When we reflect that Cook's second voyage, the most successful

undertaken up to this period, had produced only 250 specimens; that

the united voyages of Carteret, Wallis, Furneaux, Meares, and even

Vancouver, had not accumulated so many, and when we admit that the

same statement applies to all succeeding French expeditions, it is

evident that MM. Peron and Lesueur introduced more new animals to

Europe than all other modern travellers put together.

Moreover, the geographical and hydrographical results were

considerable. The English Government has always refused to acknowledge

them, and Desborough Cooley, in his "History of Voyages," subordinates

Baudin's discoveries to those of Flinders. It was even suggested that

Flinders was detained prisoner at Mauritius for six years and a half,

in order to allow French authors time to consult his maps, and arrange

the details of their voyages accordingly. This accusation is too

absurd to need refutation.

The two navigators, French and English, have each fairly earned a

place in the history of the discovery of the Australian coasts, and it

is unnecessary to praise one at the expense of the other.

In the preface to the second edition of his "Voyage de la Corvette

_Australis_" which was revised and corrected by Louis de Freycinet,

Peron has given each his due meed of praise; and to his able work we

refer all readers who are interested in the question.

CHAPTER II.

AFRICAN EXPLORERS.

Shaw in Algeria and Tunis--Hornemann in Fezzan--Adamson at Senegal--

Houghton in Senegambia--Mungo Park and his two voyages to the Djoliba,

or Niger--Sego--Timbuctoo--Sparmann and Lavaillant at the Cape, at

Natal, and in the Interior--Lacerda in Mozambique, and at Cazembe--

Bruce in Abyssinia--Sources of the Blue Nile--Tzana Lake--Browne's

journey in Darfur.

An Englishman named Thomas Shaw, a chaplain in Algeria, had profited

by his twelve years' stay in Barbary to gather together a rich

collection of natural curiosities, medals, inscriptions, and various

objects of interest. Although he himself never visited the southern

portion of Algeria, he availed himself of the facts he was able to

obtain from well-informed travellers, who imparted to him a mass of

information concerning the little known and scarcely visited country.

He published a book in two large quarto volumes, which embraced the

whole of ancient Numidia.

[Illustration: Map of part of North Africa.]

It was rather the work of a learned man than the account of a

traveller, and it must be admitted that the learning is occasionally

ill-directed. But in spite of its shortcomings as a geographical

history, it had a large value at the time of its publication, and no

one could have been better situated than Shaw for collecting such an

enormous mass of material.

The following extract may give an idea of the style of the work:--

"The chief manufacture of the Kabyles and Arabs is the making 'hykes,'

as they call their blankets. The women alone are employed in this

work; like Andromache and Penelope of old, they do not use the shuttle,

but weave every thread of the woof with their fingers. The usual size

of a hyke is six yards long and five or six feet broad, serving the

Kabyle and Arab as a complete dress during the day, and as a covering

for the bed at night. It is a loose but troublesome garment, as it is

often disarranged and slips down, so that the person who wears it is

every moment obliged to tuck it up and rearrange it. This shows the

great use there is of a girdle whenever men are in active employment,

and explains the force of the Scripture injunction _of having our

loins girded_. The method of wearing this garment, with the use it is

at other times put to as bed-covering, makes it probable that it is

similar to if not identical with the _peplus_ of the ancients. It is

likewise probable that the loose garment flung over the shoulder, the

_toga_ of the Romans, was of this kind, as the drapery of statues is

arranged very much in the same manner as the Arab hyke."

It is unnecessary to linger over this work, which has little interest

for us. We shall do better to turn our attention to the journey of

Frederic Conrad Horneman to Fezzan.

This young German offered his services to the African Society of

London, and, having satisfied the authorities of his knowledge of

medicine and acquaintance with the Arabic language, he was engaged,

and furnished with letters of introduction, safe-conducts, and

unlimited credit.

Leaving London in July, 1797, he went first to Paris. Lalande

introduced him to the Institute, and presented him with his "Memoire

sur l'Afrique," and Broussonet gave him an introduction to a Turk from

whom he obtained letters of recommendation to certain Cairo merchants

who carried on business in the interior of Africa.

During his stay at Cairo, Horneman devoted himself to perfecting his

knowledge of Arabic, and studying the manners and customs of the

natives. We must not omit to mention that the traveller had been

presented by Monge and Berthollet to Napoleon Buonaparte, who was then

in command of the French forces in Egypt. From him he received a

cordial welcome, and Buonaparte placed all the resources of the

country at his service.

[Illustration: "He received a cordial welcome."]

As the safer method of travelling, Horneman resolved to disguise

himself as a Mohammedan merchant. He quickly learned a few prayers,

and adopted a style of dress likely to impose upon unsuspecting people.

He then started, accompanied by a fellow-countryman named Joseph

Frendenburg, who had been a Mussulman for more than twelve years, had

already made three pilgrimages to Mecca, and was perfectly familiar

with the various Turkish and Arabic dialects. He was to act as

Horneman's interpreter.

On the 5th of September, 1798, the traveller left Cairo with a caravan,

and visited the famous oasis of Jupiter Ammon or Siwah, situated in

the desert on the east of Egypt. It is a small independent state,

which acknowledges the Sultan, but is exempt from paying tribute. The

town of Siwah is surrounded by several villages, at distances of a

mile or two. It is built upon a rock in which the inhabitants have

hollowed recesses for their dwellings. The streets are so narrow and

intricate that a stranger cannot possibly find his way among them.

This oasis is of considerable extent. The most fertile portion

comprises a well-watered valley, about fifty miles in circumference,

which is productive of corn and edible vegetables. Dates of an

excellent flavour are its most valuable export.

Horneman was anxious to explore some ruins which he had noticed, for

he could obtain little information from the natives. But every time he

penetrated to any distance in the ruins, he was followed by a number

of the inhabitants, who prevented him from examining anything in

detail. One of the Arabs said to him, "You must still be a Christian

at heart, or you would not so often visit the works of the infidels."

This remark put a speedy end to Horneman's further explorations. As

far as his superficial examination enabled him to judge, it was really

the oasis of Ammon, and the ruins appeared to him to be of Egyptian

origin.

The immense number of catacombs in the neighbourhood of the town,

especially on the hill overlooking it, indicate a dense population in

ancient times. The traveller endeavoured vainly to obtain a perfect

head from one of these burial-places. Amongst the skulls he procured,

he found no certain proof that they had been filled with resin. He met

with many fragments of clothing, but they were all in such a state of

decay that it was impossible to decide upon their origin or use.

After a stay of eight days in this place, Horneman crossed the

mountains which surrounded the oasis of Siwah, and directed his steps

towards Schiatah. So far no misfortune had interrupted his progress.

But at Schiatah he was denounced as a Christian and a spy. Horneman

cleverly saved his life by boldly reading out a passage in the Koran

which he had in his possession. Unfortunately, his interpreter,

expecting that his baggage would be searched, had burned the

collection of fragments of mummies, the botanical specimens, the

journal containing the account of the journey, and all the books. This

loss was quite irreparable.

A little further on, the caravan reached Augila, a town mentioned by

Herodotus, who places it some ten days' journey from the oasis of

Ammon. This accords with the testimony given by Horneman, who reached

it in nine days' forced march. At Augila a number of merchants from

Bengasi, Merote, and Mokamba had joined the caravan, amounting

altogether to no less than a hundred and twenty persons. After a long

journey over a sandy desert, the caravan entered a country

interspersed with hills and ravines, where they found trees and grass

at intervals. This was the desert of Harutsch. It was necessary to

cross it in order to reach Temissa, a town of little note, built upon

a hill, and surrounded by a high wall. At Zuila the Fezzan country was

entered. The usual ceremonies, with interminable compliments and

congratulations, were repeated at the entrance to every town. The

Arabs appear to lay great stress upon these salutations, little

trustworthy as they are, and travellers constantly express surprise at

their frequent recurrence.

Upon the 17th of November, the caravan halted at Murzuk, the capital

of Fezzan. It was the end of the journey. Horneman says that the

greatest length of the cultivated portion of Fezzan is about three

hundred miles from north to south, but to this must be added the

mountainous region of Harutsch on the east, and the various deserts

north and west. The climate is never pleasant; in summer the heat is

terrible, and when the wind blows from the south, it is all but

insupportable, even to the natives, and in winter the north wind is so

cold that they are obliged to have recourse to fires.

The produce of the country consists principally of dates and

vegetables. Murzuk is the chief market; there are collected the

products of Cairo, Bengazi, Tripoli, Ghadames, Ghat, and the Soudan.

Among the articles of commerce are male and female slaves, ostrich

feathers, skins of wild beasts, and gold-dust or nuggets. Bornu

produces copper; Cairo silks, calicoes, woollen garments, imitation

coral, bracelets, and Indian manufactures. Fire-arms, sabres, and

knives are imported by the merchants of Tripoli and Ghadames.

The Fezzan country is ruled by a sultan descended from the scherifs,

whose power is limitless, but who, nevertheless, pays a tribute of

four thousand dollars to the Bey of Tripoli. Horneman, without giving

the grounds of his calculation, informs us that the population amounts

to seventy-five thousand inhabitants, all of whom profess

Mohammedanism.

Horneman's narrative gives a few more details of the manners and

customs of the people. He ends his report to the African Society by

saying that he proposes visiting Fezzan again in the hope of obtaining

new facts.

We learn, further, that Frendenburg, Horneman's faithful associate,

died at Murzuk. Attacked by a violent fever, Horneman was forced to

remain much longer than he desired in that town. While still only

partially recovered, he went to Tripoli for change and rest, hoping

there to meet with Europeans. Upon the 1st of December, 1799, he

returned to Murzuk, and left it finally with a caravan upon the 7th of

April, 1800. He was irresistibly attracted towards Bornu, and perished

in that country, which was to claim so many victims.

During the eighteenth century, Africa was literally besieged by

travellers. Explorers endeavoured to penetrate into it from every side.

More than one succeeded in reaching the interior, only to meet with

repulse or death. The discovery of the secrets of this mysterious

continent was reserved for our own age, when the unexpected fertility

of its resources has astonished the civilized world.

The facts relating to the coast of Senegal needed confirmation, but

the French superiority was no longer undisputed. The English, with

their earnest and enterprising character, were convinced of its

importance in the development of their commerce, and determined upon

its exploration. But before proceeding to the narrative of the

adventures of Major Houghton and Mungo Park, we will devote a small

space to the record of the work done by the French naturalist, Michel

Adanson.

Devoted from early youth to the study of natural history, Adanson

wished to become famous by the discovery of new species. It was

hopeless to dream of obtaining them in Europe, and, in spite of

opposition, Adanson selected Senegal as the field of his labours. He

says, in a manuscript letter, that he chose it because it was the most

difficult to explore of all European settlements, and, being the

hottest, most unhealthy, and most dangerous, was the least known by

naturalists. Certainly a choice founded upon such reasoning gave proof

of rare courage and ambition.

It is true that Adanson was by no means the first naturalist to

encounter similar dangers, but he was the first to undertake them,

with so much enthusiasm, at his own cost, and without hope of reward.

Upon his return, he had not sufficient money to pay for the

publication of his account of the discoveries he had made.

