hairy skin. When in this state the meat is, of course, quite
uneatable; but the Gauchos assert, that if buried for some time in
fresh earth, the taint is removed. I have somewhere read that the
islanders in the north of Scotland treat the rank carcasses of the
fish-eating birds in the same manner.
The order Rodentia is here very numerous in species: of mice alone I
obtained no less than eight kinds. [4] The largest gnawing animal in
the world, the Hydrochaerus capybara (the water-hog), is here also
common. One which I shot at Monte Video weighed ninety-eight pounds:
its length from the end of the snout to the stump-like tail, was three
feet two inches; and its girth three feet eight. These great Rodents
occasionally frequent the islands in the mouth of the Plata, where the
water is quite salt, but are far more abundant on the borders of
fresh-water lakes and rivers. Near Maldonado three or four generally
live together. In the daytime they either lie among the aquatic
plants, or openly feed on the turf plain. [5] When viewed at a
distance, from their manner of walking and colour they resemble pigs:
but when seated on their haunches, and attentively watching any object
with one eye, they reassume the appearance of their congeners, cavies
and rabbits. Both the front and side view of their head has quite a
ludicrous aspect, from the great depth of their jaw. These animals, at
Maldonado, were very tame; by cautiously walking, I approached within
three yards of four old ones. This tameness may probably be accounted
for, by the Jaguar having been banished for some years, and by the
Gaucho not thinking it worth his while to hunt them. As I approached
nearer and nearer they frequently made their peculiar noise, which is a
low abrupt grunt, not having much actual sound, but rather arising from
the sudden expulsion of air: the only noise I know at all like it, is
the first hoarse bark of a large dog. Having watched the four from
almost within arm's length (and they me) for several minutes, they
rushed into the water at full gallop with the greatest impetuosity, and
emitted at the same time their bark. After diving a short distance
they came again to the surface, but only just showed the upper part of
their heads. When the female is swimming in the water, and has young
ones, they are said to sit on her back. These animals are easily killed
in numbers; but their skins are of trifling value, and the meat is very
indifferent. On the islands in the Rio Parana they are exceedingly
abundant, and afford the ordinary prey to the Jaguar.
The Tucutuco (Ctenomys Brasiliensis) is a curious small animal, which
may be briefly described as a Gnawer, with the habits of a mole. It is
extremely numerous in some parts of the country, but it is difficult to
be procured, and never, I believe, comes out of the ground. It throws
up at the mouth of its burrows hillocks of earth like those of the
mole, but smaller. Considerable tracts of country are so completely
undermined by these animals, that horses in passing over, sink above
their fetlocks. The tucutucos appear, to a certain degree, to be
gregarious: the man who procured the specimens for me had caught six
together, and he said this was a common occurrence. They are nocturnal
in their habits; and their principal food is the roots of plants, which
are the object of their extensive and superficial burrows. This animal
is universally known by a very peculiar noise which it makes when
beneath the ground. A person, the first time he hears it, is much
surprised; for it is not easy to tell whence it comes, nor is it
possible to guess what kind of creature utters it. The noise consists
in a short, but not rough, nasal grunt, which is monotonously repeated
about four times in quick succession: [6] the name Tucutuco is given in
imitation of the sound. Where this animal is abundant, it may be heard
at all times of the day, and sometimes directly beneath one's feet.
When kept in a room, the tucutucos move both slowly and clumsily, which
appears owing to the outward action of their hind legs; and they are
quite incapable, from the socket of the thigh-bone not having a certain
ligament, of jumping even the smallest vertical height. They are very
stupid in making any attempt to escape; when angry or frightened they
utter the tucutuco. Of those I kept alive several, even the first day,
became quite tame, not attempting to bite or to run away; others were a
little wilder.
The man who caught them asserted that very many are invariably found
blind. A specimen which I preserved in spirits was in this state; Mr.
Reid considers it to be the effect of inflammation in the nictitating
membrane. When the animal was alive I placed my finger within half an
inch of its head, and not the slightest notice was taken: it made its
way, however, about the room nearly as well as the others. Considering
the strictly subterranean habits of the tucutuco, the blindness, though
so common, cannot be a very serious evil; yet it appears strange that
any animal should possess an organ frequently subject to be injured.
