AN ICELANDIC PRIMER
With Grammar, Notes, and Glossary
By Henry Sweet, M.A.
SECOND EDITION
1895
PREFACE
The want of a short and easy introduction to the study of
Icelandic has been felt for a long time--in fact, from the very
beginning of that study in England. The _Icelandic Reader_,
edited by Messrs. Vigfusson and Powell, in the Clarendon Press
Series, is a most valuable book, which ought to be in the hands
of every student; but it still leaves room for an elementary
primer. As the engagements of the editors of the Reader would
have made it impossible for them to undertake such a work for
some years to come, they raised no objections to my proposal to
undertake it myself. Meanwhile, I found the task was a more
formidable one than I had anticipated, and accordingly, before
definitely committing myself to it, I made one final attempt to
induce Messrs. Vigfusson and Powell to take it off my hands; but
they very kindly encouraged me to proceed with it; and as I
myself thought that an Icelandic primer, on the lines of my
Anglo-Saxon one, might perhaps be the means of inducing some
students of Old English to take up Icelandic as well, I
determined to go on.
In the spelling I have not thought it necessary to adhere
strictly to that adopted in the Reader, for the editors have
themselves deviated from it in their _Corpus Poeticum Boreale_,
in the way of separating _ǫ_ from _ö_, etc. My own principle has
been to deviate as little as possible from the traditional
spelling followed in normalized texts. There is, indeed, no
practical gain for the beginner in writing _tīme_ for _tīmi_,
discarding _ð_, etc., although these changes certainly bring us
nearer the oldest MSS., and cannot be dispensed with in
scientific works. The essential thing for the beginner is to
have _regular_ forms presented to him, to the exclusion, as far
as possible, of isolated archaisms, and to have the defective
distinctions of the MSS. supplemented by diacritics. I have not
hesitated to substitute (¯) for (´) as the mark of length; the
latter ought in my opinion to be used exclusively--in Icelandic
as well as in Old English and Old Irish--to represent the actual
accents of the MSS.
In the grammar I have to acknowledge my great obligations to
Noreen's _Altisländische Grammatik_, which is by far the best
Icelandic grammar that has yet appeared--at least from that
narrow point of view which ignores syntax, and concentrates
itself on phonology and inflections.
The texts are intended to be as easy, interesting, and
representative as possible. With such a language, and such a
master of it as Snorri to choose from, this combination is not
difficult to realise. The beginner is indeed to be envied who
makes his first acquaintance with the splendid mythological tales
of the North, told in an absolutely perfect style. As the death
of Olaf Tryggvason is given in the Reader only from the longer
recension of the Heimskringla, I have been able to give the
shorter text, which is admirably suited for the purposes of this
book. The story of Auðun is not only a beautiful one in itself,
but, together with the preceding piece, gives a vivid idea of the
Norse ideal of the kingly character, which was the foundation of
their whole political system. As the Reader does not include
poetry (except incidentally), I have added one of the finest of
the Eddaic poems, which is at the same time freest from obscurity
and corruption--the song of Thor's quest of his hammer.
In the glossary I have ventured to deviate from the very
inconvenient Scandinavian arrangement, which puts _þ_, _æ_, _œ_,
right at the end of the alphabet.
I have to acknowledge the great help I have had in preparing the
texts and the glossary from Wimmer's _Oldnordisk Læsebog_, which
I consider to be, on the whole, the best reading-book that exists
in any language. So excellent is Wimmer's selection of texts,
that it was impossible for me to do otherwise than follow him in
nearly every case.
In conclusion, it is almost superfluous to say that this book
makes no pretension to originality of any kind. If it
contributes towards restoring to Englishmen that precious
heritage--the old language and literature of Iceland--which our
miserably narrow scheme of education has hitherto defrauded them
of, it will have fulfilled its purpose.
HENRY SWEET
London,
February, 1886
GRAMMAR
1. This book deals with Old Icelandic in its classical period,
between 1200 and 1350.
PRONUNCIATION
2. The Icelandic alphabet was founded on the Latin, with the
addition of _þ_ and _ð_, and of the modified letters _ę_, _ǫ_,
_ø_, which last is in this book written _ö_, _ǫ̈_.
Vowels
3. The vowel-letters had nearly the same values as in Old
English. Long vowels were often marked by (´). In this book
long vowels are regularly marked by (¯)[1]. The following are
the elementary vowels and diphthongs, with examples, and
key-words from English, French (F.), and German (G.):--
[Footnote 1: Note that the longs of _ę_, _ö_ are written _æ_,
_œ_, respectively.]
a _as in_ mann (G.) halda (_hold_)
ā " father rāð (_advice_)
e " été (F.) gekk (_went_)
ē[2] . . . lēt (let _pret._)
ę " men męnn (_men_)
[Footnote 2: Where no keyword is given for a long vowel, its
sound is that of the corresponding short vowel lengthened.]
æ _as in_ there sær (_sea_)
i " fini (F.) mikill (_great_)
ī . . . lītill (_little_)
o " beau (F.) orð (_word_)
ō . . . tōk (_look_)
ǫ " not hǫnd (_hand_)
ö " peu (F.) kömr (_comes_)
œ . . . fœra (_bring_)
ǫ̈ " peur (F.) gǫ̈ra (_make_)
u " sou (F.) upp (_up_)
ū . . . hūs (_house_)
y " tu (F.) systir (_sister_)
ȳ . . . lȳsa (_shine_)
au " haus (G.) lauss (_loose_)
ei = ę + i bein (_bone_)
ey = ę + y leysa (_loosen_)
4. The unaccented _i_ in _systir_, etc. (which is generally
written _e_ in the MSS.) probably had the sound of _y_ in _pity_,
which is really between _i_ and _e_. The unacc. _u_ in _fōru_
(they went), etc. (which is generally written _o_ in the MSS.)
probably had the sound of _oo_ in _good_.
Note that several of the vowels go in pairs of _close_ and
_open_, thus:
close : e ē o ō ö œ
open : ę æ ǫ - ǫ̈ -
Consonants
5. Double consonants followed by a vowel must be pronounced
really double, as in Italian. Thus the _kk_ in _drekka_ (to
drink) must be pronounced like the _kc_ in _bookcase_, while the
_k_ in _dręki_ (dragon) is single, as in _booking_. When final
(or followed by another cons.) double conss. are pronounced long,
as in _munn_ (mouth _acc._), _hamarr_ (hammer _nom._), _steinn_
(stone _nom._), distinguished from _mun_ (will _vb._), and the
accusatives _hamar_, _stein_.
6. _k_ and _g_ had a more front (palatal) sound before the front
vowels _e_, _ę_, _i_, _ö_, _ǫ̈_, _y_, and their longs, as also
before _j_, as in _kęnna_ (known), _keyra_ (drive), _gǫ̈ra_
(make), _liggja_ (lie).
7. _kkj_, _ggj_ were probably pronounced simply as double front
_kk_, _gg_, the _j_ not being pronounced separately.
8. *f* had initially the sound of our _f_, medially and finally
that of _v_, as in _gefa_ (give), _gaf_ (gave), except of course
in such combinations as _ft_, where it had the sound of _f_.
9. *g* was a stopped (back or front--guttural or palatal) cons.
initially and in the combination _ng_, the two _g_'s in _ganga_
(go) being pronounced as in _go_. It had the open sound of G.
_g_ in _sagen_ medially before the back vowels _a_, _o_, _ǫ_,
_u_, and all conss. except _j_, and finally:--_saga_ (tale),
_dǫgum_ (with days); _sagði_ (he said); _lag_ (he lay). Before
the front vowels and _j_ it had the sound of G. _g_ in _liegen_,
or nearly that of _j_ (our _y_), as in _sęgir_ (says), _sęgja_
(to say).
10. Before voiceless conss. (_t_, _s_) _g_ seems to have been
pronounced _k_, as in _sagt_ (said), _dags_ (day's).
11. The _g_ was always sounded in the combination _ng_,
as in _single_, not as in _singer_.