Embarking upon the 3rd of March, 1749, on board the _Chevalier Marin_,

commanded by D'Apres de Mannevillette, he touched at Santa Cruz,

Teneriffe, and disembarked at the mouth of the Senegal, which he took

to be the Niger of ancient geographers. During nearly five years he

was engaged in exploring the colony in every direction, visiting in

turn Podor, Portudal, Albreda, and the mouth of the Gambia. With

unceasing perseverance, he collected a rich harvest of facts in the

animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms.

To him is due the first exact account of a gigantic tree called the

Baobab, which is often called Adansonia after him; of the habits of

the grasshoppers, which form the chief food of certain wild tribes; of

the white ants, and the dwellings they construct; and of a certain

kind of oyster, which attach themselves to trees at the mouth of the

Gambia. He says,--

"The natives have not the difficulty one might anticipate in catching

them; they simply cut off the bough to which they cling. They often

cluster to the number of over two hundred on one branch, and if there

are several branches, they form a bunch of oysters such as a man could

scarcely carry."

[Illustration: The Baobab.]

In spite of the interest of these and similar discoveries, there are

few new facts for the geographer to glean. A few words about the

Yolofs and Mandingoes comprise all there is to learn. If we followed

Adanson throughout his explorations, we should gain little fresh

information.

The same cannot be said of the expedition of which we are about to

give some account. Major Houghton, captain in the 69th regiment, and

English Governor of the Fort of Goree, had been familiar from his

youth, part of which was passed with the English Embassy in Morocco,

with the manners and customs of the Moors and the negroes of

Senegambia. In 1790, he proposed to the African Society to explore the

course of the Niger, penetrate as far as Timbuctoo and Houssa, and

return by way of the Sahara. The carrying out of this bold plan met

with but one obstacle, but that was almost sufficient to upset it.

Houghton left England upon the 16th of October, 1790, and anchored in

Jillifree harbour, at the mouth of the Gambia, upon the 10th of

November. Well received by the King of Barra, he followed the course

of the Gambia to a distance of three hundred leagues, traversed the

remainder of Senegambia, and reached Gonda Konda in Yanvi.

Walknaer, in his "History of Voyages," says, "He purchased a negro, a

horse, and five asses, and prepared to proceed with the merchandise

which was to pay his expenses to Mendana, the capital of the little

kingdom of Woolli. Fortunately his slight knowledge of the Mandingo

language enabled him to understand a negress who was speaking of a

plot against him. The merchants trading on the river, imagining

commerce to be his sole object, and fearing that he might compete with

them, had determined upon his death.

"In order to avoid the threatened danger, he thought it wise to

deviate from the usual route, and, accordingly, crossed the river with

his asses, and reached the northern shore in the kingdom of Cantor."

Houghton then crossed the river a second time, and entered the kingdom

of Woolli. He at once sent a messenger to the king, bearing presents,

and asking for protection. He was cordially received, and the

traveller was welcomed to Mendana, the capital, which he describes as

an important town, situated in the midst of a fertile country, in

which many herds of cattle graze.

Houghton was justified in anticipating a successful issue to his

voyage; everything appeared to presage it, when an event occurred

which was the first blow to his hopes. A hut next that in which he

slept took fire, and the whole town was soon in flames. His

interpreter, who had made several attempts to rob him, seized this

opportunity, and fled with a horse and three asses.

Still the King of Woolli continued his protection of the traveller,

and loaded him with presents, precious not on account of their value,

but as signs of the good-will which they demonstrated. This friend of

the Europeans was named Djata. Humane, intelligent, and good-hearted,

he wished the English to establish a factory in his kingdom.

Houghton, in a letter to his wife, says,--

"Captain Littleton, during a stay of four years here, has amassed a

considerable fortune. He possesses several ships which trade up and

down the river. At any time one can obtain, for the merest trifle,

gold, ivory, wax, and slaves. Poultry, sheep, eggs, butter, milk,

honey, and fish are extremely abundant, and for ten pounds sterling a

large family might be maintained in luxury. The soil is dry, the air

very healthy; and the King of Woolli told me that no white man had

ever died at Fataconda."

Houghton then followed the Faleme river as far as Cacullo, which in

D'Anville's map is called Cacoulon, and whilst in Bambouk gleaned a

few facts about the Djoliba river, which runs through the interior of

the Soudan. The direction of this river he ascertained to be southward

as far as Djeneh, then west by east to Timbuctoo--facts which were

later confirmed by Mungo Park. The traveller was cordially received by

the King of Bambouk, who provided him with a guide to Timbuctoo, and

with cowries to pay his expenses during the journey. It was hoped that

Houghton would reach the Niger without accident, when a note, written

in pencil and half effaced, reached Dr. Laidley. It was dated from

Simbing, and stated that the traveller had been robbed of his baggage,

but that he was prosecuting his journey to Timbuctoo. This was

followed by accounts from various sources, which gave rise to a

suspicion that Houghton had been assassinated in Bambara. His fate was

uncertain until it was discovered by Mungo Park.

Walknaer says,--

"Simbing, where Houghton wrote the last words ever received from him,

is a little walled town on the frontier of the kingdom of Ludamar.

Here he was abandoned by his negro servants, who were unwilling to

accompany him to the country of the Moors. Still he continued his

route, and, after surmounting many obstacles, he advanced to the north,

and endeavoured to cross the kingdom of Ludamar. Finally he reached

Yaouri, and made the acquaintance of several merchants, on their way

to sell salt at Tischet, a town situated near the marshes of the great

desert, and six days' journey north of Yaouri. Then, by bribing the

merchants with a gun and a little tobacco, he persuaded them to

conduct him to Tischet. All this would lead us to suppose that the

Moors deceived him, either as to the route he should have followed, or

as to the state of the country between Yaouri and Timbuctoo.

"After two days' march, Houghton, finding himself deceived, wished to

return to Yaouri. The Moors robbed him of all he possessed, and fled.

He was forced to reach Yaouri on foot. Did he die of hunger, or was he

assassinated by the Moors? This has never been rightly determined, but

the spot where he perished was pointed out to Mungo Park."

The loss of Houghton's journals, containing the observations made

during his journey, deprived science of the result of all his fatigue

and devotion. To ascertain what he accomplished, one must have

recourse to the _Proceedings of the African Society_. At this time

Mungo Park, a young Scotch surgeon, who had just returned from a

voyage to the East Indies on board the _Worcester_, learnt that the

African Society were anxious to find an explorer willing to penetrate

to the interior of the country watered by the Gambia. Mungo Park, who

had long wished to acquaint himself with the productions of the

country, and the manners and customs of the inhabitants, offered his

services. He was not deterred by the apprehension that his predecessor,

Houghton, had probably perished.

[Illustration: Portrait of Mungo Park. (Fac-simile of early

engraving.)]

At once accepted by the Society, Mungo Park hastened his preparations,

and left Portsmouth upon the 22nd of May, 1795. He was furnished with

introductions to Dr. Laidley, and a credit of two hundred pounds

sterling. Landing at Jillifree, at the mouth of the Gambia, in the

kingdom of Barra, and following the river, he reached Pisania, an

English factory belonging to Dr. Laidley. He directed his attention

first to acquiring a knowledge of the Mandingo language, which was

most generally used, and in collecting the facts most likely to be

useful in the execution of his plans.

His stay here enabled him to obtain more accurate information than his

predecessors with regard to the Feloups, the Yolofs, the Foulahs, and

the Mandingoes. The Feloups are morose, quarrelsome, and vindictive,

but faithful and courageous. The Yolofs are a powerful and warlike

nation, with very black skins. Except in colour and speech, they

resemble the Mandingoes, who are gentle and sociable. Tall and

well-made, their women are, comparatively speaking, pretty. Lastly,

the Foulahs, who are the lightest in colour, seem much attached to a

pastoral and agricultural life. The greater part of these populations

are Mohammedans, and practise polygamy.

Upon the 2nd of December, Mungo Park, accompanied by two negro

interpreters, and with a small quantity of baggage, started for the

interior. He first reached the small kingdom of Woolli, the capital of

which, Medina, comprises a thousand houses. He then proceeded to Kolor,

a considerable town, and, after two days' march across a desert,

entered the kingdom of Bondou. The natives are Foulahs, professing the

Mohammedan religion; they carry on a brisk trade in ivory, when they

are not engaged in agriculture.

The traveller soon reached the Faleme river, the bed of which, near

its source in the mountains of Dalaba, is very auriferous. He was

received by the king at Fataconda, the capital of Bondou, and had

great difficulty in convincing him that he travelled from curiosity.

His interview with the wives of the monarch is thus described. Mungo

Park says,--

"I had scarcely entered the court, when I was surrounded by the entire

seraglio. Some begged me for physic, some for amber, and all were most

desirous of trying the great African specific of _blood-letting_. They

are ten or twelve in number, most of them young and handsome, wearing

on their heads ornaments of gold or pieces of amber. They rallied me a

good deal upon different subjects, particularly upon the whiteness of

my skin and the length of my nose. They insisted that both were

artificial. The first, they said, was produced, when I was an infant,

by dipping me in milk, and they insisted that my nose had been pinched

every day till it had acquired its present unsightly and unnatural

conformation."

Leaving Bondou by the north, Mungo Park entered Kajaaga, called by the

French Galam. The climate of this picturesque country, watered by the

Senegal, is far healthier than that of districts nearer the coast. The

natives call themselves Serawoullis, and are called Seracolets by the

French. The colour of their skin is jet black, and in this respect

they are scarcely distinguishable from the Yolofs.

Mungo Park says, "The Serawoollis are habitually a trading people.

They formerly carried on a great commerce with the French in gold-dust

and slaves, and still often supply the British factories on the Gambia

with slaves. They are famous for the skill and honesty with which they

do business."

[Illustration: Natives of Senegal.]

At Joag, Mungo Park was relieved of half his property by the envoys of

the king, under pretence of making him pay for the right to pass

through his kingdom. Fortunately for him, the nephew of

Demba-Jego-Jalla, King of Kasson, who was about to return to his

country, took him under his protection. They reached Gongadi, where

there are extensive date plantations, together, and thence proceeded

to Samia, on the shores of the Senegal, on the frontiers of Kasson.

The first town met with in this kingdom was that of Tiesie, which was

reached by Mungo Park on the 31st of December. Well received by the

natives, who sold him the provisions he needed at a reasonable price,

the traveller was subjected by the brother and nephew of the king to

endless indignities.

Leaving this town upon the 10th of January, 1796, Mungo Park reached

Kouniakari, the capital of Kasson--a fertile, rich, and well-populated

country, which can place forty thousand men under arms. The king, full

of kindly feeling for the traveller, wished him to remain in his

kingdom as long as the wars between Kasson and Kajaaga lasted. It was

more than probable that the countries of Kaarta and Bambara, which

Mungo Park wished to visit, would be drawn into it. The advice of the

king to remain was prudent, and Park had soon reason enough to regret

not having followed it.

But, impatient to reach the interior, the traveller would not listen,

and entered the level and sandy plains of Kaarta. He met crowds of

natives on the journey who were flying to Kasson to escape the horrors

of war. But even this did not deter him; he continued his journey

until he reached the capital of Kaarta, which is situated in a fertile

and open plain.