Lamarck would have been delighted with this fact, had he known it, when
speculating [7] (probably with more truth than usual with him) on the
gradually _acquired_ blindness of the Asphalax, a Gnawer living under
ground, and of the Proteus, a reptile living in dark caverns filled
with water; in both of which animals the eye is in an almost
rudimentary state, and is covered by a tendinous membrane and skin. In
the common mole the eye is extraordinarily small but perfect, though
many anatomists doubt whether it is connected with the true optic
nerve; its vision must certainly be imperfect, though probably useful
to the animal when it leaves its burrow. In the tucutuco, which I
believe never comes to the surface of the ground, the eye is rather
larger, but often rendered blind and useless, though without apparently
causing any inconvenience to the animal; no doubt Lamarck would have
said that the tucutuco is now passing into the state of the Asphalax
and Proteus.
Birds of many kinds are extremely abundant on the undulating, grassy
plains around Maldonado. There are several species of a family allied
in structure and manners to our Starling: one of these (Molothrus
niger) is remarkable from its habits. Several may often be seen
standing together on the back of a cow or horse; and while perched on a
hedge, pluming themselves in the sun, they sometimes attempt to sing,
or rather to hiss; the noise being very peculiar, resembling that of
bubbles of air passing rapidly from a small orifice under water, so as
to produce an acute sound. According to Azara, this bird, like the
cuckoo, deposits its eggs in other birds' nests. I was several times
told by the country people that there certainly is some bird having
this habit; and my assistant in collecting, who is a very accurate
person, found a nest of the sparrow of this country (Zonotrichia
matutina), with one egg in it larger than the others, and of a
different colour and shape. In North America there is another species
of Molothrus (M. pecoris), which has a similar cuckoo-like habit, and
which is most closely allied in every respect to the species from the
Plata, even in such trifling peculiarities as standing on the backs of
cattle; it differs only in being a little smaller, and in its plumage
and eggs being of a slightly different shade of colour. This close
agreement in structure and habits, in representative species coming
from opposite quarters of a great continent, always strikes one as
interesting, though of common occurrence.
Mr. Swainson has well remarked, [8] that with the exception of the
Molothrus pecoris, to which must be added the M. niger, the cuckoos are
the only birds which can be called truly parasitical; namely, such as
"fasten themselves, as it were, on another living animal, whose animal
heat brings their young into life, whose food they live upon, and whose
death would cause theirs during the period of infancy." It is
remarkable that some of the species, but not all, both of the Cuckoo
and Molothrus, should agree in this one strange habit of their
parasitical propagation, whilst opposed to each other in almost every
other habit: the molothrus, like our starling, is eminently sociable,
and lives on the open plains without art or disguise: the cuckoo, as
every one knows, is a singularly shy bird; it frequents the most
retired thickets, and feeds on fruit and caterpillars. In structure
also these two genera are widely removed from each other. Many
theories, even phrenological theories, have been advanced to explain
the origin of the cuckoo laying its eggs in other birds' nests. M.
Prevost alone, I think, has thrown light by his observations [9] on
this puzzle: he finds that the female cuckoo, which, according to most
observers, lays at least from four to six eggs, must pair with the male
each time after laying only one or two eggs. Now, if the cuckoo was
obliged to sit on her own eggs, she would either have to sit on all
together, and therefore leave those first laid so long, that they
probably would become addled; or she would have to hatch separately
each egg, or two eggs, as soon as laid: but as the cuckoo stays a
shorter time in this country than any other migratory bird, she
certainly would not have time enough for the successive hatchings.
Hence we can perceive in the fact of the cuckoo pairing several times,
and laying her eggs at intervals, the cause of her depositing her eggs
in other birds' nests, and leaving them to the care of foster-parents.
I am strongly inclined to believe that this view is correct, from
having been independently led (as we shall hereafter see) to an
analogous conclusion with regard to the South American ostrich, the
females of which are parasitical, if I may so express it, on each
other; each female laying several eggs in the nests of several other
females, and the male ostrich undertaking all the cares of incubation,
like the strange foster-parents with the cuckoo.
I will mention only two other birds, which are very common, and render
themselves prominent from their habits. The Saurophagus sulphuratus is
typical of the great American tribe of tyrant-flycatchers. In its
structure it closely approaches the true shrikes, but in its habits may
be compared to many birds. I have frequently observed it, hunting a
field, hovering over one spot like a hawk, and then proceeding on to
another. When seen thus suspended in the air, it might very readily at
a short distance be mistaken for one of the Rapacious order; its stoop,
however, is very inferior in force and rapidity to that of a hawk. At
other times the Saurophagus haunts the neighbourhood of water, and
there, like a kingfisher, remaining stationary, it catches any small
fish which may come near the margin. These birds are not unfrequently
kept either in cages or in courtyards, with their wings cut. They soon
become tame, and are very amusing from their cunning odd manners, which
were described to me as being similar to those of the common magpie.