12. *h* was sounded before _j_ in such words as _hjarta_ (heart)
much as in E. _hue_ (= hjū). _hl_, _hn_, _hr_, _hv_ probably
represented voiceless _l_, _n_, _r_, _w_ respectively, _hv_
being identical with E. _wh_: _hlaupa_ (leap), _hnīga_ (bend),
_hringr_ (ring), _hvat_ (what).
13. *j* is not distinguished from _i_ in the MSS. It had the
sound of E. _y_ in _young_: _jǫrð_ (earth), _sętja_ (to set).
14. *p* in _pt_ probably had the sound of _f_: _lopt_ (air).
15. *r* was always a strong point trill, as in Scotch.
16. *s* was always sharp.
17. *v* (which was sometimes written _u_ and _w_) had the sound
of E. _w_: _vel_ (well), _hǫggva_ (hew).
18. *z* had the sound of _ts_: _bęztr_ (best).
19. *þ* and *ð* were used promiscuously in the older MS., the
very oldest using _þ_ almost exclusively. In Modern Icelandic
_þ_ is written initially to express the sound of E. hard _th_,
_ð_ medially and finally to express that of soft _th_; as there
can be no doubt that this usage corresponds with the old
pronunciation, it is retained in this book: _þing_ (parliament),
_faðir_ (father), _við_ (against). In such combinations as _pð_
the _ð_ must of course be pronounced _þ_.
Stress
20. The stress (accent) is always on the first syllable.
PHONOLOGY
Vowels
21. The vowels are related to one another in different ways, the
most important of which are _mutation_ (umlaut), _fracture_
(brechung), and _gradation_ (ablaut).
Mutation
22. The following changes are *i*-mutations (caused by an older
_i_ or _j_ following, which has generally been dropped)[3]:
[Footnote 3: Many of the _i_'s which appear in derivative and
inflectional syllables are late weakenings of _a_ and other
vowels, as in _bani_ (death) = Old English _bana_; these do not
cause mutation.]
*a* (*ǫ*) ... *ę* :-- _mann_ (man _acc._), _męnn_ (men); _hǫnd_
(hand), _hęndr_ (hands).
*ā* ... *æ* :-- _māl_ (speech), _mæla_ (speak).
*e* (*ja*, *jǫ*) ... *i* :-- _verðr_ (worth), _virða_ (estimate).
*u* (*o*) ... *y* :-- _fullr_ (full), _fylla_ (to fill); _lopt_
(air), _lypta_ (lift).
*ū* ... *ȳ* :-- _brūn_ (eyebrow), pl. _brȳnn_.
*o* ... *ö* :-- _koma_ (to come), _kömr_ (comes).
*ō* ... *œ* :-- _fōr_ (went), _fœra_ (bring).
*au* ... *ey* :-- _lauss_ (loose), _leysa_ (loosen).
*jū* (*jō*) ... *ȳ* :-- _sjūkr_ (sick), _sȳki_ (sickness);
_ljōsta_ (strike), _lȳstr_ (strikes).
23. The change of _a_ into _ę_ is sometimes the result of a
following _k_, _g_, or _ng_, as in _dęgi_ dat. sg. of _dagr_
(day), _tękinn_ (taken), _gęnginn_ (gone), inf. _taka_, _ganga_.
_i_ appears instead of _e_, and _u_ instead of _o_ before a nasal
followed by another cons.: cp. _binda_ (to bind), _bundinn_
(bound) with _bresta_ (burst) ptc. prt. _brostinn_.
24. There is also a *u*-mutation, caused by a following _u_,
which has often been dropped:
*a* ... *ǫ* :-- _dagr_ (day) dat. pl. _dǫgum_; _land_ (land) pl.
_lǫnd_.
25. Unaccented _ǫ_ becomes _u_, as in _sumur_ pl. of _sumar_
(summer), _kǫlluðu_ (they called), infin. _kalla_.
Fracture
26. The only vowel that is affected by fracture is _e_: when
followed by original _a_ it becomes _ja_, when followed by
original _u_ it becomes _jǫ_, as in _jarðar_ gen. of _jǫrð_
(earth)[4]. When followed by original _i_, the _e_ is, of
course, mutated to _i_, as in _skildir_ plur. nom. of _skjǫldr_
(shield), gen. _skjaldar_.
[Footnote 4: Cp. German _erde_.]
Gradation
27. By gradation the vowels are related as follows:--
*a* ... *ō* :-- _fara_ (go) pret. _fōr_, whence by mut. _fœra_
(bring).
*e* (i, ja) ... *a* ... *u* (o) :-- _bresta_ (burst), prt.
_brast_, prt. pl. _brustu_, ptc. prt. _brostinn_; _finna_ (find),
_fundinn_ (found _ptc._), _fundr_ (meeting).
*e* ... *a* ... *ā* ... *o* :-- _stela_ (steal), prt. _stal_,
prt. pl. _stālu_, ptc. prt. _stolinn_.
*e* ... *a* ... *ā* ... *e* :-- _gefa_ (give), _gaf_ (he gave),
_gāfu_ (they gave), _gefinn_ (given), _gjǫf_ (gift), _u_-fracture
of _gef-_, _gæfa_ (luck) mut. of _gāf-_.
*ī* ... *ei* ... *i* :-- _skīna_ (shine), _skein_ (he shone),
_skinu_ (they shone). _sōl-skin_ (sunshine).
*jū* (jō) ... *au* ... *u* ... *o* :-- _ljūga_ (tell a lie), prt.
_laug_, prt. pl. _lugu_, ptc. prt. _loginn_. _lygi_ (lie _sbst._)
mut. of _lug-_. _skjōta_ (shoot), _skjōtr_ (swift), _skotinn_
(shot _ptc._), _skot_ (shot _subst._).
Other changes
28. All final vowels are long in accented syllables: _þā_ (then),
_nū_ (now).
29. Inflectional and derivative vowels are often dropt after long
accented vowels: cp. _ganga_ (to go) with _fā_ (to get), the dat.
plurals _knjām_ (knees) with _hūsum_ (houses).
30. Vowels are often lengthened before _l_ + cons.: _hālfr_ (half
_adj._), _fōlk_ (people); cp. _fōlginn_ (hidden) with _brostinn_
(burst _ptc._).
Consonants
31. _v_ is dropped before _o_ and _u_: _vaxa_ (to grow), prt.
_ōx_, _vinna_ (to win), _unninn_ (won _ptc._), _svelta_ (to
starve), _soltinn_ (starved, hungry).
Final _r_ is often assimilated to a preceding cons.
32. _*-lr_, _*-nr_, _*-sr_ always become _-ll_, _-nn_, _-ss_
after a long vowel or diphthong, as in _stōll_ (chair _nom._),
acc. _stōl_, _steinn_ (stone _nom._), acc. _stein_, _vīss_ (wise
_masc. nom. sg._), _vīs_ fem. nom. sg., and in unacc. syllables,
as in the masc. sg. nominatives _mikill_ (great), fem. _mikil_,
_borinn_ (carried), fem. _borin_, _ȳmiss_ (various) fem. _ȳmis_.
33. Words in which _l_, _n_, _r_, _s_ are preceded by a cons.
drop the _r_ entirely, as in the masc. nominatives _jarl_ (earl),
_hrafn_ (raven), _vitr_ (wise), _þurs_ (giant), _lax_ (salmon).
34. If _l_ and _n_ are preceded by a short accented vowel, the
_r_ is generally kept, as in _stelr_ (steals), _vinr_, (friend),
_sr_ becoming _ss_, as elsewhere.
35. _r_ is kept after _ll_, and generally after _nn_, as in the
masc. nom. _allr_ (all), and in _bręnnr_ (burns).
36. _z_ often stands for _ðs_ as well as _ts_, as in _þēr
þykkizk_ (ye seem) = _*þykkið-sk_, _Vest-firzkr_ (belonging to
the West Firths) = _-*firðskr_ (_fǫrðr_, firth).
37. Inflectional _t_ is generally doubled after a long accented
vowel: _fār_ (few) neut. _fātt_ (cp. _allr_ 'all,' neut. _allt_),
_sā_ (I saw), _sātt_ 'thou sawest.'