He was kindly received by the king, Daisy Kourabari, who endeavoured

to dissuade him from entering Bambara, and, finding all his arguments

useless, advised him to avoid passing through the midst of the fray,

by entering the kingdom of Ludamar, inhabited by Moors. From thence he

could proceed to Bambara.

During his journey Mungo Park noticed negroes who fed principally upon

a sort of bread made from the berries of the lotus, which tasted not

unlike gingerbread. This plant, the _rhamnus lotus_, is indigenous in

Senegambia, Nigritia, and Tunis.

"So," says Mungo Park, "there can be little doubt of this fruit being

the lotus mentioned by Pliny as the food of the Lybian Lotophagi. I

have tasted lotus bread, and think that an army may very easily have

been fed with it, as is said by Pliny to have been done in Lybia. The

taste of the bread is so sweet and agreeable, that the soldiers would

not be likely to complain of it."

On the 22nd February, Mungo Park reached Jarra, a considerable town,

with houses built of stone, inhabited by negroes from the south who

had placed themselves under the protection of the Moors, to whom they

paid considerable tribute. From Ali, King of Ludamar, the traveller

obtained permission to travel in safety through his dominions. But, in

spite of this safe-conduct, Park was almost entirely despoiled by the

fanatical Moors of Djeneh. At Sampaka and Dalli, large towns, and at

Samea, a small village pleasantly situated, he was so cordially

welcomed that he already saw himself in fancy arrived in the interior

of Africa, when a troop of soldiers appeared, who led him to Benown,

the camp of King Ali.

"Ali," says Mungo Park, "was sitting upon a black morocco cushion,

clipping a few hairs on his upper lip--a female attendant holding a

looking-glass before him. He was an old man of Arab race, with a long

white beard, and he looked sullen and angry. He surveyed me with

attention, and inquired of the Moors if I could speak Arabic. Being

answered in the negative, he appeared surprised, and continued silent.

The surrounding attendants, and especially ladies, were much more

inquisitive. They asked a thousand questions, inspected every part of

my apparel, searched my pockets, and obliged me to unbutton my

waistcoat to display the whiteness of my skin. They even counted my

toes and fingers, as if they doubted whether I was in truth a human

being."

An unprotected stranger, a Christian, and accounted a spy, Mungo Park

was a victim to the insolence, ferocity, and fanaticism of the Moors.

He was spared neither insults, outrages, nor blows. They attempted to

make a barber of him, but his awkwardness in cutting the hairy face of

the king's son exempted him from this degrading occupation. During his

captivity he collected many particulars regarding Timbuctoo, which is

so difficult of access to Europeans, and was the bourne of all early

African explorers.

"Houssa," a scherif told him, "is the largest town I have ever seen.

Walet is larger than Timbuctoo, but as it is farther from the Niger,

and its principal trade is in salt, few strangers are met there. From

Benown to Walet is a distance of six days' journey. No important town

is passed between the two, and the traveller depends for sustenance

upon the milk procurable from Arabs, whose flocks and herds graze

about the wells and springs. The road leads for two days through a

sandy desert, where not a drop of water is to be had."

It takes eleven days to go from Walet to Timbuctoo, but water is not

so scarce on this journey, which is generally made upon oxen. At

Timbuctoo there are a number of Jews who speak Arabic, and use the

same forms of prayer as the Moors.

[Illustration: Map of Western Africa.]

The events of the war decided Ali to proceed to Jarra. Mungo Park, who

had succeeded in making friends with the sultan's favourite, Fatima,

obtained permission to accompany the king. The traveller hoped, by

nearing the scene of action, to manage to escape. As it happened, the

King of Kaarta, Daisy Kourabari, soon after marched against the town

of Jarra. The larger number of inhabitants fled, and Mungo Park did

the same.

He soon found means to get away, but his interpreter refused to

accompany him. He was forced to start for Bambara alone, and destitute

of resources.

The first town he came to was Wawra, which properly belongs to Kaarta,

but was then paying tribute to Mansong, King of Bambara. Mungo Park

says,--

"Upon the morning of the 7th of July, as I was about to depart, my

landlord, with a great deal of diffidence, begged me to give him a

lock of my hair. He had been told, he said, that white men's hair made

a _saphic_ (talisman) that would give the possessor all the knowledge

of the white man. I had never before heard of so simple a mode of

education, but I at once complied with the request; and my landlord's

thirst for learning was so great that he cut and pulled at my hair

till he had cropped one side of my head pretty closely, and would have

done the same with the other had I not signified my disapprobation,

assuring him that I wished to reserve some of this precious material

for a future occasion."

First Gallon and then Mourja, a large town, famous for its trade in

salt, were passed, after fatigues and incredible privations. Upon

nearing Sego, Mungo Park at last perceived the Djoliba. "Looking

forward," he says, "I saw, with infinite pleasure, the great object of

my mission--the long-sought-for, majestic Niger, glittering in the

morning sun, as broad as the Thames at Westminster, and flowing slowly

to the eastward. I hastened to the brink, and, having drunk of the

water, lifted up my fervent thanks in prayer to the Great Ruler of all

things for having thus far crowned my endeavours with success.

"The fact of the Niger flowing towards the east did not, however,

excite my surprise; for, although I had left Europe in great

hesitation on this subject, and rather believed it ran in the contrary

direction, I had made frequent inquiries during my progress, and had

received from negroes of different nations such clear and decisive

assurances that its course _was towards the rising sun_ as scarce left

any doubt in my mind, more especially as I knew that Major Houghton

had collected similar information in a similar manner.

"Sego, the capital of Bambara, at which I had now arrived, consists,

properly speaking, of four distinct towns; two on the northern bank of

the river, called Sego Korro and Sego Boo, and two on the southern

bank, called Sego Sou Korro and Sego See Korro. They are all

surrounded with high mud walls; the houses are built of clay, of a

square form, with flat roofs; some of them have two stories, and many

of them are whitewashed. Besides these buildings, Moorish mosques are

seen in every quarter, and the streets, though narrow, are broad

enough for every practical purpose in a country where wheel carriages

are unknown. From the best information I could obtain, I have reason

to believe that Sego contains altogether about thirty thousand

inhabitants. The king of Bambara resides permanently at Sego See

Korro; he employs a great many slaves in conveying people over the

river; and the money they take, though the fare is only ten cowries

for each person, furnishes a considerable revenue to the king in the

course of a year."

By advice of the Moors, the king refused to receive the traveller, and

forbade him to remain in his capital, where he could not have

protected him from ill-treatment. However, to divest his refusal of

all appearance of ill-will, he sent him a bag containing 5000 cowries,

of the value of about a pound sterling, to buy provisions. The

messenger sent by the king was to serve as guide as far as Sansanding.

Protest and anger were alike impossible; Mungo Park could do nothing

but follow the orders sent. Before reaching Sansanding, he was present

at the harvest of vegetable butter, which is the produce of a tree

called Shea.

"These trees," says the narrative, "grow in great abundance all over

this part of Bambara. They are not planted by the natives, but are

found growing naturally in the woods; and, in clearing land for

cultivation, every tree is cut down but the shea. The tree itself very

much resembles the American oak; the fruit--from the kernel of which,

after it has been dried in the sun, the butter is prepared by boiling

in water--has somewhat the appearance of a Spanish olive. The kernel

is imbedded in a sweet pulp, under a thin green rind, and the butter

produced from it, besides the advantage of keeping a whole year

without salt, is whiter, firmer, and, to my palate, of a richer

flavour than the best butter I ever tasted from cows' milk. It is a

chief article of the inland commerce of these districts."

Sansanding, a town containing from eight to ten thousand inhabitants,

is a market-place much frequented by the Moors, who bring glass-ware

from the Mediterranean forts, which they exchange for gold-dust and

cotton. Mungo Park was not able to remain at this place, for the

importunities of the natives and the perfidious insinuations of the

Moors warned him to continue his route. His horse was so worn out by

fatigue and privation that he felt obliged to embark on the river

Djoliba or Niger.

At Mourzan, a fishing village upon the northern bank of the river,

everything combined to induce Park to relinquish his enterprise. The

further he advanced to the eastward down the river, the more he placed

himself in the power of the Moors. The rainy season had commenced, and

it would soon be impossible to travel otherwise than by boat. Mungo

Park was now so poor that he could not even hire a boat; he was forced

to rely upon public charity.

To advance further under these circumstances was not only to risk his

life, but to place the results of all his fatigues and efforts in

jeopardy. To return to Gambia was scarcely less perilous; to do so he

must traverse hundreds of miles on foot through hostile countries.

Still the hope of returning home might sustain his courage.

"Before leaving Silla," says the traveller, "I thought it incumbent on

me to collect from the Moorish and negro traders all the information I

could concerning the further course of the Niger eastward, and the

situation and extent of the kingdoms in its neighbourhood.

"Two days' journey eastward of Silla is the town of Djenneh, which is

situated on a small island in the river, and is said to contain as

many inhabitants as Sego itself, or any other town in Bambara. At a

distance of two days' more, the river widens and forms a considerable

lake, called Dibby (or the dark lake), concerning the extent of which,

all I could learn was that, in crossing it from east to west, the

canoes lose sight of land for one whole day. From this lake the water

issues in many different streams, which finally become two branches,

one flowing to the north-east, the other to the east; but these

branches join at Kabra, which is one day's journey to the south of

Timbuctoo, and is the port or shipping-place of that city. The tract

of land between the two streams is called Timbala, and is inhabited by

negroes. The whole distance by land from Djenneh to Timbuctoo is

twelve days' journey. North-east of Masena is the kingdom of Timbuctoo,

the great object of European research, the capital of the kingdom

being one of the principal marts for the extensive commerce which the

Moors carry on with the negroes. The hope of acquiring wealth in this

pursuit, and zeal for propagating their religion, have filled this

extensive city with Moors. The king himself and all the chief officers

of his court are Moors, and are said to be more intolerant and severe

in their principles than any other of the Moorish tribes in this part

of Africa."

Mungo Park was then forced to retrace his steps, and that through a

country devastated by inundation and heavy rains. He passed through

Mourzan, Kea, and Modibon, where he regained his horse; Nyara,

Sansanding, Samea, and Sai, which is surrounded by a deep moat, and

protected by high walls with square towers; Jabbea, a large town, from

which he perceived high mountain ranges, and Taffara, where he was

received with little hospitality.

At the village of Souha, Park begged a handful of grain of a "dooty,"

who answered that he had nothing to give away.

"Whilst I was examining the face of this inhospitable old man, and

endeavouring to find out the cause of the sullen discontent which was

visible in his eye, he called to a slave who was working in the

corn-field at a little distance, and ordered him to bring his spade

with him. The Dooty then told him to dig a hole in the ground,

pointing to a spot at no great distance. The slave with his spade

began to dig in the earth, and the Dooty, who appeared to be a man of

very fretful disposition, kept muttering to himself until the pit was

almost finished, when he repeatedly pronounced the word _ankatod_

(good for nothing), _jankra lemen_ (a regular plague), which

expressions I thought applied to myself. As the pit had very much the

appearance of a grave, I thought it prudent to mount my horse, and was

about to decamp when the slave, who had gone before to the village,

returned with the corpse of a boy about nine or ten years of age,

quite naked. The negro carried the body by an arm and leg, and threw

it into the pit with a savage indifference such as I had never seen.

