ART IN ANCIENT PERSIA.
Persia occupies what is known as the tableland of Iran, and is a plateau
bounded on the north by the Elburz Mountains, Armenia, and Afghanistan;
the Bol-ur and Hindu-Kush in the east; the heights that are parallel to
the Indian Ocean in the south; and the Persian Gulf, the chains of
Zagros, and Ararat in the west.
The Zagros Mountains separated Persia on that portion of the Iran
plateau from Assyria, which was known as part of Media. The Assyrians
under Tiglath-Pileser scaled these mountains and conquered the Medes.
The Medes have always been considered with the Persians as forming part
of one nation, being closely related to each other in language,
religion, manners, and customs.
The Medes were the first to emerge from barbarism, owing to their
nearness to the Assyrians. After the conquest of Babylon (B.C. 539) the
Medes and the Persians descended from their mountains into the valley of
the Tigris, under Cyrus, the first Persian king of the Achæmenidæan
dynasty. The name Achæmenidæ was given by the Greeks to the descendants
of a native chief called Akhamanish, and one of the oldest families of
Persia. Cyrus marched through Asia Minor to Asiatic Greece, seized all
the cities on his way, and made them pay tribute. Under Cambyses (B.C.
527) the countries of Syria, Palestine, Phœnicia, Assyria, Babylonia,
and Egypt—nearly all the old-world civilisation from the Mediterranean
to the Indus—belonged to the Persian Empire. Hostilities were kept up
between the Asiatics and Hellenes for two hundred years, until Alexander
the Great ended them at the battles of Issus and Arbela (334-330 B.C.).
For nearly a century Persia was under the vassalage of the Greeks, but
still kept her ancient customs and her ancient cult of fire-worship, the
national religion, although this was in a great measure undermined and
weakened by the teachings of the Greek conquerors.
[Illustration: Fig. 242.—Naksh-i-Rustem, General View of the Rock-cut
Tombs. (F.C.)]
[Illustration: Fig. 243.—Persepolis. Tomb on the North-east. Elevation.
(F.C.)]
The Greeks were, in turn, overthrown by the Parthians, a northern
Asiatic tribe who ruled in Persia down to B.C. 226, when the native
Sassanidæ family of the south restored Persia to her former freedom, and
installed again the ancient worship of Ahurâ-Mazda, and also tried to
restore the art of the First Dynasty. The Greek and Roman influence was,
however, too strong at this period to be entirely shaken off, in spite
of the renewed display of patriotism. For instance, a great quantity of
Greek furniture, utensils, and figures of Greek gods must have found
their way into Persia during the reign of the Seleucidæ—the Greek
rulers—and must have influenced the native Persian art; besides borrowed
ideas from the art objects and other things that the Persians at a
former time pillaged from the Greek temples and carried home with them.
When the Arabs finally overthrew the Sassanid Dynasty and conquered
Persia, the state religion of fire-worship was proscribed, but the
Moslem religion never took the same hold in Persia as it did in other
countries, the Persians adopting the secular form of it—the Shiah—as
opposed to the more devout form, the Sunni. To this reason is assigned
the independence of Persia to the present day amongst the other Moslem
countries of the world.
[Illustration: Fig. 244.—Funeral Tower at Naksh-i-Rustem. (D.) (P. &
C.)]
It was during the period of the First Empire that the greatest works in
architecture first appeared in Persia. It is clear from the remains of
this period that the national architecture of Persia was composed of a
mixture of Assyrian, Egyptian, and Greek elements, blended together in
an original way. The artists and architects who produced the national
Persian style were hardly native Persians, as there was no previous
style of any importance in Persia on which such great works as the
famous palaces could be founded or developed from. It is, therefore,
quite likely that the artists and architects were of Phœnician or Greek
nationality. Indeed, records of Greek names appear on the buildings as
architects of some of the palaces of the best periods, and ancient
history mentions the names of more than one Greek sculptor that was
brought to Persia for this purpose by the victorious kings, and induced
to work for them by being well treated and cared for. Many of the Greek
artists were also political refugees who found employment and a hearty
welcome in Persia.
It was when Cyrus had become master of Western Asia that the Persians
began to think of building the famous palaces at Persepolis, Susa, and
Pasargadæ. Most of these palaces and the tombs were built of a
close-grained limestone that is found very plentiful in the mountainous
country of Persia. The royal tombs were, as a rule, cut out of the
living limestone rock (Fig. 242). They are of the time of Darius, and
are all of one type that seems to have been invented by one mind, and,
after the first was cut, _speos_-like, out of the native rock—probably
that of Darius itself—the rest were copied faithfully from it. The great
height from the ground of the tomb itself was arranged for safety from
violation. The sculptured figure of the king is represented near the
top, in the act of worshipping the sacred fire seen on the right; at the
centre of the top of the field is seen the emblem of the god Ahurâ-Mazda
and the sun disk (Fig. 243). An older form of tomb, the “built” tomb, is
seen at the right of the rock-cut tombs, and a larger illustration of
this rectangular cemetery is seen at Fig. 244. The latter type of tomb
belongs to the time of Cyrus.