INFLECTIONS
Nouns
38. *Gender*. There are three genders in Icelandic--masculine,
feminine, and neuter. The gender is partly natural, partly
grammatical, generally agreeing with the gender in Old English.
Compound words follow the gender of their last element.
39. *Strong and Weak*. All weak nouns end in a vowel in the nom.
sg. and in most of the other cases as well. Most strong nouns
end in a cons. in the nom. sg.
40. *Cases*. There are four cases--nominative, accusative,
dative, genitive. All nouns (except a few contractions) have the
gen. pl. in _-a_ (_fiska_, of fishes), and the dat. pl. in _-um_
(_fiskum_). All strong masculines (_fiskr_) and some strong
feminines (_brūðr_, bride) take _r_[5] in the nom. sg. Most strong
feminines show the bare root in the nom. sg. with _u_-mutation,
if possible (_āst_, favour, _fǫr_, journey). The nom. pl. of all
strong masc. and fem. nouns ends in _r_ (_fiskar_, _āstir_). The
acc. pl. of fem. nouns is the same as the nom. pl. (_āstir_).
The acc. pl. of masc. strong nouns always ends in a vowel
(_fiska_). The plur. nom. and acc. of neuters is the same as the
sing. nom. and acc., except that in the plur. nom. and acc. they
take _u_-mutation, if possible (_hūs_, houses, _lǫnd_, lands).
[Footnote 5: Subject, of course, to the assimilations described
above.]
41. The declensions are most conveniently distinguished by the
acc. plur.
Strong Masculines
(1) a-plurals
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nom._ fisk-r (_fish_) fisk-ar
_Acc._ fisk fisk-a
_Dat._ fisk-i fisk-um
_Gen._ fisk-s fisk-a
42. So also _heimr_ (home, world); _konungr_ (king); _Þōrr_
(Thor), acc. _Þōr_, gen. _Þōrs_; _steinn_ (stone), acc. _stein_,
gen. _steins_, pl. nom. _steinar_; _hrafn_ (raven), acc.
_hrafn_, pl. nom. _hrafnar_; _þurs_ (giant), acc. gen. _þurs_,
pl. nom. _þursar_.
43. Dissyllables in _-r_, _-l_, _-n_ generally throw out the
preceding vowel before a vowel-inflection: _hamarr_ (hammer),
dat. _hamri_; _jǫtunn_ (giant), pl. nom. _jǫtnar_. _kętill_
(kettle) and _lykill_ (key) show unmutated vowels in the
contracted forms, as in the acc. plur. _katla_, _lukla_.
44. Some nouns of this decl. take _-ar_ in the gen. sing.,
especially proper names, such as _Hākon_, gen. _Hākonar_.
45. Some nouns add _v_ before vowels: _sær_ (sea), gen.
_sævar_.
46. The dat. sometimes drops the _i_: _sæ_ (sea), _Þōr_. _dagr_
(day) mutates its vowel in the dat. _dęgi_.
47. Nouns in _-ir_ keep the _i_ in the sing., and drop it in the
plur.:
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nom._ hęlli-r (_cave_) hęll-ar
_Acc._ hęlli hęll-a
_Dat._ hęlli hęll-um
_Gen._ hęlli-s hęll-a
48. So also a number of proper names, such as _Skrȳmir_, _Þōrir_.
(2) i-plurals
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nom._ stað-r (_place_) stað-ir
_Acc._ stað stað-i
_Dat._ stað stǫð-um
_Gen._ stað-ar stað-a
49. So also _gripr_ (precious thing), _salr_ (hall).
50. _gęstr_ (guest) takes _-i_ in the dat. sg., and _-s_ in the
gen. sg.
51. Those ending in _g_ or _k_ (together with some others) insert
_j_ before _a_ and _u_: _bękkr_ (bench), _bękk_, _bękk_,
_bękkjar_; _bękkir_, _bękki_, _bękkjum_, _bękkja_. So also
_męrgr_ (marrow), _stręngr_ (string).
(3) u-plurals
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nom._ skjǫld-r (_shield_) skild-ir
_Acc._ skjǫld skjǫld-u
_Dat._ skild-i skjǫld-um
_Gen._ skjald-ar skjald-a
52. So also _vǫndr_ (twig), _vǫllr_ (plain), _viðr_ (wood).
_āss_ (god) has plur. nom. _æsir_, acc. _āsu_. _sonr_ (son) has
dat. sg. _syni_, plur. nom. _synir_. It regularly drops its _r_
of the nom. in such compounds as _Tryggva-son_ (son of Tryggvi).
(4) r-plurals
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nom._ fōt-r (_foot_) fœt-r
_Acc._ fōt fœt-r
_Dat._ fœt-i fōt-um
_Gen._ fōt-ar fōt-a
53. So also _fingr_ (finger), gen. _fingrar_, pl. _fingr_; _vetr_
(winter), pl. _vetr_. _maðr_ (man) is irregular: _maðr_, _mann_,
_manni_, _manns_; _męnn_, _męnn_, _mǫnnum_, _manna_.
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nom._ faðir (_father_) fęðr
_Acc._ fǫður fęðr
_Dat._ fǫður fęðrum
_Gen._ fǫður fęðra
54. So also _brōðir_ (brother), pl. _brœðr_.
55. Pres. participles used as nouns follow this decl. in the pl.,
following the weak class in the sg.:
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nom._ bōndi (_yeoman_) bœndr
_Acc._ bōnda bœndr
_Dat._ bōnda bōndum
_Gen._ bōnda bōnda
56. So also _frœndi_ (kinsman), pl. _frœndr_.
Strong Neuters
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nom._ skip (_ship_) skip
_Acc._ skip skip
_Dat._ skip-i skip-um
_Gen._ skip-s skip-a
57. So also _orð_ (word), _land_ (land) pl. _lǫnd_, _sumar_
(summer) pl. _sumur_ (§ 25).
58. _męn_ (necklace), _kyn_ (race), _grey_ (dog) insert _j_
before _a_ and _u_: _greyjum_. _hǫgg_ (stroke) inserts _v_
before a vowel: _hǫggvi_. _knē_ (knee), _knē_, _knē_, _knēs_;
_knē_, _knē_, _kjām_, _knjā_. So also _trē_ (tree).
59. _fē_ (money) is contracted: gen. _fjār_, dat. _fē_.
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nom._ kvæði (_poem_) kvæði
_Acc._ kvæði kvæði
_Dat._ kvæði kvæðum
_Gen._ kvæði-s kvæða
60. So also _klæði_ (cloth). Those in _k_ insert _j_ before _a_
and _u_: _męrki_ (mark), _męrkjum_, _męrkja_. So also _rīki_
(sovereignty).
Strong Feminines
(1) ar-plurals
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nom._ gjǫf (_gift_) gjaf-ar
_Acc._ gjǫf gjaf-ar
_Dat._ gjǫf gjǫf-um
_Gen._ gjaf-ar gjaf-a
61. So also _mǫn_ (mane), _gjǫrð_ (girdle), _ār_ (oar).
62. _ā_ (river) contracts: _ā_, _ā_, _ā_, _ār_; _ār_, _ār_, _ām_,
_ā_.
63. Many take _-u_ in the dat. sg.: _kęrling_ (old woman),
_kęrling_, _kęrlingu_, _kęrlingar_; _kęrlingar_, _kęrlingar_,
_kęrlingum_, _kęrlinga_. So also _laug_ (bath).
64. Those with a mutated root-vowel (or _i_) insert _j_ in
inflection: _ey_ (island), _ey_, _eyju_, _eyjar_; _eyjar_,
_eyjar_, _eyjum_, _eyja_. So also _Frigg_, _Hęl_. _mær_ (maid),
_mey_, _meyju_, _meyjar_; _meyjar_, _meyjar_, _meyjum_, _meyja_.
65.
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nom._ heið-r (_heath_) heið-ar
_Acc._ heið-i heið-ar
_Dat._ heið-i heið-um
_Gen._ heið-ar heið-a
(2) ir-plurals
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nom._ tīð tīð-ir
_Acc._ tīð tīð-ir
_Dat._ tīð tīð-um
_Gen._ tīð-ar tīð-a
66. So also _sorg_ (sorrow), _skipun_ (arrangement), _hǫfn_
(harbour) pl. _hafnir_, and the majority of strong feminines.