As he covered the body with earth, the Dooty kept repeating _naphula

attemata_ (money lost), whence I concluded the boy had been his

slave."

Mungo Park left Koulikorro, where he had obtained food by writing

saphics or talismans for the natives, upon the 21st of August, and

reached Bammakoa, where a large salt-market is held. From an eminence

near the town he perceived a high mountain range in the kingdom of

Kong, whose ruler had a more numerous army than the King of Bambara.

Once more robbed by brigands of all he possessed, the unfortunate

traveller found himself, in the rainy season, alone in a vast desert,

five leagues from the nearest European settlement, and for the moment

gave way to despair. But his courage soon revived; and reaching the

town of Sibidoulou, his horse and clothes, which had been stolen from

him by Foulah robbers, were restored to him by the _mansa_, or chief.

Kamalia, or Karfa Taura advised him to await the cessation of the

rainy season, and then to proceed to Gambia with a caravan of slaves.

Worn out, destitute, attacked by fever, which for five months kept him

prostrate, Mungo Park had no choice but to remain in this place.

Upon the 19th of April the caravan set out. We can readily imagine the

joy experienced by Mungo Park when all was ready. Crossing the desert

of Jallonka, and passing first the principal branch of the Senegal

river, and then the Faleme, the caravan finally reached the shores of

the Gambia, and on the 12th of June, 1797, Mungo Park once more

arrived at Pisania, where he was warmly welcomed by Dr. Laidley, who

had despaired of ever seeing him again.

The traveller returned to England upon the 22nd of September. So great

was the impatience with which an account of his discoveries, certainly

the most important in this part of Africa, was awaited, that the

African Society allowed him to publish for his own profit an abridged

account of his adventures.

He had collected more facts as to the geography, manners, and customs

of the country than all preceding travellers; he had determined the

position of the sources of the Senegal and Gambia, and surveyed the

course of the Niger or Djoliba--which he proved to run eastwards,

whilst the Gambia flowed to the west.

Thus a point, which up to this time had been disputed by geographers,

was definitely settled. It was no longer possible to confound the

three rivers, as the French geographer Delisle had done, in 1707, when

he represented the Niger as running eastward from Bornu, and flowing

into the river Senegal on the west. He himself, however, had admitted

and corrected this error, in his later maps of 1722 and 1727, no doubt

on account of the facts ascertained by Andre Brue, governor of Senegal.

Houghton, indeed, had learned much from the natives of the course of

the Niger through the Mandingo country, and of the relative positions

of Sego, Djenneh, and Timbuctoo; but it was reserved for Mungo Park to

fix positively, from personal knowledge, the position of the two

first-named towns, and to furnish circumstantial details of the

country, and the tribes who inhabit it.

Public opinion was unanimous as to the importance of the great

traveller's exploration, and keenly appreciative of the courage, skill,

and honesty exhibited by him.

A short time later, the English government offered Mungo Park the

conduct of an expedition to the interior of Australia; but he refused

it.

In 1804, however, the African Society determined to complete the

survey of the Niger, and proposed to Mungo Park the command of a new

expedition for its exploration. This time the great traveller did not

refuse, and upon the 30th of January, 1805, he left England. Two

months later he landed at Goree.

He was accompanied by his brother-in-law, Anderson, a surgeon, by

George Scott, a draughtsman, and by thirty-five artillery-men. He was

authorized to enrol as many soldiers as he liked in his service, and

was provided with a credit of five hundred pounds.

"These resources," says Walcknaer, "so vast in comparison with those

furnished by the African Society, were, to our thinking, partly the

cause of his loss. The rapacious demands of the African kings grew in

proportion to the riches they supposed our traveller to possess; and

the effort to meet the enormous drain made upon him, was in great part

the cause of the catastrophe which brought the expedition to an end."

Four carpenters, one officer and thirty-five artillery-men, and a

Mandingo merchant named Isaac, who was to act as guide, with the

leaders of the expedition already mentioned, composed an imposing

caravan. Mungo Park left Cayee upon the 27th of April, 1805, and

reached Pisania the next day. From this place, ten years earlier, he

had started upon his first exploration. Taking an easterly direction,

he followed his former route as far as Bambaku, upon the shores of the

Niger. When he arrived at this place, the number of Europeans was

already reduced to six soldiers and a carpenter; the remainder had

succumbed to fatigue, or the fevers incidental to the inundations. The

exactions of the various petty chiefs through whose domains the

expedition passed had considerably diminished the stock of merchandise.

Mungo Park was now guilty of an act of grave imprudence. Remarking

that trade was very active at Sansanding, a town containing eleven

thousand inhabitants, and that beads, indigo, antimony, rings,

bracelets, and other articles not likely to be spoiled in the transit

to England, were freely exhibited for sale, "he opened," says

Walcknaer, "a large shop, which he stocked with European merchandise,

for sale wholesale and retail; and probably the large profits he made

excited the envy of the merchants. The natives of Djenneh, the Moors,

and merchants of Sansanding, joined with those of Sego in offering, in

the presence of Modibinne, to give the King of Mansong a larger and

more valuable quantity of merchandise than he had received from the

English traveller, if he would seize his baggage, and then kill him,

or send him out of Bambarra. But in spite of his knowledge of this

fact, Mungo Park still kept his shop open, and he received, as the

proceeds of one single day's business, 25,756 pieces of money, or

cowries."

Upon the 28th of October Anderson expired, after four months' illness,

and Mungo Park found himself once more alone in the heart of Africa.

The King of Mansong had accorded him permission to build a boat, which

would enable him to explore the Niger. Naming his craft the _Djoliba_,

he fixed upon the 16th of November for his departure.

Here his journal ends, with details on the riverside populations, and

on the geography of the countries he was the first to discover. This

journal, when it reached Europe, was published, imperfect as it was,

as soon as the sad fact was realized that the writer had perished in

the waters of the Djoliba. It contained in reality no new discovery,

but it was recognized as useful to geographical science. Mungo Park

had determined the astronomical position of the more important towns,

and thereby furnished material for a map of Senegambia. The perfecting

of this map was entrusted to Arrowsmith, who stated in an

advertisement, that, finding wide differences between the positions of

the towns as shown in the journal by each day's travel and that

furnished by the astronomical observations, it was impossible to

reconcile them; but that, in accordance with the latter, he had been

obliged to place the route followed by Mungo Park in his first voyage

farther north.

It was reserved for the Frenchman Walcknaer to discover a curious

discrepancy in Mungo Park's journal. This was a singular error upon

the part of the traveller, which neither the English editor nor the

French translator (whose work was badly performed) had discovered.

Mungo Park in his diary records events as happening upon the 31st of

April. As every one knows that that month has only thirty days, it

followed that during the course of his journey the traveller had made

a mistake of a whole day, reckoning in his calculations from the

evening instead of the morning. Hence important rectifications were

necessary in Arrowsmith's map; but none the less, when once Mungo

Park's error is recognized, it is evident that to him we owe the first

faithful map of Senegambia.

Although the facts that reached the English Government allowed no room

for doubt as to the fate of the traveller, a rumour that white men had

been seen in the interior of Africa induced the Governor of Senegal to

fit out an expedition. The command was entrusted to the negro merchant

Isaac, Mungo Park's guide, who had faithfully delivered the

traveller's journal to the English authorities. We need not linger

over the account of this expedition, but merely relate that which

concerns the last days of Mungo Park.

At Sansanding, Isaac encountered Amadi Fatouma, the native who was

with Park on the _Djoliba_ when he perished, and from him he obtained

the following recital:--

"We embarked at Sansanding, and in two days reached Silla, the spot

where Mungo Park completed his first journey.

"After two days' navigation we reached Djenneh. In passing Dibby,

three boats, filled with negroes armed with lances and arrows, but

without fire-arms, approached us. We had passed successively Racbara

and Timbuctoo, when we were pursued by these boats, which we repulsed

with difficulty, and only after killing several natives. At Gourouma

we were attacked by seven boats, but succeeded in repulsing them.

Constant skirmishes ensued, with heavy loss to the blacks, until we

reached Kaffo, where we remained for a day. We then proceeded down the

river as far as Carmusse, and anchored off Gournou. Next day we

perceived a Moorish detachment, who allowed us to pass.

"We then entered the country of Houssa. Next day we reached Yaouri,

and sent Amadi Fatouma into the town, with presents for the chief and

to purchase food. The negro, before accepting the presents, enquired

if the white traveller intended to revisit his country. Mungo Park, to

whom the question was reported, replied that he should never return."

It is supposed that these words brought about his death. The negro

chief, once convinced that he should not see Mungo Park again,

determined to keep the presents intended for his king.

Meantime, Amadi Fatouma reached the king's residence, at some distance

from the river. The prince, warned of the presence of the white men,

sent an army next day to the small village of Boussa, on the river

side. When the _Djoliba_ appeared it was assailed by a shower of

stones and arrows. Park threw his baggage into the river, and jumped

in with his companions. All perished.

Thus miserably died the first Englishman who had navigated the Djoliba

and visited Timbuctoo. Many efforts were made in the same direction,

but almost all were destined to fail.

At the end of the eighteenth century, two of Linnaeus's best pupils

explored the south of Africa in the interests of natural history.

Sparrman undertook to search for animals, and Thunberg for plants. The

account of Sparrman's expedition, which, as we have said, was

interrupted by his voyage in Oceania, after Cook's expedition, was the

first to appear. It was translated into French by Le Tourneur. In his

preface, which is still allowed to stand, Le Tourneur deplored the

loss of the learned explorer, who he said had died during a voyage to

the Gold Coast. Just as the work was published, Sparrman reappeared,

to the great astonishment of Le Tourneur.

Sparrman had reached Africa upon the 30th of April, 1772, and landed

at the Cape of Good Hope. At this time the town was only two miles

across each way, including the gardens and plantations adjoining it on

one side. The streets were wide, planted with oaks, and the houses

were white, or, to Sparrman's surprise, painted green.

His object in visiting the Cape was to act as tutor to the children of

a M. Kerste; but upon his arrival in Cape Town, he found that his

employer was absent at his winter residence in False Bay. When the

spring came round, Sparrman accompanied Kerste to Alphen, a property

which he possessed near Constance. The naturalist availed himself of

the opportunity to make many excursions in the neighbourhood, and

attempt the somewhat dangerous ascent of the Table Mountain. By these

means he became acquainted with the manners and customs of the Boers,

and their treatment of their slaves. The violence of the latter was so

great that the inhabitants of the town were obliged to sleep with

locked doors, and provided with fire-arms close at hand.

Nearly all over the colony a rough hospitality ensured a certain

welcome for the traveller. Sparrman relates several curious

experiences of his own.

"I arrived one evening," he says, "at the dwelling of a farmer named

Van der Spooei, a widower, born in Africa, and father of the

proprietor of the Red Constance, or the Old Constance.

