PHŒNICIAN ART.
The origin of the Phœnician people remains in obscurity. According to
Herodotus, we learn that they came as an Eastern branch of the
Canaanitish peoples, of which race the Greeks were also a part, and who
settled at the foot of Lebanon, on the Syrian sea-coast, between Mounts
Carmel and Casius.
The Phœnician and Hebrew languages resembled each other very closely,
and from this it has been argued that the Phœnicians belonged to the
Semitic race of the Hebrews. Ancient Phœnicia was a narrow strip of
land, 130 miles long by only a few miles in width at its widest part.
The three principal towns in ancient times were Tyre, Sidon, and Joppa;
three others of importance were Arvad, Gebal or Byblos, and Accho or
Acre.
Arvad in the north, was, like Tyre in the south, built on a rock some
little distance from the mainland. Tyre was for a long time impregnable
on its rocky seat, with a channel of about three-quarters of a mile
dividing it from the coast of the mainland. Owing to its peculiar
position, it could defy all unmaritime nations, and it was not until
Alexander the Great built an isthmus connecting it with the Phœnician
coast that it fell. The inhabitants of Gebal or Byblos were, according
to Rénan, more Jewish-like than any other Phœnician people.
Sidon was the first town of Phœnicia to rise to importance, and Tyre
afterwards, with greater vigour, rose to power and greatness; and both,
from being originally colonies of poor fishermen, became the famous
ports which sent forth ships to all points of the Mediterranean, and
even to the British Isles, carrying all kinds of merchandise to barter
for silver, gold, and tin, as well as for other raw materials from the
barbarians beyond the seas, and carrying these raw materials back to
supply the artists and artificers of the East. No two cities of the
ancient world did so much for the spread and progress of human
civilisation as the maritime cities of Tyre and Sidon.
[Illustration: Fig. 210.—Phœnician Merchant Galley; from Layard. (P. &
C.)]
Like the rest of Phœnicia, Sidon, the first in power, accepted without
resistance the supremacy of Egypt. This was indeed to her great
advantage, for the ships of Sidon could fly the Egyptian flag in any
part of the Mediterranean or other seas, and so exist secure under the
protection of the mighty monarchs of that great country. In return for
this protection the Phœnicians carried on a successful trade with
Egyptian goods, thus benefiting themselves, and their masters to even a
greater degree.
The Phœnician fleets were, in fact, at the entire disposal of the
Egyptians, who possessed, in the early days, no fleet of their own.
Sidon was sacked and taken by the Philistines about B.C. 1000 or 900,
and from that period Tyre rose in supremacy. The first Tyrian king known
by name was Abibaal, the contemporary of David; his son was Hiram, the
friend of Solomon.
[Illustration: Fig. 211.—Phœnician War Galley; from Layard. (P. & C.)]
Afterwards Tyre, with its close intercourse with Egypt, established
colonies on the Delta of the Nile, the most renowned of which was called
the “New City,” _Karthadast_, called by the Greeks Carchedon, and by the
Romans Carthage.
This daughter of Tyre rose to great prosperity, but never forgot her
allegiance to the mother city. Their combined fleets sailed to, and
founded, colonies in Sardinia, Cyprus, the Grecian Archipelago, and to
Spain, doing enormous trade with both East and West. The Phœnician ships
that are known to us from the relief representations are of two kinds,
the round-prowed galleys, or cargo-carriers (Fig. 210), and the
ram-stemmed vessels, or war galleys (Fig. 211). There is no record that
has been found of their larger sea-going “merchantmen” ships.
[Illustration: Fig. 212.—Carthaginian Coin, Silver. (P. & C.)]
The growing power of the Greeks and Etruscans, and their improvement in
shipbuilding, was a new competition with the ships of Tyre in the East,
and at length forced the Tyrians to find new markets in the West.
[Illustration: Fig. 213.—Carthaginian Coin, Electrum. (P. & C.)]
The staple trade of the Tyrians had now become that of metals, the chief
of which was tin, owing to the great demand for it in the manufacture of
bronze in this period.