67. Many have _-u_ in the dat. sg.: _sōl_ (sun), _sōl_, _sōlu_,
_sōlar_; _sōlir_, _sōlir_, _sōlum_, _sōla_. So also _jǫrð_
(earth), _stund_ (period of time).
68. One noun has _r_ in the nom. sg., following _heiðr_ in the
sg.: _brūðr_ (bride), _brūði_, _brūði_, _brūðar_; _brūðir_,
_brūðir_, _brūðum_, _brūða_.
(3) r-plurals
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nom._ bōk (_book_) bœk-r
_Acc._ bōk bœk-r
_Dat._ bōk bōk-um
_Gen._ bōk-ar bōk-a
69. So also _nātt_ (night) pl. _nætr_, _bōt_ (compensation) pl.
_bœtr_, _tǫnn_ (tooth) gen. _tannar_ pl. _tęnnr_.
70. _hǫnd_ (hand) pl. _hęndr_ has dat. sg. _hęndi_.
71. _kȳr_ (cow) has acc. _kū_, pl. _kȳr_.
72. _brūn_ (eyebrow) assimilates the _r_ of the pl.: _brȳnn_.
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nom._ mōðir (_mother_) mœðr
_Acc._ mōður mœðr
_Dat._ mōður mœðrum
_Gen._ mōður mœðra
73. So also _dōttir_ (daughter) pl. _dœtr_; _systir_ (sister) pl.
_systr_.
Weak Masculines
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nom._ bog-i (_bow_) bog-ar
_Acc._ bog-a bog-a
_Dat._ bog-a bog-um
_Gen._ bog-a bog-a
74. So also _māni_ (moon), _fēlagi_ (companion).
75. _hǫfðingi_ (chief) and some others insert _j_ in inflection:
_hǫfðingja_, _hǫfðingjar_, _hǫfðingjum_.
76. _lē_ (scythe) is contracted; its gen. sg. is _ljā_.
77. _oxi_ (ox) has pl. _öxn_.
78. _herra_ (lord) is indeclinable in the sg.
Weak Neuters
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nom._ hjart-a (_heart_) hjǫrt-u
_Acc._ hjart-a hjǫrt-u
_Dat._ hjart-a hjǫrt-um
_Gen._ hjart-a hjart-na
79. So also _auga_ (eye).
Weak Feminines
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nom._ tung-a (_tongue_) tung-ur
_Acc._ tung-u tung-ur
_Dat._ tung-u tung-um
_Gen._ tung-u tung-na
80. So also _stjarna_ (star) pl. _stjǫrnur_, _kirkja_ (church),
gen. plurals _stjarna_, _kirkna_.
_Sg. Nom._ ęlli (_old age_)
_Acc._ ęlli
_Dat._ ęlli
_Gen._ ęlli
81. So also _glęði_ (joy) and many abstract nouns.
82. _lygi_ (falsehood) has pl. _lygar_; so also _gǫ̈rsimi_
(precious thing).
Adjectives
83. Adjectives have three genders, and the same cases as nouns,
though with partly different endings, together with strong and
weak forms.
Strong Adjectives
MASC. NEUT. FEM.
_Sg. Nom._ ung-r (_young_) ung-t ung
_Acc._ ung-an ung-t ung-a
_Dat._ ung-um ung-u ung-ri
_Gen._ ung-s ung-s ung-rar
_Pl. Nom._ ung-ir ung ung-ar
_Acc._ ung-a ung ung-ar
_Dat._ ung-um ung-um ung-um
_Gen._ ung-ra ung-ra ung-ra
84. So also _fagr_ (fair), fem. _fǫgr_, neut. _fagrt_.
85. Some insert _j_ before _a_ and _u_: _nȳr_ (new), _nȳjum_,
_nȳjan_.
86. Some insert _v_ before a vowel: _hār_ (high), _hāvan_,
_dökkr_ (dark), _dökkvir_, _kykr_ (alive), _kykvir_.
87. The _t_ of the neut. is doubled after a long vowel: _nȳtt_,
_hātt_. Monosyllables in _ð_, _dd_, _tt_ form their neut. in
_-tt_: _breiðr_ (broad), _breitt_; _leiddr_ (led), _leitt_.
_gōðr_ (good) has neut. _gott_. _sannr_ (true) has neut. _satt_.
In unaccented syllables or if a cons. precedes, _tt_ is shortened
to _t_: _kallaðr_ (called), _kallat_; _blindr_ (blind), _blint_,
_harðr_ (hard), _hart_, _fastr_ (firm), _fast_.
88. _l_ and _n_ assimilate a following _r_: _gamall_ (old), fem.
_gǫmul_, fem. acc. _gamla_, dat. _gamalli_. _vǣnn_ (beautiful),
gen. pl. _vænna_.
MASC. NEUT. FEM.
_Sg. Nom._ mikill (_great_) mikit mikil
_Acc._ mikinn mikit mikla
_Dat._ miklum miklu mikilli
_Gen._ mikils mikils mikillar
_Pl. Nom._ miklir mikil miklar
_Acc._ mikla mikil miklar
_Dat._ miklum miklum miklum
_Gen._ mikilla mikilla mikilla
89. So also _lītill_ (little).
90. Dissyllables in _-inn_ have _-it_ in the neut., and _-inn_ in
the masc. sg. acc.: _tīginn_ (distinguished), _tīgit_, _tīginn_,
pl. _tīgnīr_. So also _kominn_ (come).
91.
MASC. NEUT. FEM.
_Sg. Nom._ annarr (_other_) annat ǫnnur
_Acc._ annan annat aðra
_Dat._ ǫðrum ǫðru annarri
_Gen._ annars annars annarrar
_Pl. Nom._ aðrir ǫnnur aðrar
_Acc._ aðra ǫnnur aðrar
_Dat._ ǫðrum ǫðrum ǫðrum
_Gen._ annarra annarra annarra
Weak Adjectives
MASC. NEUT. FEM.
_Sg. Nom._ ung-i ung-a ung-a
_Acc._ ung-a ung-a ung-u
_Dat._ ung-a ung-a ung-u
_Gen._ ung-a ung-a ung-u
_Pl. Nom._ ung-u ung-u ung-u
_Acc._ ung-u ung-u ung-u
_Dat._ ung-u ung-u ung-u
_Gen._ ung-u ung-u ung-u
92. So also _fagri_, _hāvi_, _mikli_, etc.
_Sg. Nom._ yngri (_younger_) yngra yngri
_Acc._ yngra yngra yngri
_Dat._ yngra yngra yngri
_Gen._ yngra yngra yngri
_Pl. Nom._ yngri yngri yngri
_Acc._ yngri yngri yngri
_Dat._ yngrum yngrum yngrum
_Gen._ yngri yngri yngri
93. So also all comparatives, such as _meiri_ (greater), and
pres. partic. when used as adjectives, such as _gefandi_
(giving), dat. pl. _gefǫndum_.
Comparison
94. (1) with _-ari_, _-astr_: _rīkr_ (powerful), _rīkari_,
_rīkastr_; _gǫfugr_ (distinguished), _gǫfgari_, _gǫfgastr_.
95. (2) with _-ri_, _-str_ and mutation: _langr_ (long),
_lęngri_, _lęngstr_; _stōrr_ (big), _stœrri_, _stœrstr_; _ungr_
(young), _yngri_, _yngstr_.
96. The following are irregular:
gamall (_old_) ęllri ęlztr
gōðr (_good_) bętri bęztr
illr (_bad_) vęrri vęrstr
lītill (_little_) minni minstr
margr (_many_) fleiri flestr
mikill (_great_) meiri mestr
Numerals
97.
CARDINAL ORDINAL
1. einn (_one_) fyrstr (_first_)
2. tveir annarr
3. þrīr þriði
4. fjōrir fjōrði
5. fimm fimmti
6. sex sētti
7. sjau sjaundi
8. ātta ātti
9. nīu nīundi
10. tīu tīundi
11. ellifu ellifti
12. tōlf tōlfti
13. þrettān þrettāndi
14. fjōrtān
15. fimmtān
16. sextān
17. sjautān
18. ātjān
19. nītjān
20. tuttugu
21. einn ok tuttugu, etc.