We must not look for much in the way of religious architecture in
Ancient Persia. Where temples in other countries were required,
fire-altars took their place in Persia (Fig. 245). These altars, by
reason of their uses, were generally found in “high places,” on summits
of hills and on rocks.
[Illustration: Fig. 245.—Fire Altars, Naksh-i-Rustem. (F.C.) (P. & C.)]
The fire-altars at Naksh-i-Rustem are really one with the rock on which
they stand. Remains of a fire-temple have been discovered at Ferûz-abad,
which is supposed to have had a roof; but the ends of the temple would
be open, with the sacred hearth on the top and centre of a lofty flight
of steps, on a quadrangular plan.
[Illustration: Fig. 246.—Persepolis; Staircase of the Palace of Darius.
(D.) (P. & C.)]
[Illustration: Fig. 247.—Fragment of a Door-Frame from a Hypostyle Hall,
Sausa. (D.) (P. & C.)]
The buildings in Persia of the Achæmenidæ Dynasty, both palaces and
tombs, are of the pillar and beam, or the architrave system of
construction. The horizontal ceilings were of wood, and were panelled
very elaborately, and rested on stone supports. The doorways and windows
are square-headed, upholding a lintel (Fig. 248).
[Illustration:
Face and Profile of Principle Doorways. Face and Profile of Lateral
Doorways. Profile of Window. Face of Cornice. Profile of Niche.
Fig. 248.—Elevations and Sections of Doorways and Windows of a Palace
at Persepolis. (F.C.) (P. & C.)
]
[Illustration: Fig. 249.—Persepolis, Doorway to Royal Tomb. (D.) (P. &
C.)]
The doorway, at Fig. 249, of a royal tomb, is a very rich specimen of a
decorated Persian doorway. The Egyptian “gorge” is seen in the cornice,
but the Persian treatment of this feature is shown in the channelled
grooves, with imbricated markings between each channel. The rosettes,
too numerous here to be in good taste, are evidently borrowed from the
Assyrians. The door-frame, from Susa (Fig. 247), restored by Dieulafoy,
is, on the contrary, a beautiful example of good proportion and
restraint in decoration. It would pass for an example of Greek work in
its classic simplicity.
[Illustration:
Fig. 250.—View of a Group of Domed Buildings, from an Assyrian
Bas-relief.
Layard. (P. & C.)
]
The walls of the palaces were usually crenellated or embattled (Figs.
246 and 261).
[Illustration: Fig. 251.—Palace at Sarvistan, Principal Façade. (F.C.)
(P. & C.) Example of Domed and Vaulted Structure.]
The staircase walls and other parts of the buildings were often covered
with tiles made of a white cement, and enamelled in colour decoration.
These have been found chiefly at Susa. The principal parts or body of
the building were of stone or brick, and the upper parts were supposed
to be of wood. This is correctly inferred by the stepped notches still
to be seen in the antæ, or corner piers of stone, which must have been
cut in this way to receive the ends of the ceiling beams (_Perrot &
Chipiez_). Wood was a scarce material in Persia, and must have been
brought from the Elburz Mountains at a great cost of time and labour;
but this would be nothing to a king like Darius, whose revenue was
reckoned at about £27,000,000 of English money.
[Illustration: Fig. 252.—Column with Volute Capital, Persepolis.]
[Illustration: Fig. 253.—Base of Pillar at Susa. (D.) (P. & C.)]
Remains of Persian buildings of another order, the vaulted structures
(Fig. 251), have been found at Sarvistan and Ferūz-abad, in the province
of Fars (Ancient Persia), which some archæologists have ascribed to the
time of the Sassinid Dynasty, the construction of which is supposed to
have been derived from their prototypes, the domed and vaulted buildings
of Assyria (see Fig. 250).
[Illustration: Fig. 254.—Base and Capital from Persepolis; Propylæa.
(F.C.) (P. & C.)]
[Illustration: Fig. 255.—Capital and Base from Hypostyle Hall of Xerxes,
Persepolis. (F.C.) (P. & C.)]]
[Illustration: Fig. 256.—Upright of Royal Throne, Naksh-i-Rustem. (F.C.)
(P. & C.)]
The most distinctly Persian feature in all the architecture of Persia is
undoubtedly the column with its double-bull-headed capital (Fig. 254).
Archæologists are divided in opinion as to whether it is derived from
Egyptian or from Assyrian sources. If it is a borrowed idea, the
Persians may certainly be credited with developing the supposed idea
into something wonderfully unique and interesting as a capital. The name
_Zoophoros_ (life-bearing) has been given to it. Perrot and Chipiez
(from whom the illustrations are taken) say that the capital was in
design an inspiration from the Assyrian national standard (Fig. 161),
while Dieulafoy ascribes to it an Egyptian origin. The former appear to
have the best of the argument, for there is nothing in Egyptian ornament
that comes so near it as the animals of the Assyrian standard, as
regards position, but the supposed resemblance of idea even is not very
clear in this case.