Their ships went as far as the Scilly Isles, to Cornwall, and to
Ireland. Diodorus mentions that the inhabitants of Great Britain were
much softened in their manners by their intercourse with the “strangers”
who came to their shores for tin. It is supposed that the strangers
alluded to were the Phœnician Carthaginians.
[Illustration: Fig. 214.—Votive Stele, from Carthage, with Sacred
Emblems. (P. & C.)]
[Illustration: Fig. 215.—Sacred Emblems, from a Carthaginian Votive
Stele. (P. & C.)]
In the fourth century B.C. the Carthaginians waged a war against the
Sicilian Greeks, and carried off the statues of gods from their temples,
and went so far as to copy their money the early Phœnician coins being
copies of Greek ones (Figs. 212, 213). The votive stele (Fig. 214), from
Carthage, shows the Greek Ionic-like columns, with the “blessing hand,”
and a collection of sacred Phœnician emblems. Greek architects were
employed in Carthage about this time. Phœnician architecture in every
case consisted of borrowed forms from surrounding nations.
[Illustration: Fig. 216.—Coin of Byblos, with Sacred Cone, enlarged. (P.
& C.)]
The sacred emblems (Fig. 215) are supposed to represent the cone-shaped
stones, _betylæ_, from Bethel, the “House of God,” the great worship of
the Phœnicians. The sign at the top is meant for a rude idea of the head
and arms of a god (Tanit, face of Baal?). The figure on the right is the
cone again, with the emblems of the goddess Astarte (Aphrodite), the
lunar signs. The sacred cone is seen surrounded by the temple court on
the coin of Byblos (Fig. 216).
[Illustration: Fig. 217.—Astarte, terra-cotta, height 10½ ins. (P. &
C.)]
The small statuettes of the Phœnician gods and goddesses (Fig. 217) were
the originals from which the Greeks developed their sculptured figures
in the round. Among the gods of the Phœnicians were: Baal, _the Master_,
the _Bel_ of Assyria, which seems to be a generic title for any chief
divinity of a town or place, such as _Baal Peor_, _Baal-Sidon_,
_Baal-Tsour_, or the _Baal_ of Tyre; _Tanit_, or the _face of Baal_,
worshipped at Carthage; _Moloch_, or _Melek_. Melkart-Baal-Tsour was the
full name of the Great God of Tyre, which means “Melkart, Master of
Tyre.” _Baalat_ was the title for “mistress,” the goddess who shared the
throne of Baal. Sidon-Astoret was the _Baalat_ of Sidon, the goddess
Astarte, the Istar of the Assyrians, and the Aphrodite or Venus of the
Greeks and Romans (Fig. 217). She was a favourite divinity with the
Phœnicians, and more personal than any of their other divinities. She
was nature itself, the great goddess of life, presiding over creation
and also destruction. This Syro-Phœnician goddess of the Sidonians was
adopted by Cyprus, Cythera, Paphos, and Eryx, in Sicily. She is also
supposed to be the Moon-Goddess. The dove was sacred to her, and was
offered to her in sacrifice; a Phœnician statuette (Fig. 217) represents
her with a dove in her hand. The Phœnicians had many other minor gods.
[Illustration: Fig. 218.—Model of a Small Temple, in terra-cotta,
Louvre. (P. & C)]
A terra-cotta model of a small temple is peculiar in design (Fig. 218);
it was found in Cyprus, and may have been the model of the shrine sacred
to Astarte. As before mentioned, Phœnician architecture, from the few
remains of it that have been found, consists of borrowed forms from
other nations, and if any development even in the ornamental forms is
noticeable, it can generally be traced to the rising influence of the
Greeks, especially in Cyprus and Carthage. The tomb at Amrit (Fig. 219)
is, on the other hand, decidedly Assyrian in every detail, and is a
happy example of architectural proportion.
The fragment of an entablature from a temple at Byblos (Fig. 220) is of
a later date, and has for design and decoration of the moulding the
strongly marked features of Græco-Roman work, with the addition of the
Egyptian winged globe and asps.
[Illustration: Fig. 219.—Tomb of Amrit, restored from Renan. (P. & C.)]