30. þrīr tigir, etc.
100. tīu tigir
110. ellifu tigir
120. hundrað
1200. þūsund
_einn_ is declined like other adjectives:--
98.
MASC. NEUT. FEM.
_Nom._ einn eitt ein
_Acc._ einn eitt eina
_Dat._ einum einu einni
_Gen._ eins eins einnar
It also has a pl. _einir_, _einar_, _ein_; gen. _einna_, etc. in
the sense of 'some.'
The next three show various irregularities.
99.
MASC. NEUT. FEM.
_Nom._ tveir tvau tvær
_Acc._ tvā tvau tvær
_Dat._ tveim tveim tveim
_Gen._ tvęggja tvęggja tvęggja
Similarly _bāðir_ (both):
100.
MASC. NEUT. FEM.
_Nom._ bāðir bæði bāðar
_Acc._ bāða bæði bāðar
_Dat._ bāðum bāðum bāðum
_Gen._ bęggja bęggja bęggja
101.
MASC. NEUT. FEM.
_Nom._ þrīr þrjū þrjār
_Acc._ þrjā þrjū þrjār
_Dat._ þrim þrim þrim
_Gen._ þriggja þriggja þriggja
102.
MASC. NEUT. FEM.
_Nom._ fjōrir fjogur fjōrar
_Acc._ fjōra fjogur fjōrar
_Dat._ fjōrum fjōrum fjōrum
_Gen._ fjogurra fjogurra fjogurra
103. The others are indeclinable up to _þrīr tigir_, etc.; the
_tigir_ being declined regularly as a plural strong _u_-masculine
_tigir_, _tigu_, _tigum_, _tiga_.
104. _hundrað_ is a strong neut.: _tvau hundruð_ (240), _tveim
hundruðum_, etc. It governs the gen. (as also does _þūsund_):
_fimm hundruð gōlfa_, 'five (six) hundred chambers.'
105. _þūsund_ is a strong _ir_-feminine: _tvær þūsundir_ (2400).
106. _hundrað_ and _þūsund_ are rarely = 100 and 1000.
107. Of the ordinals _fyrstr_ and _annarr_ (§ 91) are strong, the
others weak adjectives. _þriði_ inserts a _j_: _þriðja_, etc.
Pronouns
108.
Personal
_Sg. Nom._ ek (_I_) þū (_thou_) --
_Acc._ mik þik sik (_oneself_)
_Dat._ mēr þēr sēr
_Gen._ mīn þīn sīn
_Dual Nom._ vit it --
_Acc._ okkr ykkr sik
_Dat._ okkr ykkr sēr
_Gen._ okkar ykkar sīn
_Pl. Nom._ vēr (_we_) þēr (_ye_) --
_Acc._ oss yðr sik (_oneselves_)
_Dat._ oss yðr sēr
_Gen._ vār yðar sīn
MASC. NEUT. FEM.
_Sg. Nom._ hann (_he_) þat (_it_) hon (_she_)
_Acc._ hann þat hana
_Dat._ honum þvī hęnni
_Gen._ hans þess hęnnar
_Pl. Nom._ þeir (_they_) þau þær
_Acc._ þā þau þær
_Dat._ þeim þeim þeim
_Gen._ þeira þeira þeira
109. _ek_ was often suffixed to its verb, especially in poetry,
being sometimes added twice over: _mætta-k_ (I might), _sā-k-a-k_
(I saw not; _a_='not'). So also _þū_: _er-tu_ (art thou),
_skalt-u_ (shalt thou) = _*skalt-tu_.
Possessive
MASC. NEUT. FEM.
_Sg. Nom._ minn (_my_) mitt mīn
_Acc._ minn mitt mīna
_Dat._ mīnum mīnu minni
_Gen._ mīns mīns minnar
_Pl. Nom._ mīnir mīn mīnar
_Acc._ mīna mīn mīnar
_Dat._ mīnum mīnum mīnum
_Gen._ minna minna minna
110. So also _þinn_ (thy), _sinn_ (his, etc., reflexive).
111. _vārr_, _vārt_, _vār_ (our) is regular: acc. masc. _vārn_,
masc. plur. _vārir_, _vāra_, _vārum_, _vārra_, etc.
MASC. NEUT. FEM.
_Sg. Nom._ yðarr (_your_) yðart yður
_Acc._ yðarn yðart yðra
_Dat._ yðrum yðru yðarri
_Gen._ yðars yðars yðarrar
_Pl. Nom._ yðrir yður yðrar
_Acc._ yðra yður yðrar
_Dat._ yðrum yðrum yðrum
_Gen._ yðarra yðarra yðarra
112. So also _okkarr_ (our two) and _ykkarr_ (your two).
113. _hans_ (his), _þess_ (its), _hęnnar_ (her), and _þeira_
(their) are indeclinable.
Demonstrative
114.
MASC. NEUT. FEM.
_Sg. Nom._ sā (_that_) þat sū
_Acc._ þann þat þā
_Dat._ þeim þvī þeiri
_Gen._ þess þess þeirar
_Pl. Nom._ þeir þau þær
_Acc._ þā þau þær
_Dat._ þeim þeim þeim
_Gen._ þeira þeira þeira
115. _hinn_, _hitt_, _hin_ (that) is inflected like _minn_
(except that its vowel is short throughout): acc. masc. _hinn_,
plur. masc. _hinir_, _hina_, _hinum_, _hinna_.
116.
MASC. NEUT. FEM.
_Sg. Nom._ þessi (_this_) þetta þessi
_Acc._ þenna þetta þessa
_Dat._ þessum þessu þessi
_Gen._ þessa þessa þessar
_Pl. Nom._ þessir þessi þessar
_Acc._ þessa þessi þessar
_Dat._ þessum þessum þessum
_Gen._ þessa þessa þessa
Definite
The prefixed definite article is declined thus:
117.
MASC. NEUT. FEM.
_Sg. Nom._ inn it in
_Acc._ inn it ina
_Dat._ inum inu inni
_Gen._ ins ins innar
_Pl. Nom._ inir in inar
_Acc._ ina in inar
_Dat._ inum inum inum
_Gen._ inna inna inna
118. When suffixed to its noun it undergoes various changes. In
its monosyllabic forms it drops its vowel after a short
(un-accented) vowel, as in _auga-t_ (the eye), but keeps it after
a long vowel, as in _ā-in_ (the river), _trē-it_ (the tree). The
dissyllabic forms drop their initial vowel almost everywhere;
not, however, after the _-ar_, _-r_, of the gen. sg., nor in
_męnninir_ (men, _nom._), _męnn-ina_ (men, _acc._). The _-m_ of
the dat. pl. is dropped before the suffixed _-num_.
MASC. NEUT. FEM.
_Sg. Nom._ fiskr-inn skip-it gjǫf-in
_Acc._ fisk-inn skip-it gjǫf-ina
_Dat._ fiski-num skipi-nu gjǫf-inni
_Gen._ fisks-ins skips-ins gjafar-innar
_Pl. Nom._ fiskar-nir skip-in gjafar-nar
_Acc._ fiska-na skip-in gjafar-nar
_Dat._ fisku-num skipu-num gjǫfu-num
_Gen._ fiska-nna skipa-nna gjafa-nna
_Sg. Nom._ bogi-nn auga-t tunga-n
_Acc._ boga-nn auga-t tungu-na
_Dat._ boga-num auga-nu tungu-nni
_Gen._ boga-ns auga-ns tungu-nnar
_Pl. Nom._ bogar-nir augu-n tungur-nar
_Acc._ boga-na augu-n tungur-nar
_Dat._ bogu-num augu-num tungnu-num
_Gen._ boga-nna augna-nna tungna-nna
Relative
119. The ordinary relative pron. is the indeclinable _er_, often
preceded by _sā_: _sā er_ = he who, who, _sū er_ who fem.
Interrogative
120. The neut. _hvat_ has gen. _hvess_, dat. _hvī_, which last is
chiefly used as an adverb = 'why.'