Their flight is undulatory, for the weight of the head and bill appears
too great for the body. In the evening the Saurophagus takes its stand
on a bush, often by the roadside, and continually repeats without a
change a shrill and rather agreeable cry, which somewhat resembles
articulate words: the Spaniards say it is like the words "Bien te veo"
(I see you well), and accordingly have given it this name.
A mocking-bird (Mimus orpheus), called by the inhabitants Calandria, is
remarkable, from possessing a song far superior to that of any other
bird in the country: indeed, it is nearly the only bird in South
America which I have observed to take its stand for the purpose of
singing. The song may be compared to that of the Sedge warbler, but is
more powerful; some harsh notes and some very high ones, being mingled
with a pleasant warbling. It is heard only during the spring. At
other times its cry is harsh and far from harmonious. Near Maldonado
these birds were tame and bold; they constantly attended the country
houses in numbers, to pick the meat which was hung up on the posts or
walls: if any other small bird joined the feast, the Calandria soon
chased it away. On the wide uninhabited plains of Patagonia another
closely allied species, O. Patagonica of d'Orbigny, which frequents the
valleys clothed with spiny bushes, is a wilder bird, and has a slightly
different tone of voice. It appears to me a curious circumstance, as
showing the fine shades of difference in habits, that judging from this
latter respect alone, when I first saw this second species, I thought
it was different from the Maldonado kind. Having afterwards procured a
specimen, and comparing the two without particular care, they appeared
so very similar, that I changed my opinion; but now Mr. Gould says that
they are certainly distinct; a conclusion in conformity with the
trifling difference of habit, of which, of course, he was not aware.
The number, tameness, and disgusting habits of the carrion-feeding
hawks of South America make them pre-eminently striking to any one
accustomed only to the birds of Northern Europe. In this list may be
included four species of the Caracara or Polyborus, the Turkey buzzard,
the Gallinazo, and the Condor. The Caracaras are, from their
structure, placed among the eagles: we shall soon see how ill they
become so high a rank. In their habits they well supply the place of
our carrion-crows, magpies, and ravens; a tribe of birds widely
distributed over the rest of the world, but entirely absent in South
America. To begin with the Polyborus Brasiliensis: this is a common
bird, and has a wide geographical range; it is most numerous on the
grassy savannahs of La Plata (where it goes by the name of Carrancha),
and is far from unfrequent throughout the sterile plains of Patagonia.
In the desert between the rivers Negro and Colorado, numbers constantly
attend the line of road to devour the carcasses of the exhausted
animals which chance to perish from fatigue and thirst. Although thus
common in these dry and open countries, and likewise on the arid shores
of the Pacific, it is nevertheless found inhabiting the damp impervious
forests of West Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. The Carranchas,
together with the Chimango, constantly attend in numbers the estancias
and slaughtering-houses. If an animal dies on the plain the Gallinazo
commences the feast, and then the two species of Polyborus pick the
bones clean. These birds, although thus commonly feeding together, are
far from being friends. When the Carrancha is quietly seated on the
branch of a tree or on the ground, the Chimango often continues for a
long time flying backwards and forwards, up and down, in a semicircle,
trying each time at the bottom of the curve to strike its larger
relative. The Carrancha takes little notice, except by bobbing its
head. Although the Carranchas frequently assemble in numbers, they are
not gregarious; for in desert places they may be seen solitary, or more
commonly by pairs.