Cyprus was a Phœnician dependency; many vases, and a great multitude of
other objects of art and treasures, have been brought to light from
tombs and from the subterranean chambers of former temples, mainly
through the instrumentality of General di Cesnola.
[Illustration: Fig. 220.—Entablature, from a Temple at Byblos. Drawn by
Wallet. (P. & C.)]]
The series of capitals (Figs. 221 to 224) show strongly the principle of
the Ionic volutes. The first (Fig. 221) is the simplest, the next (Fig.
222) has the triangular point between the lower volutes that we see in
so many lotus forms in Egyptian work (see Fig. 202), and has besides the
curious double boat-shaped volutes above, with other lotus-buds under
the abacus. Another capital (Fig. 223) has all the elements of the
Erectheum Ionic capital, but arranged in a totally different order, and
is more Byzantine than anything else. The capital found at Kition, in
Cyprus, is decidedly Ionic Greek, but in its earlier stage, just before
the period of the fully developed Ionic (Fig. 224). It can hardly be
doubted that the first two of decidedly Egyptian elements are derived
from the lotus, and may certainly be taken as the forerunners of the
pure Ionic Greek. The capital from Kition belonged to a temple of
Astarte, that once stood on the mound at Kition.
[Illustration: Fig. 221.—Cypriot Capital. (P. & C.)]
[Illustration: Fig. 222.—Cypriot Capital. (P. & C.)]
The capital found at Golgos (Fig. 225) is distinctly an early form of
Greek Doric. If little remains of Phœnician architecture have been
found, on the other hand many objects of minor art have been brought to
light, bearing on their face the unmistakable stamp of Phœnician
workmanship.
[Illustration: Fig. 223.—Capital at Djezza, limestone. Drawn by Saladin.
Height, 26 ins. (P. & C.)]
[Illustration: Fig. 224.—Capital from Kition, height 18 ins. Drawn by
Saladin. (P. & C.)]
Some of the bronze bowls and platters, and cups of silver, and also
carvings in ivory, although generally composed of Egyptian or Assyrian
design, were really the work of Phœnician artificers. The latter were
not slow in copying the motives of the above-named nations, but the
workmanship, especially in bronze and silver, was their own. The
Phœnicians were highly skilled in metal work, and we have proof that
they were employed in the building and decorating of the Temple at
Jerusalem. The bronze and silver bowls and platters were carried to all
countries where the Phœnicians had trading transactions, and they have
been found at Mycenæ, Etruria, Cyprus, Sardinia, &c. As stated before in
our notice of these objects in Assyrian art, the Assyrians were the
first to make these articles from copies of Egyptian design, and then
producing others with purely Assyrian designs. The Phœnicians in their
turn imitated both, and did a great trade with them. The silver platter
(Fig. 226) was found, in 1876, in the Necropolis of ancient Præneste, in
Latium, and in the same tomb was found a quantity of vases, diadems, and
jewels, all of Phœnician workmanship. On this platter a clearly engraved
inscription occurs in Phœnician characters, giving the name of the first
owner, Esmunjair-ben-Asto. The Phœnician inscriptions, and above all,
the want of method or arrangement of themes or motives on the articles,
stamp them to be of Phœnician origin. The silver platter has more
meaning in the use of the Egyptian motives than some others, but the
hieroglyphics are not to be relied on as correctly Egyptian.
[Illustration: Fig. 225.—Capital from Golgos (Ceccaldi). (P. & C.)]
[Illustration: Fig. 226.—Phœnician Platter, Silver, diameter 7 ins.
Drawn by Wallet. (P. & C.)]
The silver-gilt cup or patera from Curium (Fig. 227) is a fair
illustration of this mixture of Egyptian and Assyrian ideas put together
from a multitude of stock-in-trade subjects or patterns. The centre
piece is Assyrian, and also the cable ornament. The inner row of animals
are Assyrian in feeling, but an Egyptian sphinx is introduced amongst
them; but the outer border is the most curious of all, as it contains
six or seven distinct Egyptian scenes, each divided by the tree of life
or palmates, taken at haphazard from designs of bas-reliefs. The
Phœnician goldsmith, evidently not understanding the story of these
Egyptian mysteries, used them merely as decorative units. The
workmanship is admirable; first the work is beaten up in repoussé and
then chased afterwards, and may be described as a mixture of the two
methods.