"Making believe not to see me approach, he remained stationary in the

entry of his house. As I approached him, he offered his hand, still

without attempting to come forward, and said, 'Good day! You are

welcome! How are you? _Who_ are you? A glass of wine perhaps? or a

pipe? Will you partake of something?' I answered his questions

laconically, and accepted his offers in the same style as they were

offered. His daughter, a well-made girl of some fourteen or fifteen

years of age, brought in dinner, which consisted of a fine breast of

lamb, stewed with carrots. The meal over, she offered me tea so

pleasantly that I was quite puzzled whether to admire the dinner or my

charming hostess the most. Both father and daughter showed the

greatest kindness and good will. I spoke to my host several times, in

hopes of breaking his silence; but his replies were brief; and I

observed that he only once commenced a conversation himself, when he

pressed me to remain over night in his house. I bid him farewell,

deeply impressed with his hospitality."

Sparrman undertook several similar expeditions, among others, one to

Hout Bay and Paarl, in which he had frequent occasion to notice the

exaggerations to be met with in the narrative of Kolbe, his

predecessor.

He intended to continue his explorations during the winter, and

projected a journey into the interior, when the fine season should

return. When the frigates commanded by Captain Cook, the _Resolution_

and _Adventure_, arrived at the Cape, Forster invited the young

Swedish naturalist to accompany him; and Sparrman was thus enabled to

visit New Zealand, Van Diemen's Land, New Holland, Otaheite, Tierra

del Fuego, the Antarctic Regions, and New Georgia, before his return

to the Cape, where he landed on the 22nd of March, 1775.

His first care upon his return was to organize his expedition to the

interior; and in order to add to his available resources he practised

medicine and surgery during the winter. A cargo of corn, medicine,

knives, tinder-boxes, and spirits for the preservation of specimens

was collected, and packed in an immense waggon, drawn by five yoke of

oxen.

Sparrman says,--

"The conductor of this cart needs dexterity, not only in his

management of the animals, but in the use of the whip of African

drivers. These instruments are about fifteen feet long, with a thong

of the same or greater length, and a tongue of white leather almost

three feet long. The driver holds this formidable instrument in both

hands, and from his seat in front of the waggon can reach the foremost

oxen with it. He distributes his cuts unceasingly, well understanding

how and where to distribute them in such a manner that the hide of the

animals feels the whip."

Sparrman was to accompany the waggon on horseback, and was accompanied

by a young colonist, named Immelman, who wished to penetrate into the

interior for recreation. They started upon the 25th of July, 1775.

After passing Rent River, scaling the Hottentot Holland Kloof, and

crossing the Palmite, they entered a desert country, interspersed with

plains, mountains, and valleys, without water, but frequented by

antelopes of various kinds, with zebras and ostriches.

Sparrman soon reached the warm mineral baths at the foot of the

Zwartberg, which, at that time, were much frequented, the company

having built a house near the mountains. At this point the explorer

was joined by young Immelman, and together they started for Zwellendam,

which they reached upon the 2nd of September. We will give a few of

the facts they collected about the inhabitants.

The Hottentots are as tall as Europeans, their hands and feet are

small, and their colour a brownish yellow. They have not the thick

lips of the Kaffirs and natives of Mozambique. Their hair is black and

woolly, curly, but not thick. They rub the entire body with fat and

soot. A Hottentot who paints himself looks less naked, and more

complete, so to say, than one who only rubs himself with grease. Hence

the saying, "A Hottentot without paint, is like a shoe without

blacking."

[Illustration: A Hottentot. (Fac-simile of early engraving.)]

These natives usually wear a cloak called karos, made of sheep's skin,

with the wool turned inwards. The women arrange it with a long point,

which forms a sort of hood, in which they place their children. Both

men and women wear leather rings upon their arms and legs--a custom,

which gave rise to the fable that this race rolled puddings round

their limbs, to feed on from time to time. They also wear copper and

iron rings, but these ornaments are less common.

The kraal, or Hottentot village, is a collection of huts in a circle,

all very similar, and of the shape of beehives. The doors, which are

in the centre, are so low that they can only be entered on the knees.

The hearth is in the middle of the hut, and the roof has no hole for

the escape of the smoke.

The Hottentots must not be confounded with the Bushmen. The latter

live only for hunting and robbery; their skill in throwing poisoned

arrows, their courage, and the wildness of their lives, render them

invincible.

At Zwellendam, Sparrman saw the quagga, a species of horse, like a

zebra in shape, but with shorter ears.

The explorer next visited Mossel Bay, a harbour little used, as it is

too much exposed to the west winds; and thence he proceeded to the

country of the Houtniquas, or, as Burchell's map calls them, the

Antiniquas. This woody country appeared fertile, and the colonists

established there are prosperous. Sparrman met with most of the

quadrupeds of Africa in this district, such as elephants, leopards,

lions, tiger cats, hyenas, monkeys, hares, antelopes, and gazelles.

We will not attempt to follow Sparrman to all the small settlements he

visited. An enumeration of the streams, kraals, or villages he passed

would convey no information to the reader. Rather let us gather from

his narratives a few curious and novel details concerning two

creatures which he describes, the sheep of the Cape, and the

"honey-guide."

"When a sheep is to be killed," he says, "the very leanest of the

flock is selected. It would be impossible to use the others for food.

Their tails are of a triangular shape, and are often a foot and a half

long, and occasionally six inches thick in the upper part. One of

these tails will weigh eight or twelve pounds, and they consist

principally of delicate fat, which some persons eat with bread instead

of butter. It is used in the preparation of food, and sometimes to

make candles."

After describing the two-horned rhinoceros, hitherto unknown, the

gnu--an animal in form something between the horse and the ox--the

gazelle, the baboon, and the hippopotamus, the habits of which were

previously imperfectly known, Sparrman describes a curious bird, of

great service to the natives, which he calls the honey-guide.

"This bird," he says, "is remarkable neither in size nor colour. At

first sight it would be taken for a common sparrow, but it is a little

larger than that bird, of a somewhat lighter colour, with a small

yellow spot on each shoulder, and dashes of white in the wings and

tail.

"In its own interests, this bird leads the natives to the bees' nests,

for it is very fond of honey, and it knows that whenever a nest is

destroyed, a little honey will be spilled, or left behind, as a

recompense for its services.

"It seems to grow hungry in the morning and evening. In any case, it

is then that it leaves its nest, and by its piercing cries attracts

the attention of the Hottentots or the colonists. The cries are almost

always answered by the appearance of natives or settlers, when the

bird, repeating its call unceasingly, slowly flies from place to place

towards the spot where the bees have made their home. Arrived at the

nest, whether it be in the cleft of a rock, in a hollow tree, or in

some underground cavity, the guide hovers about it for a few seconds,

and then perches hard by, and remains a silent and hidden spectator of

the pillage, in which he hopes subsequently to have his share. Of this

phenomenon I have myself twice been a witness."

[Illustration: A Bosjeman. (Fac-simile of early engraving.)]

On the 12th of April, 1776, on his way back to the Cape, Sparrman

heard that a large lake, the only one in the colony, had been

discovered to the north of the Schneuwberg district. A little later,

the traveller got back to the Cape, and embarked for Europe with the

numerous natural history collections he had made.

About the same time, between 1772-1775, Thunberg, the Swede, whom

Sparrman had met at the Cape, made three successive journeys in the

interior of Africa. They were not, any more than Sparrman's, actual

journeys of discovery; and we owe the acquisition of no new

geographical fact to Thunberg. He did but make a vast number of

interesting observations on the birds of the Cape, and he also

ascertained a few interesting details respecting the various races of

the interior, which turned out to be far more fertile than was at

first supposed.

Thunberg was followed in the same latitudes by an English officer,

Lieutenant William Paterson, whose chief aim was to collect plants and

other objects of natural history. He penetrated a little further north

than the Orange River, and into Kaffraria a good deal further east

than Fish River. To him we owe the first notice of the giraffe; and

his narrative is rich in important observations on the natural history,

structure, and inhabitants of the country.

It is a curious fact that the Europeans attracted to South Africa by

zeal for geographical discovery, were far less numerous than those

whose motive was love of natural history. We have already mentioned

Sparrman, Thunberg, and Paterson. To this list we must now add the

name of the ornithologist Le Vaillant.

Born at Paramaribo, in Dutch Guiana, of French parents, who traded in

birds, Le Vaillant visited Europe with them as a mere child, and

traversed Holland, Germany, Lorraine, and the Vosges, on his way to

Paris. It will readily be understood that this wandering life awoke in

him a taste for travelling; and his passion for birds, early excited

by the examination of private and public collections, made him eager

to enrich science by descriptions and drawings of unknown species.

Now what country would afford the richest ornithological harvest? The

districts near the Cape had been explored by botanists, and by a

scientific man who had made quadrupeds his chief study; but no one had

as yet traversed them to collect birds.

Le Vaillant arrived at the Cape on the 29th of March, 1781, after the

loss of his vessel in an explosion, with nothing but the clothes he

wore, ten ducats, and his gun.

Others would have been disheartened, but Le Vaillant did not despair

of extricating himself from his painful position. Confident in his

skill with the gun and the bow, in his strength and agility, as well

as in his skill in preparing the skins of animals, and in stuffing

birds so that their plumage should retain all its original gloss, the

naturalist had soon opened relations with the wealthiest collectors of

the Cape.

One of these, an official named Boers, provided Le Vaillant with every

requisite for a successful journey, including carts, oxen, provisions,

objects for barter, and horses. Even servants and guides were

appointed, free of cost, to the explorer. The kind of researches to

which Le Vaillant intended to devote himself influenced his mode of

travelling. Instead of seeking frequented and beaten tracks, he tried

to avoid them, and to penetrate into districts neglected by Europeans,

hoping in them to meet with birds unknown to science. As a result he

may be said always to have taken nature by surprise, coming into

contact with natives whose manners had not yet been modified by

intercourse with whites; so that the information he gives us brings

savage life, as it really is, more vividly before us than anything

told us by his predecessors or successors. The only mistake made by Le

Vaillant was the entrusting of the translation of his notes to a young

man who modified them to suit his own notions. Far from taking the

scrupulous care to be exact which distinguishes modern editors, he

exaggerated facts; and, dwelling too much on the personal qualities of

the traveller, he gave to the narrative of the journey a boastful tone

very prejudicial to it.

After three months' stay at the Cape and in its neighbourhood, Le

Vaillant started, on the 18th December, 1781, for a first journey

eastwards, and in Kaffraria. His equipment this time consisted of

thirty oxen--ten for each of his two waggons, and ten as

reserve--three horses, nine dogs, and five Hottentots.

Le Vaillant first crossed the Dutch districts already explored by

Sparrman, where he met with vast herds of zebras, antelopes, and

ostriches, arriving in due course at Zwellendam, where he bought some

oxen, a cart, and a cock--the last serving as an alarm-clock

throughout the journey. Another animal was also of great use to him.

This was a monkey he had tamed, and promoted to the post, alike useful

and honourable, of taster--no one being allowed to touch any fruit or

root unknown to the Hottentots till Master Rees had given his verdict

upon it.

[Illustration: "Till Master Rees had given his verdict."]

Rees was also employed as a sentinel; and his senses, sharpened by use

and the struggle for life, exceeded in delicacy those of the most

subtle Redskin. He it was who warned the dogs of the approach of

danger. If a snake approached, or a troop of monkeys were disporting

themselves in a neighbouring thicket, Rees' terror and his shrieks

quickly revealed the presence of a disturbing element.