The Carranchas are said to be very crafty, and to steal great numbers
of eggs. They attempt, also, together with the Chimango, to pick off
the scabs from the sore backs of horses and mules. The poor animal, on
the one hand, with its ears down and its back arched; and, on the
other, the hovering bird, eyeing at the distance of a yard the
disgusting morsel, form a picture, which has been described by Captain
Head with his own peculiar spirit and accuracy. These false eagles
most rarely kill any living bird or animal; and their vulture-like,
necrophagous habits are very evident to any one who has fallen asleep
on the desolate plains of Patagonia, for when he wakes, he will see, on
each surrounding hillock, one of these birds patiently watching him
with an evil eye: it is a feature in the landscape of these countries,
which will be recognised by every one who has wandered over them. If a
party of men go out hunting with dogs and horses, they will be
accompanied, during the day, by several of these attendants. After
feeding, the uncovered craw protrudes; at such times, and indeed
generally, the Carrancha is an inactive, tame, and cowardly bird. Its
flight is heavy and slow, like that of an English rook. It seldom
soars; but I have twice seen one at a great height gliding through the
air with much ease. It runs (in contradistinction to hopping), but not
quite so quickly as some of its congeners. At times the Carrancha is
noisy, but is not generally so: its cry is loud, very harsh and
peculiar, and may be likened to the sound of the Spanish guttural g,
followed by a rough double r r; when uttering this cry it elevates its
head higher and higher, till at last, with its beak wide open, the
crown almost touches the lower part of the back. This fact, which has
been doubted, is quite true; I have seen them several times with their
heads backwards in a completely inverted position. To these
observations I may add, on the high authority of Azara, that the
Carrancha feeds on worms, shells, slugs, grasshoppers, and frogs; that
it destroys young lambs by tearing the umbilical cord; and that it
pursues the Gallinazo, till that bird is compelled to vomit up the
carrion it may have recently gorged. Lastly, Azara states that several
Carranchas, five or six together, will unite in chase of large birds,
even such as herons. All these facts show that it is a bird of very
versatile habits and considerable ingenuity.
The Polyborus Chimango is considerably smaller than the last species.
It is truly omnivorous, and will eat even bread; and I was assured that
it materially injures the potato crops in Chiloe, by stocking up the
roots when first planted. Of all the carrion-feeders it is generally
the last which leaves the skeleton of a dead animal, and may often be
seen within the ribs of a cow or horse, like a bird in a cage. Another
species is the Polyborus Novae Zelandiae, which is exceedingly common
in the Falkland Islands. These birds in many respects resemble in
their habits the Carranchas. They live on the flesh of dead animals
and on marine productions; and on the Ramirez rocks their whole
sustenance must depend on the sea. They are extraordinarily tame and
fearless, and haunt the neighborhood of houses for offal. If a hunting
party kills an animal, a number soon collect and patiently await,
standing on the ground on all sides. After eating, their uncovered
craws are largely protruded, giving them a disgusting appearance. They
readily attack wounded birds: a cormorant in this state having taken to
the shore, was immediately seized on by several, and its death hastened
by their blows. The Beagle was at the Falklands only during the
summer, but the officers of the Adventure, who were there in the
winter, mention many extraordinary instances of the boldness and
rapacity of these birds. They actually pounced on a dog that was lying
fast asleep close by one of the party; and the sportsmen had difficulty
in preventing the wounded geese from being seized before their eyes. It
is said that several together (in this respect resembling the
Carranchas) wait at the mouth of a rabbit-hole, and together seize on
the animal when it comes out. They were constantly flying on board the
vessel when in the harbour; and it was necessary to keep a good look
out to prevent the leather being torn from the rigging, and the meat or
game from the stern. These birds are very mischievous and inquisitive;
they will pick up almost anything from the ground; a large black glazed
hat was carried nearly a mile, as was a pair of the heavy balls used in
catching cattle. Mr. Usborne experienced during the survey a more
severe loss, in their stealing a small Kater's compass in a red morocco
leather case, which was never recovered. These birds are, moreover,
quarrelsome and very passionate; tearing up the grass with their bills
from rage. They are not truly gregarious; they do not soar, and their
flight is heavy and clumsy; on the ground they run extremely fast, very
much like pheasants. They are noisy, uttering several harsh cries, one
of which is like that of the English rook, hence the sealers always
call them rooks. It is a curious circumstance that, when crying out,
they throw their heads upwards and backwards, after the same manner as
the Carrancha. They build in the rocky cliffs of the sea-coast, but
only on the small adjoining islets, and not on the two main islands:
this is a singular precaution in so tame and fearless a bird. The
sealers say that the flesh of these birds, when cooked, is quite white,
and very good eating; but bold must the man be who attempts such a meal.
We have now only to mention the turkey-buzzard (Vultur aura), and the
Gallinazo. The former is found wherever the country is moderately
damp, from Cape Horn to North America. Differently from the Polyborus
Brasiliensis and Chimango, it has found its way to the Falkland
Islands. The turkey-buzzard is a solitary bird, or at most goes in
pairs. It may at once be recognised from a long distance, by its
lofty, soaring, and most elegant flight. It is well known to be a true
carrion-feeder. On the west coast of Patagonia, among the
thickly-wooded islets and broken land, it lives exclusively on what the
sea throws up, and on the carcasses of dead seals. Wherever these
animals are congregated on the rocks, there the vultures may be seen.