121.
MASC. NEUT. FEM.
_Sg. Nom._ hvārr (_which hvārt hvār
of two_)
_Acc._ hvārn hvārt hvāra
_Dat._ hvārum hvāru hvārri
_Gen._ hvārs hvārs hvārrar
_Pl. Nom._ hvārir hvār hvārar
_Acc._ hvāra hvār hvārar
_Dat._ hvārum hvārum hvārum
_Gen._ hvārra hvārra hvārra
122.
MASC. NEUT. FEM.
_Sg. Nom._ hvęrr (_which, hvęrt hvęr
who_)
_Acc._ hvęrn hvęrt hvęrja
_Dat._ hvęrjum hvęrju hvęrri
_Gen._ hvęrs hvęrs hvęrrar
_Pl. Nom._ hvęrir hvęr hvęrjar
_Acc._ hvęrja hvęr hvęrjar
_Dat._ hvęrjum hvęrjum hvęrjum
_Gen._ hvęrra hvęrra hvęrra
Indefinite
123. _einn-hvęrr_, _eitthvęrt_, _einhvęr_ (some one) keeps an
invariable _ein-_ in the other cases, the second element being
inflected as above.
124. _sumr_ (some) is declined like an ordinary adjective.
125.
MASC. NEUT. FEM.
_Sg. Nom._ nakkvarr nakkvat nǫkkur
(_some_)
_Acc._ nakkvarn nakkvat nakkvara
_Dat._ nǫkkurum nǫkkuru nakkvarri
_Gen._ nakkvars nakkvars nakkvarrar
_Pl. Nom._ nakkvarir nǫkkur nakkvarar
_Acc._ nakkvara nǫkkur nakkvarar
_Dat._ nǫkkurum nǫkkurum nǫkkurum
_Gen._ nakkvarra nakkvarra nakkvarra
126.
MASC. NEUT. FEM.
_Sg. Nom._ engi (_none, ekki engi
no_)
_Acc._ engan ekki enga
_Dat._ engum engu engri
_Gen._ engis engis engrar
_Pl. Nom._ engir engi engar
_Acc._ enga engi engar
_Dat._ engum engum engum
_Gen._ engra engra engra
127. In _hvār-tvęggja_ (each of the two, both) the first element
is declined as above, the second is left unchanged.
Verbs
128. There are two classes of verbs, _strong_ and _weak_. Strong
verbs are conjugated partly by means of gradation, weak verbs by
adding _ð_ (_d_, _t_).
129. The _ð_ of the 2 pl. is dropt before _þit_ (ye two) and
_þēr_ (ye): _gefi þēr_, _gāfu þit_.
130. There is a middle voice, which ends in _-mk_ in the 1 pers.
sg. and pl., the rest of the verb being formed by adding _sk_ to
the active endings, _r_ being dropt, the resulting _ts_, _ðs_
being written _z_ (§ 36): _kvezk_ (active _kveðr_ 'says'), _þu
fekkzk_ (_fekkt_ 'gottest').
131. The following is the conjugation of the strong verb _gefa_
(give), which will show those endings which are common to all
verbs:
Active
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
_Present sg._ 1. gef gef-a
2. gef-r gef-ir
3. gef-r gef-i
_pl._ 1. gef-um gef-im
2. gef-ið gef-ið
3. gef-a gef-i
_Preterite sg._ 1. gaf gæf-a
2. gaf-t gæf-ir
3. gaf gæf-i
_pl._ 1. gāf-um gæf-im
2. gāf-uð gæf-ið
3. gāf-u gæf-i
_Imperative sg._ 2 gef; _pl._ 1 gef-um, 2 gef-ið.
_Participle pres._ gef-andi; _pret._ gef-inn.
_Infin._ gefa.
Middle
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
_Pres. sg._ 1. gef-umk gef-umk
2. gef-sk gef-isk
3. gef-sk gef-isk
_pl._ 1. gef-umk gef-imk
2. gef-izk gef-izk
3. gef-ask gef-isk
_Pret. sg._ 1. gāf-umk gæf-umk
2. gaf-zk gæf-isk
3. gaf-sk gæf-isk
_pl._ 1. gāf-umk gæf-imk
2. gāf-uzk gæf-izk
3. gāf-usk gæf-isk
_Impers. sg._ 2 gef-sk; _pl._ 1 gef-umk, 2 gef-izk.
_Partic. pres._ gef-andisk; _pret._ gef-izk _neut._
_Infin._ gef-ask.
Strong Verbs
132. In the strong verbs the plur. of the pret. indic. generally
has a different vowel from that of the sing. The 1 sg. pret. of
the middle voice always has the vowel of the pl. pret.: _gāfumk_.
The pret. subj. has the vowel of the pret. indic. plur. mutated:
_skaut_ (he shot), _skutu_ (they shot), _skyti_ (he might shoot).
But there is no mutation in verbs of the first conj.: _hljōpi_,
inf. _hlaupa_ (leap).
133. The pres. indic. sing. mutates the root-vowel in all three
persons: _ek skȳt_, _þū skȳtr_, _hann skȳtr_, infin. _skjōta_
(shoot). _e_ however is not mutated: _ek gef_, _þū gefr_. The
inflectional _r_ is liable to the same modifications as the _r_
of nouns (§ 32): _skīnn_, _vęx_, infin. _skīna_ (shine), _vaxa_
(grow).
134. Verbs in _ld_ change the _d_ into _t_ in the 1, 3 sg. pret.
indic. and in the imper. sg.: _helt_ (held), _halt_ (hold!),
infin. _halda_. _nd_ becomes _tt_, and _ng_ becomes _kk_ under
the same conditions: _binda_ (bind), _ganga_ (go), pret. _batt_,
_gekk_, imper. _bitt_, _gakk_.
135. The _t_ of the 2 sg. pret. indic. is doubled after a long
accented vowel: _þū sātt_ (thou sawest). If the 1 sg. pret.
indic. ends in _t_ or _ð_, the 2 sg. ends in _zt_: _lēt_ (I let),
_þū lēzt_, _bauð_ (I offered) _þū bauzt_.
136. There are seven conjugations of strong verbs, distinguished
mainly by the characteristic vowels of their preterites.
137.
I. 'Fall'-conjugation
INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.
falla (_fall_) fęllr fell fellu fallinn
lāta (_let_) lætr lēt lētu lātinn
rāða (_advise_) ræðr rēð rēðu rāðinn
heita (_call_) heitr hēt hētu heitinn
halda (_hold_) hęldr helt heldu haldinn
ganga (_go_) gęngr gekk gengu gęnginn
fā (_get_) fær fekk fengu fęnginn
-----------------
auka (_increase_) eykr jōk jōku aukinn
būa (_dwell_) bȳr bjō bjoggu būinn
hǫggva (_hew_) hǫggr hjō hjoggu hǫggvinn
hlaupa (_leap_) hleypr hljōp hljōpu hlaupinn
138. The following have weak preterites in _r_:
grōa (_grow_) grœr gröri gröru grōinn
rōa (_row_) rœr röri röru rōinn
snūa (_twist_) snȳr snöri snöru snūinn
139. _heita_ in the passive sense of 'to be named, called' has a
weak present: _ek heiti_, _þū heitir_.
140.
II. 'Shake'-conjugation
INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.
fara (_go_) fęrr fōr fōru farinn
grafa (_dig_) gręfr grōf grōfu grafinn
hlaða (_load_) hlęðr hlōð hlōðu hlaðinn
vaxa (_grow_) vęx ōx ōxu vaxinn
standa (_stand_) stęndr stōð stōðu staðinn
aka (_drive_) ękr ōk ōku ękinn
taka (_take_) tękr tōk tōku tękinn
draga (_draw_) dręgr drō drōgu dręginn
flā (_flay_) flær flō flōgu flęginn
slā (_strike_) slær slō slōgu slęginn
141. The following have weak presents:
hęfja (_lift_) hęfr hōf hōfu hafinn
deyja (_die_) deyr dō dō dāinn
hlæja (_laugh_) hlær hlō hlōgu hlęginn
142.