From Zwellendam, which he left on the 12th January, 1782, Le Vaillant

made his way eastwards, at some little distance from the sea. He

pitched his camp on the banks of the Columbia (Duywen Hock) river and

made many very successful hunting excursions in a district rich in

game, finally reaching Mossel Bay, where the howls of innumerable

hyenas frightened the oxen.

A little farther on he entered the country of the Houtniquas, a

Hottentot name signifying men filled with honey. Here not a step could

be taken without coming upon swarms of bees. Flowers sprang up beneath

the feet of the travellers; the air was heavy with their perfume;

their varied colours lent such enchantment to the scene that some of

the servants would have liked to halt. Le Vaillant however hastened to

press on. The whole of this district, down to the sea, is occupied by

colonists, who breed cattle, make butter, cultivate timber, and

collect honey, sending their merchandise to the Cape for sale.

A little beyond the last post of the company, Le Vaillant, having

entered a district peopled by thousands of "turacos," and other rare

birds, pitched his hunting camp; but his plans were terribly upset by

the continuous fall of heavy rains, the result of which was to reduce

the travellers to great straits for want of food.

After many a sudden change of fortune and many hunting adventures, an

account of which would be very amusing, though beyond the scope of our

narrative, Le Vaillant reached Mossel Bay. Here, with what delight we

can easily imagine, he found letters from France awaiting him. One

excursion after another was now made in various directions, until

Kaffraria was entered. It was difficult to open relations with its

people, who sedulously avoided the whites, having suffered the loss of

many men and much cattle at their hands. Moreover the Tamboukis had

taken advantage of their critical position to invade Kaffraria and

commit numerous depredations, whilst the Bosjemans hunted them down

unmercifully. Without fire-arms, and attacked on so many sides at once,

the Kaffirs were driven to hiding themselves, and were retiring

northwards.

[Illustration: A Kaffir woman. (Fac-simile of early engraving.)]

As matters stood it was useless to attempt to penetrate into the

mountainous districts of Kaffraria, and Le Vaillant retraced his steps.

He then visited the Schneuwberg mountains, the Karroo desert and the

shores of the Buffalo River, returning to the Cape on the 2nd April,

1783.

The results of this long campaign were important. Le Vaillant obtained

some decided information about the Gonaquas, a numerous race which

must not be confounded with the Hottentots properly so called, but are

probably the offspring of their intermarriage with the Kaffirs. With

regard to the Hottentots themselves, the information collected by Le

Vaillant agrees on almost every point with that obtained by Sparrman.

"The Kaffirs seen by Le Vaillant," says Walcknaer, "were most of them

taller than either the Hottentots or the Gonaquas. They have neither

the retiring jaws nor prominent cheek bones which are so repulsive in

the Hottentots, but are less noticeable in the Gonaquas, neither have

they the broad flat faces and thick lips of their neighbours the

negroes of Mozambique. Their faces, on the contrary, are round, their

noses fairly prominent, and their teeth the whitest and most regular

of any people in the world. Their complexion is of a clear dark brown;

and, but for this one characteristic, says Le Vaillant, any Kaffir

woman would be considered very pretty, even beside a European."

During Le Vaillant's sixteen months of absence, the aspect of the Cape

had completely changed. When the traveller left he admired the modest

bearing of the Dutch women; on his return he found them thinking only

of amusement and dress. Ostrich feathers were so much in vogue that

they had to be imported from Europe and Asia. All those brought by our

traveller were quickly bought up. The birds which he had sent to the

colony on every possible opportunity now amounted to one thousand and

twenty-four specimens; and Mr. Boers' house, where they were kept, was

converted into a regular natural history museum.

Le Vaillant's journey had been so successful that he could not but

wish to begin another. Although his friend Boers had returned to

Europe, he was able, with the aid of the many other friends he had

made, to collect the materials for a fresh trip. On the 15th June,

1783, he started at the head of a caravan numbering nineteen persons.

He also took thirteen dogs, one he- and two she-goats, three cows,

thirty-six draught and fourteen reserve oxen, with two for carrying

the baggage of the Hottentot servants.

We shall not, of course, follow the traveller in his hunting

excursions; all we need to know is that he succeeded in making a

collection of marvellous birds, that he introduced the first giraffe

to Europe, and that he traversed the whole of the vast space between

the tropic of Capricorn on the west and the 14th meridian on the east.

He returned to the Cape in 1784, he embarked for Europe, and arrived

at Paris early in January, 1785.

The first native people met with by Le Vaillant in his second voyage

were the Little Namaquas, a race but very little known, and who soon

died out--the more readily that they occupied a barren country,

subject to constant attacks from the Bosjemans. Although of fair

height, they are inferior in appearance to the Kaffirs and Namaquas,

to whose customs theirs bear a great resemblance.

The Caminouquas, or Comeinacquas, of whom Le Vaillant gives many

particulars, exceed them in height. He says,--

"They appear taller even than the Gonaquas, although possibly they are

not so in reality; but the illusion is sustained by their small bones,

delicate and emaciated appearance, and slender limbs. The long mantle

of light material which hangs from the shoulder to the ground adds to

their height. They look like drawn out men. Lighter in colour than the

Cape natives, they have better features than the other Hottentot

tribes, owing to the fact that their noses are less flat and their

cheek bones less prominent."

Of all the races visited by Le Vaillant, the most peculiar and most

ancient was that of the Houzonanas, a tribe which had not been met

with by any other northern traveller; but they appear identical with

the Bechuanas, although the part of the country assigned to them does

not coincide with that which they are known to have occupied for many

years.

"The Houzonanas," says the narrative, "are small in stature, the

tallest being scarcely five feet four in height. These small beings

are perfectly proportioned, and are surprisingly strong and active.

They have an imposing air of boldness." Le Vaillant considers them the

best endowed mentally, and the strongest physically, of all the savage

races he had met with. In face they resemble the Hottentots, but they

have rounder chins, and they are far less black. They have curly hair,

so short that Le Vaillant at first imagined it to be shaven.

One striking peculiarity of the Houzonanas is a large mass of flesh

upon the back of the women, which forms a natural saddle, and

oscillates strangely with every movement of the body. Le Vaillant

describes a woman whom he saw with her child about three years old,

who was perched upon his feet behind her, like a footman behind a

cabriolet.

We will pass over the traveller's description of the appearance and

customs of these various races, many of which are now extinct, or

incorporated in some more powerful tribe. Although by no means the

least curious portion of his narrative, the details are so exaggerated

that we prefer to omit them.

Upon the eastern coast of Africa, a Portuguese traveller, named

Fransisco Jose de Lacerda y Almeida, left Mozambique in 1797, to

explore the interior. The account of this expedition to a place which

has only lately been revisited, would be of great interest; but

unfortunately, so far as we know, his journal has not been published.

His name is often quoted by geographers, and they appear to know what

countries he visited; but in France, at least, no lengthened notice of

this geographer exists which would furnish the details of his

exploration. A very few words will convey all that we have been able

to collect of the history of a man who made most important discoveries,

and whose name has most unfairly been forgotten.

Lacerda, the date and place of whose birth are unknown, was an

engineer, and he was professionally engaged in settling the boundary

of the frontier between the Spanish and Portuguese possessions in

South America. Whilst thus employed, he collected a mass of

interesting particulars of the province of Mato Grosso, which are

given in the _Rivesta trimensal do Brazil_. We cannot tell what

circumstances led him, after this successful expedition, to the

Portuguese possessions in Africa; nor is it easy to imagine his motive

for crossing South Africa from the eastern shore to the kingdom of

Loanda. It is however certain that he left the well-known town of Tete

in 1797, in command of an important caravan bound for the States of

Cazembe.

This country was governed by a king as renowned for his benevolence

and humanity as for his bravery. He inhabited a town called Lunda,

which was two miles in extent, and situated upon the eastern shore of

the lake called Mofo. It would have been interesting to compare these

localities with those that we know of in the same parallels to-day;

but the lack of details obliges us to desist, merely observing that

the word Lunda was well-known to Portuguese travellers. As regards

Cazembe, there is no longer any question as to its position.

Well received by the king, Lacerda remained some twelve days with him,

and then proceeded upon his journey. Unfortunately, when a day or

two's march from Lunda he succumbed to fatigue and the unhealthiness

of the climate.

The native king collected the traveller's notes and journals, and

ordered them to be sent with his remains to Mozambique. But

unfortunately the caravan entrusted with these precious memorials was

attacked, and the remains of the unfortunate Lacerda were left in the

heart of Africa. His notes were brought to Europe by a nephew, who had

accompanied the expedition.

We now come to the account of the expeditions undertaken in the east

of Africa, foremost amongst which is that of the well-known traveller

Bruce. A Scotchman by birth, like so many other African explorers,

James Bruce was brought up for the bar; but the sedentary nature of

his occupation had little charm for him, and he embraced an

opportunity of entering commercial life. His wife died a few years

after their marriage, and Bruce started for Spain, where he employed

his leisure in studying Arabic monuments. He wished to publish a

detailed account of those in the Escorial, but the Spanish Government

refused him the necessary permission.

[Illustration: Portrait of James Bruce. (Fac-simile of early

engraving.)]

Returning to England, Bruce began to study Eastern languages, and more

especially the Ethiopian, which at that time was known only through

the imperfect works of Ludolf. One day Lord Halifax half jestingly

proposed to him an exploration of the sources of the Nile. Bruce

entered enthusiastically into the subject, and set to work to realize

it. He overcame every objection, conquered every difficulty, and in

June, 1768, left England for the shores of the Mediterranean. Bruce

hurriedly visited some of the islands of the Archipelago, Syria, and

Egypt. Leaving Djedda he proceeded to Mecca, Lobheia, and arrived at

Massowah upon the 19th September, 1769. He had taken care to obtain a

firman from the Sultan, and also letters from the Bey of Cairo, and

the Sheriff of Mecca. This was fortunate, for the Nawab, or governor

did all in his power to prevent his entering Abyssinia, and

endeavoured to make him pay heavily with presents. Abyssinia had been

explored by Portuguese Missionaries, thanks to whose zeal some

information about the country had been obtained, although far less

accurate in detail than that which we owe to Bruce. Although his

veracity has often been questioned, succeeding travellers have

confirmed his assertions.

From Massowah to Adowa the road rises gradually, and passes over the

mountains which separate Tigre from the shores of the Red Sea.

Adowa was not originally the capital of Tigre. A manufacture of a

coarse cotton cloth which circulates as current money in Abyssinia was

established there. The soil in the neighbourhood is deep enough for

the cultivation of corn.

"In these districts," says Bruce, "there are three harvests a year.

The first seeds are sown in July and August, when the rain flows

abundantly. In the same season they sow 'tocusso,' 'teff,' and barley.

About the 20th of November they reap the first barley, then the wheat,

and last of all the 'teff.' In some of these they sow immediately upon

the same ground without any manure, barley, which they reap in

February, and then often sow 'teff,' but more frequently a kind of

vetch or pea, called Shimbra; these are cut down before the first

rains, which are in April; yet with all the advantages of a triple

harvest, which requires neither manure nor any expensive processes,

the farmer in Abyssinia is always very poor."