The Gallinazo (Cathartes atratus) has a different range from the last
species, as it never occurs southward of lat. 41 degs. Azara states
that there exists a tradition that these birds, at the time of the
conquest, were not found near Monte Video, but that they subsequently
followed the inhabitants from more northern districts. At the present
day they are numerous in the valley of the Colorado, which is three
hundred miles due south of Monte Video. It seems probable that this
additional migration has happened since the time of Azara. The
Gallinazo generally prefers a humid climate, or rather the
neighbourhood of fresh water; hence it is extremely abundant in Brazil
and La Plata, while it is never found on the desert and arid plains of
Northern Patagonia, excepting near some stream. These birds frequent
the whole Pampas to the foot of the Cordillera, but I never saw or
heard of one in Chile; in Peru they are preserved as scavengers. These
vultures certainly may be called gregarious, for they seem to have
pleasure in society, and are not solely brought together by the
attraction of a common prey. On a fine day a flock may often be
observed at a great height, each bird wheeling round and round without
closing its wings, in the most graceful evolutions. This is clearly
performed for the mere pleasure of the exercise, or perhaps is
connected with their matrimonial alliances.
I have now mentioned all the carrion-feeders, excepting the condor, an
account of which will be more appropriately introduced when we visit a
country more congenial to its habits than the plains of La Plata.
In a broad band of sand-hillocks which separate the Laguna del Potrero
from the shores of the Plata, at the distance of a few miles from
Maldonado, I found a group of those vitrified, siliceous tubes, which
are formed by lightning entering loose sand. These tubes resemble in
every particular those from Drigg in Cumberland, described in the
Geological Transactions. [10] The sand-hillocks of Maldonado not being
protected by vegetation, are constantly changing their position. From
this cause the tubes projected above the surface, and numerous
fragments lying near, showed that they had formerly been buried to a
greater depth. Four sets entered the sand perpendicularly: by working
with my hands I traced one of them two feet deep; and some fragments
which evidently had belonged to the same tube, when added to the other
part, measured five feet three inches. The diameter of the whole tube
was nearly equal, and therefore we must suppose that originally it
extended to a much greater depth. These dimensions are however small,
compared to those of the tubes from Drigg, one of which was traced to a
depth of not less than thirty feet.
The internal surface is completely vitrified, glossy, and smooth. A
small fragment examined under the microscope appeared, from the number
of minute entangled air or perhaps steam bubbles, like an assay fused
before the blowpipe. The sand is entirely, or in greater part,
siliceous; but some points are of a black colour, and from their glossy
surface possess a metallic lustre. The thickness of the wall of the
tube varies from a thirtieth to a twentieth of an inch, and
occasionally even equals a tenth. On the outside the grains of sand
are rounded, and have a slightly glazed appearance: I could not
distinguish any signs of crystallization. In a similar manner to that
described in the Geological Transactions, the tubes are generally
compressed, and have deep longitudinal furrows, so as closely to
resemble a shrivelled vegetable stalk, or the bark of the elm or cork
tree. Their circumference is about two inches, but in some fragments,
which are cylindrical and without any furrows, it is as much as four
inches. The compression from the surrounding loose sand, acting while
the tube was still softened from the effects of the intense heat, has
evidently caused the creases or furrows. Judging from the uncompressed
fragments, the measure or bore of the lightning (if such a term may be
used) must have been about one inch and a quarter. At Paris, M.
Hachette and M. Beudant [11] succeeded in making tubes, in most
respects similar to these fulgurites, by passing very strong shocks of
galvanism through finely-powdered glass: when salt was added, so as to
increase its fusibility, the tubes were larger in every dimension. They
failed both with powdered felspar and quartz. One tube, formed with
pounded glass, was very nearly an inch long, namely .982, and had an
internal diameter of .019 of an inch. When we hear that the strongest
battery in Paris was used, and that its power on a substance of such
easy fusibility as glass was to form tubes so diminutive, we must feel
greatly astonished at the force of a shock of lightning, which,
striking the sand in several places, has formed cylinders, in one
instance of at least thirty feet long, and having an internal bore,
where not compressed, of full an inch and a half; and this in a
material so extraordinarily refractory as quartz!