[Illustration: Fig. 227.—Patera from Curium, diameter 8 ins. (P. & C.)]
A beautiful Egyptian design of a cow and calf in a papyrus brake forms
the centre medallion of a Phœnician cup found at Caere (Fig. 228).
[Illustration: Fig. 228.—Centre Medallion; from a Cup from Griffi. (P. &
C.)]
The Egyptian vessels figured in the tomb of Rekhmara (Fig. 229) are
mostly made in metal and are of Phœnician design. They would be sold to
the Egyptians, as the former supplied the latter in most articles of
metal workmanship; many rims and handles of elaborate workmanship have
been found, but scarcely any whole forms of these vases, though we have
many of their forms preserved in Greek and Etruscan work.
[Illustration: Fig. 229.—Vessels figured in the Tomb of Rekhmara; from
Wilkman.]
In articles of personal jewellery the Phœnicians were as skilful as the
Greeks and Etruscans; it was only in the matter of higher motives in
design that the Greeks excelled the Phœnicians. We give one or two
specimens of their jewellery at Figs. 230 to 233.
[Illustration: Fig. 230.—Gold Bracelet; from Tharros. (B.M.) (P. & C.)]
Cyprus was inhabited from the earliest time with a mixture of races in
which the Greek or Hellenic element was represented, and though
nominally a Phœnician dependency, the Greek superiority of artistic
genius asserted itself at a very early date in the art of the country.
Some of the architectural features already noticed, notably the Ionic
capitals, may be given as examples of this; and another very important
branch, the minor art of pottery, may furnish further examples of the
Greek art tendency, though infused with a mixture of Phœnician
influences.
[Illustration: Fig. 231. Silver Pin, Cesnola.]
[Illustration: Fig. 232.—Pendant, Wild Goat, Gold. (B.M.)]
[Illustration: Fig. 233. Earring, Gold, from Cesnola.]
Cyprus has always been particularly noted for its ceramic products. The
island is rich in potter’s clay of two kinds—a black earth, and a red
kind. The oldest kind of Cyprian known is of a good shape, and is
generally furnished with handles according to the uses of the vase. The
making and fitting on of handles is only achieved when the art of the
potter has been well advanced.
[Illustration: Fig. 234.—Bottle with Incised Ornament, from Cesnola. (P.
& C.)]
[Illustration: Fig. 235.—Bottle with Geometric Decoration. (P. & C.)]
The two vases (Figs. 234, 235) are of the oldest dates, and are
decorated purely in the oldest form of geometric ornament. The one with
the handle is particularly good in form, and has the decoration incised
like sgraffito work. Fantastic shapes of animals made as vases and
drinking vessels were very common in Cyprus. Although not many of them
can be called beautiful, still it required considerable skill and
knowledge to model them (Fig. 236). The goat-shaped vessel is very
lifelike. The bowl or crater (Fig. 237) has the lotus flower and
geometric bands and divisions for its decoration; it is painted with
light brown and red on a cream-coloured ground. The decoration from a
cup is more elaborate, it has a new element in the shape of some kind of
water bird arranged Assyrian-like on each side of the sacred tree, and
has a sun sign filling up a space close to one of the bird’s legs (Fig.
238). Another very interesting and beautiful vase is the Œnochoé (Fig.
239). Another bird is painted on this, and at the same time the
geometric checkers and lines still cling to it as part of the
decoration. On this vase, also, may be seen two moon signs, and the
sacred sun sign, the fylfot, or swastika, repeated four times. These
sacred signs are often found on Cyprian pottery. The latter vase in
shape and decoration is more Greek in feeling than most Cyprian vases.