At Fremona, not far from Adowa, are the ruins of a Jesuit convent,

resembling rather a fort than the abode of men of peace. Two days'

journey further on, one comes to the ruins of Axum, the ancient

capital of Abyssinia. "In one square," says Bruce, "which I apprehend

to have been the centre of the town, there are forty obelisks, none of

which have any hieroglyphics on them. The two first have fallen down,

but a third a little smaller than them is still standing. They are all

hewn from one block of granite, and on the top of that which is

standing there is a _patera_, exceedingly well engraved in the Greek

style.

"After passing the convent of Abba Pantaleon, called in Abyssinia

Mantillas, and the small obelisk on a rock above, we follow a path cut

in a mountain of very red marble, having on the left a marble wall

forming a parapet about five feet high. At intervals solid pedestals

rise from this wall, bearing every token of having served to support

colossal statues of Sirius, the barking Anubis, or the Dog star. One

hundred and thirty-three of these pedestals with the marks just

mentioned are still in their places, but only two figures of the dog

were recognizable when I was there; these, however, though much

mutilated, were evidently Egyptian.

"There are also pedestals supporting the figures of the Sphinx. Two

magnificent flights of steps, several hundred feet long, all of

granite, exceedingly well finished, and still in their places, are the

only remains of a magnificent temple. In an angle of this platform

where the temple stood, is the present small church of Axum. This

church is a mean, small building, very ill kept and full of pigeons'

dung." It was near Axum that Bruce saw three soldiers cut from a

living cow a steak for their midday meal.

In his account of their method of cutting the steak Bruce says, "The

skin which had covered the flesh that was cut away was left intact,

and was fastened to the corresponding part by little wooden skewers

serving as pins. Whether they put anything between the skin and the

wounded flesh I do not know, but they soon covered the wound with mud.

They then forced the animal to rise, and drove it on before them, to

furnish them, no doubt, with another meal when they should join their

companions in the evening."

From Tigre, Bruce passed into the province of Sire, which derives its

name from its capital, a town considerably larger than Axum, but

constantly a prey to putrid fevers. Near it flows the Takazze, the

ancient Siris, with its poisonous waters bordered by majestic trees.

In the province of Samen, situated amongst the unhealthy and broiling

Waldubba Mountains, and where many monks had retired to pray and do

penance, Bruce stayed only long enough to rest his beasts of burden,

for the country was not only haunted by lions and hyenas, and infested

by large black ants, which destroyed part of his baggage, but also

torn with civil war; so that foreigners were anything but safe. This

made him most anxious to reach Gondar, but when he arrived typhoid

fever was raging fiercely. His knowledge of medicine was very useful

to him, and procured him a situation under the governor, which was

most advantageous to him, as it rendered him free to scour the country

in all directions, at the head of a body of soldiers. By these means

he acquired a mass of valuable information upon the government,

manners, and customs of the country, and the chief events of its

history, which combined to make his work the most important hitherto

published about Abyssinia.

It was in the course of one of these excursions that Bruce discovered

the sources of the Blue Nile, which he took to be the true Nile.

Arrived at the church of St. Michael, at Geesh, where the river is

only four paces wide, and some four inches deep, Bruce became

convinced that its sources must be in the neighbourhood, although his

guide assured him that he must cross a mountain before he found them.

The traveller was not to be deceived.

"'Come! come!'" said Bruce, "'no more words. It is already late; lead

me to Geesh and the sources of the Nile, and show me the mountain that

separates us from it.' He then made me go round to the south of the

church, and coming out of the grove of cedars surrounding it, 'This is

the mountain,' he said, looking maliciously up into my face, 'that

when you were on the other side of it, was between you and the

fountains of the Nile; there is no other. Look at that green hillock

in the centre of that marsh. It is there that the two fountains of the

Nile are to be found. Geesh is at the top of the rock, where you see

those very green trees. If you go to the fountains, pull off your

shoes as you did the other day, for these people are all Pagans, and

they believe in nothing that you believe, but only in the Nile, to

which they pray every day as if it were God, as you perhaps invoke it

yourself.' I took off my shoes, and rushed down the hill towards the

little green island, which was about two hundred yards distant. The

whole of the side of the hill was carpeted with flowers, the large

roots of which protruded above the surface of the ground; and as I was

looking down, and noticing that the skin was peeling off the bulbs, I

had two very severe falls before I reached the edge of the marsh; but

at last I approached the island with its green sod. It was in the form

of an altar, and apparently of artificial construction. I was in

rapture as I gazed upon the principal fountain which rises in the

middle of it. It is easier to imagine than to describe what I felt at

that moment, standing opposite the sources which had baffled the

genius and courage of the most celebrated men for three thousand

years."

Bruce's narrative contains many other curious observations, but we

must now pass on to his account of Lake Tzana.

"Lake Tzana," according to his narrative, "is by far the largest sheet

of water known in these regions. Its extent, however, has been greatly

exaggerated. Its greatest breadth from Dingleber to Lamgue, i.e. from

east to west, is thirty-five miles, but it decreases greatly at each

end, and in some parts is not above ten miles broad. Its greatest

length is forty-nine miles from north to south, measured from Bab-Baha

to a point a trifle to the S.W.1/4W. of the spot where the Nile, after

flowing through the lake with an ever perceptible current, bends

towards Dara in the Allata territory. In the dry season, from October

to March, the lake decreases greatly; but when the rains have swollen

the rivers, which unite at this place like the spokes of a wheel at

the nave, the lake rises, and overflows a portion of the plain. If the

Abyssinians, great liars at all times, are to be believed, there are

forty-five islands in Lake Tzana; but this number may be safely

reduced to eleven. The largest is named Dek, Daka, or Daga; the next

in size are Halimoon, on the Gondar side of the lake, Briguida, on the

Gorgora side, and Galila, beyond Briguida. All these islands were

formerly used as prisons for Abyssinian chieftains, or as retreats by

such as were dissatisfied at court, or wished to secure their

valuables in troubled times."

And now having visited Abyssinia with Bruce, let us return to the

north.

Some light was now being thrown upon the ancient civilization of Egypt.

The archaeological expedition of Pococke, Norden, Niebuhr, Volney, and

Savary had been published in succession, and the Egyptian Society was

at work upon the publication of its large and magnificent work. The

number of travellers increased daily, and amongst others W. G. Browne

determined to visit the land of the Pharaohs.

From his work we learn much alike of the monuments and ruins which

make this country so interesting, and of the customs of its

inhabitants. The portion of the work relating to Darfur is entirely

new, no Europeans having previously explored it. Browne attained a

high place among travellers by his discovery that the Bahr-el-Abiad is

the true Nile, and because he endeavoured not indeed to discover its

source, that he could scarcely hope to do, but to ascertain its

latitude and course.

Arriving in Egypt upon the 10th of January, 1792, Browne set out upon

his first expedition to Siwah, and discovered, as Horneman did later,

the oasis of Jupiter Ammon. He had little more opportunity than his

successor for exploring the catacombs and ruins, where he saw many

skulls and human remains.

"The ruins of Siwah," he says, "resembled too much those of Upper

Egypt to leave any doubt that the buildings to which they belonged

were built by the same race of men. The figures of Isis and Anubis are

easily recognizable on them, and the proportions of their

architectural works, though smaller, are the same as those of the

Egyptian temples.

"The rocks I noticed in the neighbourhood of Siwah were of the

sandstone formation, bearing no relation whatever to the stones of

these ruins; so that I should think that the materials for these

buildings cannot have been obtained on the spot. The people of Siwah

have preserved no credible traditions respecting these objects. They

merely imagined them to contain treasures, and to be frequented by

demons."

After leaving Siwah, Browne made various excursions in Egypt, and then

settled in Cairo, where he studied Arabic. He left this town upon the

10th of September, 1792, and visited in succession Kaw, Achmin, Gergeh,

Dendera, Kazr, Thebes, Assouan, Kosseir, Memphis, Suez, and Mount

Sinai; then wishing to enter Abyssinia, but convinced that he could

not do so by way of Massowah, he left Assiut for Darfur, with a Soudan

caravan, in May, 1793. The caravan halted upon its way to Darfur at

the different towns of Aine, Dizeh, Charyeh, Bulak, Scheb, Selinceh,

Leghea, and Ber-el-Malha.

Being taken ill at Soueini, Browne was detained there, and only

reached El-Fascher after a long delay. Here his annoyances and the

exactions levied recommenced, and he could not succeed in obtaining an

interview with the Sultan. He was forced to spend the winter at Cobbeh,

awaiting his restoration to health, which only took place in the

summer of 1794. This time of forced inaction was not, however, wasted

by the traveller; he acquainted himself with the manners and dialects

of Darfur. Upon the return of summer, Browne repaired to El-Fascher,

and recommenced his applications for admittance to the Sultan. They

were attended with the same unsuccessful results, until a crowning act

of injustice at length procured for him the interview he had so long

solicited in vain.

"I found," he says, "the monarch Abd-el-Raschman seated on his throne

under a lofty wooden canopy, of Syrian and Indian stuffs

indiscriminately mixed. The floor in front of the throne was spread

with small Turkey carpets. The meleks (officers of the court) were

seated at some little distance off on the right and left, and behind

them stood a line of guards, wearing caps ornamented in front with a

small copper plate and a black ostrich feather. Each bore a spear in

his right hand, and a shield of hippopotamus-hide on the left arm.

Their only clothing was a cotton shirt, of the manufacture of the

country. Behind the throne were fourteen or fifteen eunuchs, clothed

in rich stuffs of various kinds and all manner of colours. The space

in front was filled with petitioners and spectators, to the number of

more than fifteen hundred. A kind of hired eulogist stood on the

monarch's left hand, crying out at the top of his voice during the

whole ceremony, 'See the buffalo, the son of a buffalo, the powerful

Sultan Abd-el-Raschman El-rashid. May God protect thy life, O master,

may God assist thee and render thee victorious.'"

[Illustration: "I found the monarch seated on his throne."]

The Sultan promised justice to Browne, and put the matter into the

hands of the meleks, but he only obtained restitution of a sixth of

that of which he had been robbed.

The traveller had merely entered Darfur to cross it. He found it would

be no easy task to leave it, and that in any case he must give up the

idea of prosecuting his exploration; he says,--

"On the 11th of December, 1795, (after a delay of three months) I

accompanied the chatib (one of the principal officers of the country)

to the monarch's presence. I shortly stated what I required, and the

chatib seconded me, though not with the zeal that I might have wished.

To my demand for permission to travel no answer was returned, and the

iniquitous despot, who had received from me no less than the value of

about 750 piastres in goods, condescended to give me twenty meagre

oxen, worth about 120 piastres. The state of my purse would not permit

me to refuse even this mean return, and I bade adieu to El-Fascher as

I hoped for ever."

Browne was not able to leave Darfur till the spring of 1796, when he

joined the caravan which was about to return to Egypt.

The town of Cobbeh, although not the resort of the merchants, must be

considered the capital of Darfur. It is more than two miles in length,

but is extremely narrow, each house stands in a field surrounded by a

palisade, and between each there is a plot of fallow land.

The plain in which the town is situated runs W.S.W., to a distance of

some twenty miles. Almost all the inhabitants are merchants, who trade

with Egypt. Their number may be estimated at six thousand, the larger

proportion being slaves. The entire population of Darfur cannot exceed

two hundred thousand, but Browne only arrived at this calculation by

estimating the number of recruits raised for the war with Kordofan.