III. 'Bind'-conjugation
INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.
bresta (_burst_) brestr brast brustu brostinn
hverfa (_turn_) hverfr hvarf hurfu horfinn
svelga (_swallow_) svelgr svalg sulgu sōlginn
verða (_become_) verðr varð urðu orðinn
skjālfa (_shake_) skelfr skalf skulfu skolfinn
drekka (_drink_) drekkr drakk drukku drukkinn
finna (_find_) finnr fann fundu fundinn
vinna (_win_) vinnr vann unnu unninn
binda (_bind_) bindr batt bundu bundinn
springa (_spring_) springr sprakk sprungu sprunginn
stinga (_pierce_) stingr stakk stungu stunginn
bregða (_pull_) bregðr brā brugðu brugðinn
sökkva (_sink_) sökkr sǫkk sukku sokkinn
stökkva (_spring_) stökkr stǫkk stukku stokkinn
143. The following have weak presents (which makes however no
difference in their conjugation):
bręnna (_burn_) bręnnr brann brunnu brunninn
ręnna (_run_) ręnnr rann runnu runninn
144.
IV. 'Bear'-conjugation
INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.
bera (_carry_) berr bar bāru borinn
nema (_take_) nemr nam nāmu numinn
fela (_hide_) felr fal fālu fōlginn
koma (_come_) kömr kom kvāmu kominn
sofa (_sleep_) söfr svaf svāfu sofinn
145.
V. 'Give'-conjugation
INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.
drepa (_kill_) drepr drap drāpu drepinn
gefa (_give_) gefr gaf gāfu gefinn
kveða (_say_) kveðr kvað kvāðu kveðinn
meta (_estimate_) metr mat mātu metinn
reka (_drive_) rekr rak rāku rekinn
eta (_eat_) etr āt ātu etinn
sjā (_see_) sēr[6] sā sā[7] sēnn
[Footnote 6: sē, sēr, sēr; sjām, sēð, sjā. Subj. sē, sēr, sē;
sēm, sēð, sē.]
[Footnote 7: sām, sāið, sā.]
146. The following have weak presents:--
biðja (_ash_) biðr bað bāðu beðinn
sitja (_sit_) sitr sat sātu setinn
liggja (_lie_) liggr lā lāgum leginn
þiggja (_receive_) þiggr þā þāgu þeginn
147.
VI. 'Shine'-conjugation
INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.
bīta (_bite_) bītr beit bitu bitinn
drīfa (_drive_) drīfr dreif drifu drifinn
grīpa (_grasp_) grīpr greip gripu gripinn
līða (_go_) līðr leið liðu liðinn
līta (_look_) lītr leit litu litinn
rīða (_ride_) rīðr reið riðu riðinn
sīga (_sink_) sīgr seig sigu siginn
slīta (_tear_) slītr sleit slitu slitinn
stīga (_advance_) stīgr steig stigu stiginn
bīða (_wait_) bīðr beið biðu beiðnn
148. The following has a weak present:
vīkja (_move_) vīkr veik viku vikinn
149.
VII. 'Choose'-conjugation
INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.
bjōða (_offer_) bȳðr bauð buðu boðinn
brjōta (_break_) brȳtr braut brutu brotinn
fljōta (_float_) flȳtr flaut flutu flotinn
hljōta (_receive_) hlȳtr hlaut hlutu hlotinn
kjōsa (_choose_) kȳss kaus kusum kosinn
njōta (_enjoy_) nȳtr naut nutu notinn
skjōta (_shoot_) skȳtr skaut skutu skotinn
drjūpa (_drop_) drȳpr draup drupu dropinn
ljūga (_tell lies_) lȳgr laug lugu loginn
lūka (_close_) lȳkr lauk luku lokinn
lūta (_bend_) lȳtr laut lutu lotinn
fljūga (_fly_) flȳgr flō flugu floginn
Weak Verbs
150. There are three conjugations of weak verbs. All those of
the first conjugation have mutated vowels in the pres., and form
their pret. with _ð_ (_d_, _t_): _heyra_ (hear), _heyrða_. Those
of the second form their pret. in the same way, but have
unmutated vowels in the pres.: _hafa_ (have) _hafða_. Those of
the third form their pret. in _-aða_: _kalla_ (call), _kallaða_.
I. 'Hear'-conjugation
Active
151.
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
_Pres. sg._ 1. heyr-i heyr-a
2. heyr-ir heyr-ir
3. heyr-ir heyr-i
_pl._ 1. heyr-um heyr-im
2. heyr-ið heyr-ið
3. heyr-a heyr-i
_Pret. sg._ 1. heyr-ða heyr-ða
2. heyr-ðir heyr-ðir
3. heyr-ði heyr-ði
_pl._ 1. heyr-ðum heyr-ðim
2. heyr-ðuð heyr-ðið
3. heyr-ðu heyr-ði
_Imper. sg._ 1. heyr; _pl._ 1. heyr-um, 2. heyr-ið.
_Partic. pres._ heyr-andi; _pret._ heyr-ðr.
_Infin._ heyr-a.
Middle
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
_Pres. sg._ 1. heyr-umk heyr-umk
2. heyr-isk heyr-isk
3. heyr-isk heyr-isk
_pl._ 1. heyr-umk heyr-imk
2. heyr-izk heyr-izk
3. heyr-ask heyr-isk
_Pret. sg._ 1. heyr-ðumk heyr-ðumk
2. heyr-ðisk heyr-ðisk
3. heyr-ðisk heyr-ðisk
_pl._ 1. heyr-ðumk heyr-ðimk
2. heyr-ðuzk heyr-ðizk
3. heyr-ðusk heyr-ðisk
_Imper. sg._ 2. heyr-sk; _pl._ 1. heyr-umk, 2. heyr-izk.
_Partic. pres._ heyr-andisk; _pret._ heyr-zk _neut._
_Infin._ heyr-ask.
A. Without vowel-change
152. The inflectional _ð_ becomes _d_ after long syllables ending
in _l_ or _n_: _sigla_ (sail), _siglda_; _nęfna_ (name),
_nęfnda_, _nęfndr_.
153. _-ðð_ becomes _dd_: _leiða_ (lead), _leidda_.
154. _ð_ after _s_ and _t_ becomes _t_: _reisa_ (raise),
_reista_; _mœta_ (meet), _mœtta_. Also in a few verbs in _l_,
_n_: _mæla_ (speak), _mælta_; _spęnna_ (buckle), _spęnta_.
155. After _nd_ and _pt_ it is dropped: _sęnda_ (send), _sęnda_,
_sęndr_; _lypta_ (lift), _lypta_.
156. It is preserved in such verbs as the following: _dœma_
(judge), _dœmða_; _fœra_ (lead), _fœrða_; _hęrða_ (harden),
_hęrða_; _hleypa_ (gallop), _hleypða_.
B. With vowel-change
157. All these verbs have _j_ preceded by a short syllable
(tęlja), or a long vowel without any cons. after it (dȳja), or
_gg_ (lęggja); the _j_ being kept before _a_ and _u_, as in the
pres. ind. of _spyrja_ (ask): _spyr_, _spyrr_, _spyrr_;
_spyrjum_, _spyrið_, _spyrja_, pres. subj. 1 sg. _ek spyrja_;
they unmutate their vowel in the pret. and ptc. pret. (spurða,
spurðr), the mutation being restored in the pret. subj. _spyrða_,
_spyrðir_, etc. The ptc. pret. often has an _i_ before the _ð_.
bęrja (_strike_) barða barðr
lęggja (_lay_) lagða lag(i)ðr
tęlja (_tell_) talða tal(i)ðr
vękja (_wake_) vakða vakðr
flytja (_remove_) flutta fluttr
dȳja (_shake_) dūða dūðr
158. The following keep the mutated vowel throughout:
sęlja (_sell_) sęlda sęldr
sętja (_set_) sętta sęttr
C.
159. The following are irregular:
sœkja (_seek_) sōtta sōttr
þykkja (_seem_) þōtta þōttr
Subj. pret. _sœtta_, _þœtta_.
160. The following has an adj. for its partic. pret.:
gǫ̈ra (_make_) gǫ̈rða gǫ̈rr.