The tubes, as I have already remarked, enter the sand nearly in a
vertical direction. One, however, which was less regular than the
others, deviated from a right line, at the most considerable bend, to
the amount of thirty-three degrees. From this same tube, two small
branches, about a foot apart, were sent off; one pointed downwards, and
the other upwards. This latter case is remarkable, as the electric
fluid must have turned back at the acute angle of 26 degs., to the line
of its main course. Besides the four tubes which I found vertical, and
traced beneath the surface, there were several other groups of
fragments, the original sites of which without doubt were near. All
occurred in a level area of shifting sand, sixty yards by twenty,
situated among some high sand-hillocks, and at the distance of about
half a mile from a chain of hills four or five hundred feet in height.
The most remarkable circumstance, as it appears to me, in this case as
well as in that of Drigg, and in one described by M. Ribbentrop in
Germany, is the number of tubes found within such limited spaces. At
Drigg, within an area of fifteen yards, three were observed, and the
same number occurred in Germany. In the case which I have described,
certainly more than four existed within the space of the sixty by
twenty yards. As it does not appear probable that the tubes are
produced by successive distinct shocks, we must believe that the
lightning, shortly before entering the ground, divides itself into
separate branches.
The neighbourhood of the Rio Plata seems peculiarly subject to electric
phenomena. In the year 1793, [12] one of the most destructive
thunderstorms perhaps on record happened at Buenos Ayres: thirty-seven
places within the city were struck by lightning, and nineteen people
killed. From facts stated in several books of travels, I am inclined
to suspect that thunderstorms are very common near the mouths of great
rivers. Is it not possible that the mixture of large bodies of fresh
and salt water may disturb the electrical equilibrium? Even during our
occasional visits to this part of South America, we heard of a ship,
two churches, and a house having been struck. Both the church and the
house I saw shortly afterwards: the house belonged to Mr. Hood, the
consul-general at Monte Video. Some of the effects were curious: the
paper, for nearly a foot on each side of the line where the bell-wires
had run, was blackened. The metal had been fused, and although the
room was about fifteen feet high, the globules, dropping on the chairs
and furniture, had drilled in them a chain of minute holes. A part of
the wall was shattered, as if by gunpowder, and the fragments had been
blown off with force sufficient to dent the wall on the opposite side
of the room. The frame of a looking-glass was blackened, and the
gilding must have been volatilized, for a smelling-bottle, which stood
on the chimney-piece, was coated with bright metallic particles, which
adhered as firmly as if they had been enamelled.
[1] Hearne's Journey, p. 383.
[2] Maclaren, art. "America," Encyclop. Brittann.
[3] Azara says, "Je crois que la quantite annuelle des pluies est, dans
toutes ces contrees, plus considerable qu'en Espagne."--Vol. i. p. 36.
[4] In South America I collected altogether twenty-seven species of
mice, and thirteen more are known from the works of Azara and other
authors. Those collected by myself have been named and described by
Mr. Waterhouse at the meetings of the Zoological Society. I must be
allowed to take this opportunity of returning my cordial thanks to Mr.
Waterhouse, and to the other gentleman attached to that Society, for
their kind and most liberal assistance on all occasions.
[5] In the stomach and duodenum of a capybara which I opened I found a
very large quantity of a thin yellowish fluid, in which scarcely a
fibre could be distinguished. Mr. Owen informs me that a part of the
oesophagus is so constructed that nothing much larger than a crowquill
can be passed down. Certainly the broad teeth and strong jaws of this
animal are well fitted to grind into pulp the aquatic plants on which
it feeds.
[6] At the R. Negro, in Northern Patagonia, there is an animal of the
same habits, and probably a closely allied species, but which I never
saw. Its noise is different from that of the Maldonado kind; it is
repeated only twice instead of three or four times, and is more
distinct and sonorous; when heard from a distance it so closely
resembles the sound made in cutting down a small tree with an axe, that
I have sometimes remained in doubt concerning it.
[7] Philosoph. Zoolog., tom. i. p. 242.
[8] Magazine of Zoology and Botany, vol. i. p. 217.
[9] Read before the Academy of Sciences in Paris. L'Institut, 1834, p.
418.
[10] Geolog. Transact. vol. ii. p. 528. In the Philosoph. Transact.
(1790, p. 294) Dr. Priestly has described some imperfect siliceous
tubes and a melted pebble of quartz, found in digging into the ground,
under a tree, where a man had been killed by lightning.
[11] Annals de Chimie et de Physique, tom. xxxvii. p. 319.
[12] Azara's Voyage, vol. i. p. 36.