"The inhabitants of Darfur," says the narrative, "are of various races.

Some, chiefly fakeers or priests and traders, come from the west, and

there are a good many Arabs, none of whom are permanent residents.

They are of various tribes; the greater number lead a wandering life

on the frontiers, where they pasture their camels, oxen, and horses.

They are not in such complete dependence on the Sultan as always to

contribute to his forces in war, or to pay him tribute in time of

peace."

After the Arabs come the people of Zeghawa, which once formed a

distinct kingdom, whose chief could put a thousand horsemen in the

field. The Zeghawas speak a different dialect from the people of Fur.

We must also include the people of Bego or Dageou, who are now subject

to Darfur, but are the issue of a tribe which formerly ruled the

country.

The natives of Darfur are inured to hunger and thirst, but they

indulge freely in an intoxicating liquor called _Bouzza_ or _Merisse_.

Thieving, lying, and dishonesty, with their accompanying vices,

prevail largely among them.

"In buying and selling the parent glories in deceiving the son, and

the son the parent, and atrocious frauds are committed in the name of

God and of the Prophet.

"Polygamy, which it is well known is tolerated by their religion, is

indulged in to excess by the people of Darfur. When Sultan Teraub went

to war with Korodofan, he took in his retinue five hundred women,

leaving as many in his palace. This may at first sight seem ridiculous,

but it must be remembered that these women had to grind corn, draw

water, dress food, and perform all the domestic work for a large

number of people, so that there was plenty for them to do."

Browne's narrative contains many medical observations of interest, and

gives valuable advice as to the mode of travelling in Africa, with

particulars of the animals, fish, metals, and plants of Darfur. We do

not give them here, because they do not contain anything of special

interest for us.

CHAPTER III.

ASIA AND ITS INHABITANTS.

Witzen's account of Tartary--China as described by the Jesuits and

Father Du Halde--Macartney in China--Stay at Chu-Sang--Arrival at

Nankin--Negotiations--Reception of the Embassy by the Emperor--Fetes

and ceremonies at Zhe Hol--Return to Pekin and Europe--Volney--

Choiseul Gouffier--Le Chevalier in Troas--Olivier in Persia--A

semi-Asiatic country--Pallas's account of Russia.

At the end of the seventeenth century, a traveller named Nicolas

Witzen had explored eastern and northern Tartary, and in 1692

published a curious narrative of his journey. This work, which was in

Dutch, and was not translated into any other European language, did

not win for its author the recognition he deserved. A second edition,

illustrated with engravings which were meritorious rather from their

fidelity to nature than their artistic merit, was issued in 1705, and

in 1785 the remaining copies of this issue were collected, and

appeared under a new title. But it attracted little notice, as by this

time further, and more curious particulars had been obtained.

From the day that the Jesuits first entered the Celestial Empire, they

had collected every possible fact with regard to the customs of this

immense country, which previous to their stay there had been known

only through the extravagant tales of Marco Polo. Although China is

the country of stagnation, and customs and fashion always remain much

the same in it, the many events which had taken place made it

desirable to obtain more exact particulars of a nation with whom

Europeans might possibly enter into advantageous friendly relations.

The Jesuits published the result of these investigations in the rare

work entitled "Lettres Edifiantes," which was revised and supplemented

by a zealous member of their order, Father Du Halde. It would be

useless to attempt any reproduction of this immense work, for which a

volume would be required, and it is the less necessary as at this day

we have fuller and more complete details of the country than are to be

found even in the learned father's book. To the Jesuits also belong

the merit of many important astronomical observations, facts

concerning natural history, and the compilation of maps, which were

till quite lately authorities on remote districts of the country

consulted with advantages.

Towards the end of the eighteenth century, Abbe Grosier, of the order

of St. Louis du Louvre, published in an abridged form, a new

description of China and Tartary. He made use of the work of his

predecessor, Du Halde, and at the same time rectified and added to it.

After an account of the fifteen provinces of China and Tartary, with

the tributary States, such as Corea, Tonking, Cochin China, and Thibet,

the author devotes several chapters to the population and natural

history of China, whilst he reviews the government, religion, manners,

literature, science, and art of the Chinese.

Towards the end of the eighteenth century, the English Government,

being desirous of entering into commercial relations with China, sent

an Envoy-extraordinary to that country named George Macartney.

This diplomatist had already visited the courts of Europe and Russia,

had been governor of the English Antilles and Madras, and

Governor-General of India.

He had acquired in the course of his travels in such varied climates,

and amid such diverse peoples, a profound knowledge of human nature.

His narrative of his voyages is rich in facts and observations

calculated to give Europeans a true idea of the Chinese character.

Personal accounts of travel are always more interesting than anonymous

ones.

Although the great _I_ is generally hateful, it is not so in travels,

where the assertion _I_ have been there, _I_ have done such or such a

thing, carries weight, and gives interest to the narrative.

Macartney and his suite sailed in a squadron consisting of three

vessels, the _Lion_, the _Hindustan_, and the _Jackal_, which left

Portsmouth on the 26th September, 1792.

[Illustration: Map of the Empire of China.]

After a few necessary delays at Rio-de-Janeiro, St. Paul and Amsterdam

Islands, where some seal-hunters were seen, at Batavia, and Bantam, in

Java, and at Poulo Condere, the vessels cast anchor off Turon (Han

San) in Cochin China, a vast harbour, of which only a very bad chart

was then in existence.

The arrival of the English was at first a cause of uneasiness to the

natives of Cochin China. But when they were once informed of the

motives which had brought the English to their country, they sent an

ambassador of high rank on board with presents for Macartney, who was

shortly afterwards invited to a banquet at the governor's, followed by

a dramatic entertainment. During the short stay many notes were taken

of the manners and customs of the people, unfortunately too hurriedly

to admit of accuracy.

As soon as the sick had recovered and fresh provisions had been

obtained the vessels set sail. A short stay was made at the Ladrone

Islands, and the squadron then entered the Strait of Formosa, where it

encountered stormy weather, and took refuge in Chusan Harbour. During

this stay the map of this archipelago was rectified and an opportunity

was taken to visit Tinghai, where the English excited as much

curiosity as they felt themselves at the sight of the many things

which were new to them.

Many of the facts which surprised them are familiar to us, the

appearance of the houses, the markets and dress of the Chinese, the

small feet of the women, and many other particulars to which we need

not refer. We will only allude to the account of the method employed

by them in cultivating dwarf trees.

"This stunted vegetation," says Macartney, "seems to be highly

appreciated in China, for specimens of it are found in all the larger

houses. It is an art peculiar to the Chinese, and the gardener's skill

consists in knowing how to produce it. Independently of the

satisfaction of triumphing over a difficulty, he has the advantage of

introducing into rooms plants whose natural size would have precluded

such a possibility.

"The following is the method employed in China for the production of

dwarfed trees. The trunk of a tree of which it is desired to obtain a

dwarfed specimen, is covered as nearly as possible where it separates

into branches with clay or mould, over which is placed a linen or

cotton covering constantly kept damp. This mould is sometimes left on

for a whole year, and throughout that time the wood it covers throws

out tender, root-like fibres. Then the portions of the trunk from

which issue these fibres, with the branch immediately above them, are

carefully separated from the tree and placed in fresh mould, where the

shoots soon develope into real roots, whilst the branch forms the stem

of a plant which is in a manner metamorphosed. This operation neither

destroys nor alters the productive faculties of the branch which is

separated from the parent tree. When it bears fruit or flowers it does

so as plentifully as when it was upon the original stem. The

extremities of the branches intended to be dwarfed are always pulled

off, which precludes the possibility of their growing tall, and forces

them to throw out shoots and lateral branches. These shoots are tied

with wire, and assume the form the gardener chooses. When it is

desired to give an aged appearance to the tree, it is constantly

moistened with theriaca or treacle, which attracts to it multitudes of

ants, who not content with devouring the sweetmeat, attack the bark of

the tree, and eat it away in such a manner as to produce the desired

effect."

Upon leaving Chusan, the squadron entered the Yellow Sea, never before

navigated by an European vessel. The river Hoang-Ho flows into it, and

it is from the immense quantity of yellow mud brought down by it in

its long and tortuous course that the sea derives its name.

The English vessels cast anchor in Ten-chou-Fou Bay, and thence

entered the gulf of Pekin, and halted outside the bar of Pei-Ho. There

being only three or four feet of water on this bar at low tide, the

vessels could not cross it.

The mandarins appointed by the government to receive the English

ambassador, arrived shortly after, bringing numerous presents; whilst

the gifts intended for the emperor were placed in junks, and Macartney

went on board a yacht which had been prepared for him.

The first town reached was Takoo, where Macartney received a visit

from the viceroy of the province and the principal mandarin. Both were

men of venerable and dignified aspect, polite and attentive, and

entirely free from obsequiousness.

"It has been rightly said," remarks Macartney, "that a people are as

they are made, and the English had continual proof of this truth in

the effect produced upon the Chinese character by the fear of the iron

power that ruled them. Apart from this fear they were cheerful and

confiding, but in the presence of their rulers they appeared most

timid and embarrassed."

In ascending the Pei-Ho towards Pekin, the course was retarded by the

many windings of the river. The country through which they passed was

highly cultivated, with houses and villages at intervals upon the

banks of the river or inland, alternating with cemeteries and pyramids

of bags of salt, producing a charming and ever varying landscape. When

night approached, lanterns of every hue, fastened to the masts and

rigging of the yachts, produced the fantastic effect of many-coloured

lights.

[Illustration: Chinese magic-lantern. (Fac-simile of early

engraving.)]

Tieng Tsing signifies "heavenly spot," and the town owes this name to

its agreeable climate and clear blue sky, and the fertility of its

neighbourhood. In this place, the ambassador was received by the

viceroy and a legate sent by the emperor. From them Macartney learned

that the emperor was at his summer palace in Tartary, and that the

anniversary of his birthday was to be celebrated there upon the 13th

of September. The ambassador and his suite were therefore to go up by

water as far as Tong Schou, about a dozen miles from Pekin, and thence

proceed by land to Zhe Hol, where the emperor awaited them. The

presents might be sent on afterwards. Although the first intimation

was pleasant, the latter was singularly disagreeable to Macartney, for

the presents consisted for the most part of delicate instruments,

which had been taken to pieces for safety and packed separately. The

legate would not consent to their being left where they would be free

from danger of being disturbed. Macartney was obliged to obtain the

intervention of the viceroy for the protection of these proofs of the

genius and knowledge of Europe.

The cortege reached Tien Tsing, a town which appeared as long as

London, and contained not less than seven hundred thousand inhabitants.

A vast crowd assembled on the banks of the river to see the English

pass, and the river swarmed with junks teeming with natives.

The houses in this city are built of blue with a few red bricks, some

are two stories high, but that is unusual. Here the English saw the

employment of those carriages with sails which had long been

considered fabulous. They consist of two barrows made of bamboo, with

one large wheel between them.

When there is not sufficient wind to propel the carriage, says the

narrative, it is drawn by one man, while another pushes behind and

keeps it steady. When the wind is favourable, the sail, which is a mat

attached to two sticks placed upon either side of the carriage,

renders the help of the man in front unnecessary.