II. 'Have'-conjugation
161. The few verbs of this class are conjugated like those of
conj. I, except that some of them have imperatives in _-i_:
_vaki_, _þęfi_; _uni_. _lifa_, _sęgja_ have imper. _lif_, _sęg_.
They mutate the vowel of the pret. subj. (ynða). Their partic.
pret. generally occurs only in the neut.; sometimes the _a_ is
dropped.
lifa (_live_) lifi lifða lifat
una (_be contented_) uni unða unat
skorta (_be wanting_) skorti skorta skort
þola (_endure_) þoli þolða þolat
þora (_dare_) þori þorða þorat
nā (_attain_) nāi nāða nāðr, nāit
162. The following show mutation:
sęgja (_say_) sęgi sagða sagðr
þęgja (_be silent_) þęgi þagða þagat
hafa (_have_) hęfi hafða hafðr
kaupa (_buy_) kaupi keypta keyptr
163. The present indic. of the first three is as follows:
_Sing._ 1. hęfi sęgi þęgi
2, 3. hęfir sęgir þęgir
_Plur._ 1. hǫfum sęgjum þęgjum
2. hafið sęgið þęgið
3. hafa sęgja þęgja
164. The rest of _hafa_ is regular. Pres. subj. _hafa_, _hafir_,
_hafi_; _hafim_, _hafið_, _hafi_. Pret. indic. _hafða_,
_hafðir_, _hafði_; _hǫfdum_, _hǫfðuð_, _hǫfðu_. Pret. subj.
_hęfða_, _hęfðir_, _hęfði_; _hęfðim_, _hęfðið_, _hęfði_. Imper.
_haf_, _hǫfum_, _hafið_. Ptc. _hafandi_, _hafðr_.
III. 'Call'-conjugation
Active
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
_Pres. sg._ 1. kall-a kall-a
2. kall-ar kall-ir
3. kall-ar kall-i
_pl._ 1. kǫll-um kall-im
2. kall-ið kall-ið
3. kall-a kall-i
_Pres. sg._ 1. kall-aða kall-aða
2. kall-aðir kall-aðir
3. kall-aði kall-aði
_pl._ 1. kǫll-uðum kall-aðim
2. kǫll-uðuð kall-aðið
3. kǫll-uðu kall-aði
_Imper. sing._ 2. kall-a; _plur._ 1. kǫll-um, 2. kall-ið.
_Partic. pres._ kall-andi; _pret._ kallaðr (_neut._ kallat).
_Infin._ kalla.
Middle
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
_Pres. sg._ 1. kǫll-umk kǫll-umk
2. kall-ask kall-isk
3. kall-ask kall-isk
_pl._ 1. kǫll-umk kall-imk
2. kall-izk kall-izk
3. kall-ask kall-isk
_Pret. sg._ 1. kǫll-uðumk kǫll-uðumk
2. kall-aðisk kall-aðisk
3. kall-aðisk kall-aðisk
_pl._ 1. kǫll-uðumk kall-aðimk
2. kǫll-uðuzk kall-aðizk
3. kǫll-uðusk kall-aðisk
_Imper. sing._ 2. kall-ask; _pl._ 1. kǫll-umk, 2. kall-izk.
_Partic. pres._ kall-andisk; _pret._ kall-azk _neut._
_Infin._ kall-ask.
165. So also _byrja_ (begin), _hęrja_ (make war), _vakna_
(awake).
Strong-Weak Verbs
166. These have old strong preterites for their presents,
from which new weak preterites are formed.
INFIN. PRES. SG. PRES. PL. PRT. PTC.
eiga (_possess_) ā eigu ātta āttr
kunna (_can_) kann kunnu kunna kunnat _n._
mega (_can_) mā megu mātta mātt _n._
muna (_remember_) man munu munða munat _n._
munu (_will_) mun munu munða ----
skulu (_shall_) skal skulu skylda skyldr
þurfa (_need_) þarf þurfu þurfta þurft _n._
unna (_love_) ann unnu unna unnt _n._
vita (_know_) veit vitu vissa vitaðr
167. Of these verbs _munu_ and _skulu_ have preterite
infinitives: _mundu_, _skyldu_.
Anomalous Verbs
168. _Vilja_ (will):
Present
Sing. Plur.
1. vil viljum
2. vill vilið
3. vill vilja
_Subj. pres._ vili. _Pret. ind._ vilda. _Ptc. prt._ viljat.
169. _Vera_ (be):
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
_Pres. sg._ 1. em sē
2. ert sēr
3. er sē
_pl._ 1. erum sēm
2. eruð sēð
3. eru sē
_Pret. sg._ 1. var væra
2. vart værir
3. var væri
_pl._ 1. vārum værim
2. vāruð værið
3. vāru væri
_Imper. sg._ ver; _pl._ verið. _Ptc. prt._ verit _n._
COMPOSITION
170. Composition with the genitive is very frequent in Icelandic.
Thus by the side of _skip-stjōrn_ (ship-steering) we find
_skips-brot_ (ship's breaking, shipwreck), _skipa-hęrr_ (army of
ships, fleet). Genitival composition often expresses possession,
as in _konungs-skip_ (king's ship).
DERIVATION
Prefixes
171. Prefixes are much less used in Icelandic than in Old
English.
*al-* 'quite,' 'very': _al-būinn_ 'quite ready,' _al-snotr_ 'very
clever.'
*all-* 'all,' 'very': _all-valdr_ 'all-ruler, monarch,'
_all-harðr_ 'very hard,' _all-stōrum_ 'very greatly.'
*and-* 'against': _and-lit_ 'countenance' (_lita_, look),
_and-svar_ 'answer.'
*fjǫl-* 'many': _fjǫl-męnni_ 'multitude' (_maðr_, man).
*mis-* 'mis-': _mis-līka_ 'displease.'
*ū-* 'un-': _ū-friðr_ 'war' (_friðr_, peace), _ū-happ_
'misfortune' (_happ_ luck).
Endings
(a) Nouns
Personal
172. *-ingr*, *-ingi*, *-ing*: _vīkingr_ 'pirate,' _hǫfðingi_
'chief,' _kęrling_ 'old woman.'
Abstract
173. *-ð*, fem. with mutation: _fęgrð_ 'beauty' (_fagr_, fair),
_fęrð_ 'journey' (_fara_, go), _lęngð_ 'length' (_langr_, long).
*-ing*, fem.: _svipting_ 'pulling,' _vīking_ 'piracy,' _virðing_
'honour.'
*-leikr*, masc.: _kœr-leikr_ 'affection' (_hœrr_, dear),
_skjōt-leikr_ 'speed' (_skjōtr_, swift).
*-an*, *-un*, fem.: _skipan_ 'arrangement,' _skęmtun_
'amusement.'
(b) Adjectives
174. *-ugr*: _rāðugr_ 'sagacious,' _þrūðugr_ 'strong.'
*-ōttr*: _kollōttr_ 'bald,' _ǫndōttr_ 'fierce.'
*-lauss* '-less': _fē-lauss_ 'moneyless,' _ōtta-lauss_ 'without
fear.'
*-ligr* '-ly': _undr-ligr_ 'wonderful,' _sann-ligr_ 'probable'
(_sannr_, true).
*-samr*: _līkn-samr_ 'gracious,' _skyn-samr_ 'intelligent.'
*-verðr* '-ward': _ofan-verðr_ 'upper.'
(c) Verbs
175. *-na*: _brotna_ 'be broken' (_brotinn_, broken), _hvītna_
'become white,' _vakna_ 'awake.' Used to form intransitive and
inchoative verbs of the third conj.
(d) Adverbs
176. *-liga* '-ly': _undar-liga_ 'wonderfully,' _stęrk-liga_
'strongly' (_stęrkr_, strong).
*-um*, dat. pl.: _stōrum_ 'greatly' (_stōrr_, great).
SYNTAX
177. Icelandic syntax greatly resembles Old English, but has
several peculiarities of its own.
Concord
178. Concord is carried out very strictly in Icelandic: _allir
męnn vāru būnir_ 'all the men were ready,' _allir vāru drepnir_
'all were killed.'