The larger Œnochoé (Fig. 240) has the human figure with some kind of
water fowls; it has a sacred sign on its lips. Though the subject
recalls Egypt, the design and execution might have been done by a clever
Greek artist. The style of execution and drawing on these vases may be a
little archaic, but the design and bold manner of execution is eminently
correct and could not be better for the decoration of pottery.
[Illustration: Fig. 236.—Vessel in the Shape of a Goat. (P. & C.)]
[Illustration: Fig. 237.—Bowl in the Piot Collection, height 6¾ ins. (P.
& C.)]
The discovery of glass making has been attributed to the Phœnicians, but
this is not correct; the Egyptians made glass articles, and used glass
in their vitreous enamelled tiles and bricks long before the Phœnicians
had any connection with Egypt. It was most likely because the Phœnicians
traded so much in glass, and for the reasons also that they had large
glass manufactories at Tyre and other places, that they have received
the credit from early times of being the inventors of glass. The oldest
dated glass bottle or vase in the world is one from Egypt, and now in
the British Museum. It bears the name of Thothmes III. (B.C. 1600). The
body is turquoise blue with yellow details of decoration and
hieroglyphics; the handle is dark blue with yellow and white markings.
The Phœnicians at a later period were extensive makers of glass
articles, and made glass of three kinds, the clear and transparent, but
always with a slight greenish hue, the coloured and transparent, and the
opaque.
[Illustration: Fig. 238.—Detail of the Decoration of a Cup. (P. & C.)]
A great quantity of glass bottles, statuettes, vases, plaques, and beads
have been found in Cyprus. The bottles and vases that were prized most
highly were decorated chiefly in alternating lines of bright colours,
such as blues, greens, yellows, white, and purple. Beads, cones,
amulets, scarabs, heads of animals, and statuettes, as well as bottles
and vases, were made both by Phœnician and Egyptian workmen, some cast
in moulds and some blown. There is a cup in the French National Library
called the cup of Chosroes II., made of glass, and decorated with
artificial gems. The finest work of art in glass is the famous Portland
vase in the British Museum. The decoration on this vase is in relief in
cameo glass.
[Illustration: Fig. 239.—Œnochoé, New York Museum. (P. & C.)]
The small cylindrical perfume bottles in glass known as _alabastrons_
are of the highest antiquity; they were usually placed in the hands of
the dead.
In the art of weaving and making textiles the Phœnicians are not
credited with making anything different from the Orientals or Egyptians,
and perhaps supplied themselves with the Egyptian muslins and linens,
and had their rugs and carpets from the East, which were famed then as
now for their soft nature and brightness of colouring. We have evidence
from Homer that the Sidonian slaves were very skilful at embroidery.
“With threads of gold, or with a colour contrasting with that of the
ground, they drew fantastic beasts of every kind.”
These embroideries would likely have similar decoration to that which is
found on the metal platters, and perhaps imitations of those decorations
we see on the embroidered robes of the Assyrian kings’ mantles (Figs.
162A, 163A), and the scheme of decoration would likely be a division of
the field into bands and circles, each filled with Egyptian or Assyrian
motives.
[Illustration: Fig. 240.—Œnochoé, New York Museum. (P. & C.)]
In Cyprus, we can easily infer that the textiles would be strongly
influenced, as other manufactures were, by Egyptian art. The Phœnicians
were noted for their famous purple dye obtained from the _Murex_ and
_Purpura_ families of shell-fish. This purple dye was of world-wide
renown. Its great advantage was that on its exposure to light and
sunshine it became more fast and more intense in colour, which is
contrary to most dyes. It was very costly by reason of the difficulty in
extracting it from the fish, and of the enormous quantities required to
produce even a small quantity of the dye. The city of Tyre had extensive
factories for the manufacture of the Tyrian purple. It is not obtained
now from the shell-fish, as, of course, many other ways and cheaper have
been found to produce a similar colour.
[Illustration:
Fig. 241.—Intaglio on Chalcedony.
(P. & C.)
]
The Phœnicians were adepts at ivory-carving, shell-engraving, and
gem-cutting (Fig. 241), as many examples of these arts have been found,
but we regret that the limitations of this volume prevent us from going
into these subjects as fully as we might wish.