[Illustration: Fig. 257.—Staircase Wall of the Palace of Xerxes at
Persepolis. (F.C.) (P. & C.)]
[Illustration: Fig. 258.—Crowning Wall of Staircase, Palace of Xerxes,
Persepolis.]
The base of the Persian bull-headed columns is almost as unique in its
way as the capital. It is of the shape known as _Campaniform_, and
consists of an inverted bell of beautiful contour, richly decorated with
falling leaves, a torus moulding and fillet connecting it with the shaft
(Fig. 253).
[Illustration: Fig. 259.—Temple in a Royal Park. (B.M.) (P. & C.)]
Another capital has, instead of the bull heads, a lion’s head, with the
horn of a unicorn. This capital is wanting in the volutes and lower
capital. It is as poor, in this respect, as the voluted capital is
doubly rich, and can hardly be called beautiful (Fig. 255). It belongs
to the hypostyle hall of Xerxes, at Persepolis.
The shaft of the Persian column is channelled or fluted in nearly all
cases, and the number of flutings is very great, being from thirty-two
to fifty-two, while the Egyptian column has never more than sixteen, and
the Greek from sixteen to twenty-four. The great characteristic of the
Persian column is its slender and airy appearance. At Persepolis the
total height is twelve diameters of its shaft. Some are even more
slender than this. The Egyptian averages, in contrast, from five to six
diameters, and the Greek seven to nine. The Persian column had its
origin in timber supports.
[Illustration: Fig. 260.—Enamelled Ornament on Bricks from Susa. Drawn
by Gautier. (P. & C.)]
Besides the unique capitals and bases in Persian art there is not much
of the ancient Persian ornament and decoration that does not strongly
partake of foreign influences. The upright support of the royal throne
(Fig. 256) is distinctly Assyrian in feeling, and the upper horizontal
moulding is very like Greek work. A moulding is seen on the upper
rounded edges of the staircase (Fig. 246) and on the inner portion of
the parapet wall (Fig. 257) of an elongated egg shape, which is one of
the rare exceptions of ornament that is really Persian.
[Illustration: Fig. 261.—Upper Part of Parapet Wall, Susa. (P. & C.)]
The Assyrian daisy, patera, or rosette is a very characteristic ornament
in Persian decoration (Figs. 249, 258). This is also a typical ornament
in Greek architecture. Two well-known ornamental forms of Assyrian
ornament occur on the crowning wall of the staircase of the Palace of
Xerxes (Fig. 258), the cone-shaped pine-tree form, and the
palmate-crowned tree stem. The prototype of the former may be seen as an
ideal rendering from nature of the cypress or pine-tree (Fig. 259) in
the Assyrian illustration of a royal park. The contour of this ornament
may have reminded the Persian fire-worshippers of the flame shape, which
circumstance may have accounted for their fondness for using it so much.
The other adjoining palmate ornament is distinctly Assyrian; as also are
the daisy borders. A common form of ornament is seen on the enamelled
bricks from Susa (Fig. 260) consisting of a double palmate or lotus form
of flower, alternating and joined to concentric circles to form a band.
Below is an Egyptian chevron rather out of proportion to the rest of the
design. The whole thing has a decided Egyptian look, and may be a copy
of the enamelled ornament of that country.
[Illustration: Fig. 262.—Lion, from the Lion Frieze in Enamelled Bricks
at Susa. (P. & C.)]
The Persian palaces were richly decorated with enamelled bricks and
tiles, in strong blue, orange, white, and brown colouring, as the
archer’s and lion’s friezes from Susa (now in the Louvre) testify. These
two works are reproduced in colours in Perrot and Chipiez’ “History of
Art in Persia.” The upper part of the crenellated parapet wall of the
staircase at Susa gives an idea of the extreme richness of the
decoration in glazed tiles with enamelled covering (Fig. 261). The
Persians learnt their art of enamelling tiles and bricks from the
Chaldeans, and they have never lost it. Under the Moslem rule in the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the tiles and majolica that were
made for the decoration of the mosques reached a high stage of
perfection, especially in the colouring. This beauty is seen more
particularly in the deep azure grounds, and in their treatment of
conventional flower decoration that has never been surpassed in any
country. This subject will be further treated in the future notice of
modern Persian ornament.
[Illustration: Fig. 263.—Head of one of the Lions from the Frieze at
Susa. (P. & C.)]
In animal and figure design, the Persians closely imitated the Assyrians
and Chaldeans, but were not so successful in their general treatment of
them. The lion was one of the most favourite animals in Persian art. The
lions in the “lion frieze” at Susa were represented with more than usual
vigour and ability. This frieze remains the finest work of Persian
design that is yet known to us, and probably was the work of a Chaldean
artist employed by the great Persian king, Darius, to decorate his
palace at Susa. (See Figs. 262, 263).