"The Navy Department has arranged for the expenditure of

approximately $500,000 in the purchase of building materials,

including all articles necessary for the construction of

substantial frame houses for the Italian sufferers, and the

shipments will begin by the sailing of two steamers probably

on Monday. This lumber is being delivered to-day in New York,

and the sailing of the vessels will proceed as fast as they

can be loaded. Each ship will carry all the materials for the

construction of about 500 houses, and it will require not less

than six steamers for the entire amount purchased. If

possible, the department intends to send with each vessel

several civilian house carpenters, with plans, to assist in

the erection of these houses."

With this material a suburb of 1500 detached frame houses, of

two or four rooms, were built at Messina; 500 were constructed

at Reggio, and the remainder at other towns and villages.

The Italian Parliament appropriated 30,000,000 lire

($5,000,000) for immediate relief and for the reconstruction

of the ruined cities. The plans formed by the Italian

Government included measures to provide for the temporary

protection of the orphaned young, the deserted, and the

insane; to prosecute the recovery of personal property: to

draw up official lists of the dead; to rewrite the civil

registers and the records of property transfers; to

reestablish, provisionally, administrative and judicial

districts within the provinces of Messina and Reggio. New

building regulations were to be enacted by a royal commission

in conjunction with the Ministry of Public Works. To encourage

the reconstruction of the ruined places, all new buildings

were exempted from taxation for a period of fifteen years.

Loans from state and private financial institutions to be made

at a rate of interest not exceeding 4 per cent., to be repaid

within thirty years in semi-annual instalments, the Government

to contribute half of these periodical payments.

To the effective help and relief rendered by her Mediterranean

squadron, Great Britain added large contributions of money,

mainly collected as a "Mansion House Fund" by the Lord Mayor

of London. There, and everywhere, the Red Cross Societies were

instant in the field and untiring, receiving and expending

immense funds and sending large corps of trained workers to

the scene of distress. No summary has yet been made of the

whole outpour of gifts and service to the suffering people,

and it is impossible even to indicate what a world-feeling it

expressed; but its like was never known before.

Estimates of the total destruction of life by the earthquake

are still uncertain. Mr. Crawford, when he wrote, thought it

doubtful whether as many as fifteen per cent. of the

population of Messina were then alive, scattered in groups

throughout Italy. That would mean that only about 20,000 out

of 150,000 in the one city escaped. Of the loss of life on the

other side of the Straits he said: "The proportion of those

saved on the Calabrian side is certainly larger—principally,

I think, because the houses in Reggio, Villa San Giovanni,

Palmi, and the other towns destroyed were much lower than

those in the city. Moreover, as will be seen before long, many

persons died of hunger and thirst in Messina, where the whole

water supply was cut off by the ruin of the first shock, and

bread was not obtainable at any price for many days; but on

the Calabrian side the survivors camped out in the orange

groves, and the fruit, which is almost ripe at Christmas in

that latitude, stayed their hunger and assuaged their thirst."

Generally, the total of deaths from the earthquake, in Sicily

and Calabria, seems now to be estimated at 200,000.

A report from Rome, issued on the 3d of August, 1909, by the

Central Relief Committee, of which the Duke of Aosta is

president, announced that the receipts of the Committee to

that time had been 25,100,000 lire (£1,004,000, or

$5,020,000). The fund for the orphans had all been handed over

to the Queen Helena Home.

For the building of shelters the sum of 4,000,000 lire had

been paid over to the Minister of Public Works for the

construction of 3,000 shelters. The number of persons assisted

had been 14,000, but it would eventually reach 20,000.

EARTHQUAKES: A. D. 1909 (July 1).

A second shock at Messina and Reggio.

During six months following the great catastrophe, Messina had

been so far rebuilt and reoccupied as to have acquired a

population of somewhat more than 25,000. To them, on the

evening of June 30 and the morning of July 1, came once more

the dread quaking of their unstable portion of the earth. The

shocks as described in despatches to the Press "were similar

to the fatal disturbances of December, and were accompanied by

the same roaring noises. The people fled with cries of terror.

They hurried to the open places of the city and the

surrounding country, praying to the saints that their lives be

spared. …

{190}

So far as is known, however. only a few people were hurt, and

this undoubtedly is due to the fact that the city was only

partially rebuilt. Had the walls of all the houses been

standing the loss of life would have been heavy. One woman was

killed by a falling wall, and a child was seriously injured."

Reggio, as before, shared the experience, but there is said to

have been no loss of life.

Late in the year it was reported to a London newspaper that

"at Reggio a very fair advance, has been made, and the city is

already acquiring some air of its former busy prosperity; but

in Messina and its neighborhood, little or nothing has been

done in the way of permanent work, while the temporary

accommodations for the survivors still leave much to be

desired."

EARTHQUAKES: Jamaica: A. D. 1907.

The destruction of Kingston by earthquake and fire.

‘On Monday afternoon, the 14th January, 1907, at about 3.30 P.

M., the city of Kingston and its suburbs was almost entirely

destroyed by heavy earthquake shocks. There was little or no

wind at the time; what little there was was from the east, and

the atmospherical conditions were quite normal. The shocks

apparently approached from the south at first and then from

the west. They are variously estimated to have lasted from ten

to thirty seconds, the latter estimate being the general

opinion. On the other hand, several Englishmen who were in the

open at the time and in no immediate danger from falling

houses, &c., consider 20 seconds the outside limit of time

taken by the shocks. During this period an enormous amount of

damage was done to life and property. Large numbers of

buildings at once collapsed. As is, unfortunately, usual in

such cases, fires broke out in several places in the

commercial portion of the town. …

"Unfortunately, the Central Fire Station was destroyed by

earthquake, so the fire engine was not available. The means at

hand were thus very inadequate for fighting the flames,

although they were supplemented greatly by fire-extinguishing

appliances from the various ships alongside the wharves, and

those belonging to the wharves themselves. The fire, however,

spread with terrible rapidity, and all efforts were directed

towards isolating the burning area. During this time the light

wind blowing was about north-east, but it later in the

afternoon went round to the north and north-west, thus lending

tremendous assistance to the people in their efforts to

extinguish the fire. Many injured persons, buried in the

falling debris, were burnt to death. Meanwhile, vast numbers

of the inhabitants were flying northwards to the racecourse

and open spaces outside the town, where they spent the

night—small earthquake shocks being felt at frequent intervals

during that time. It may be said that the whole of Kingston

and its suburbs are either destroyed or in ruins. A few of the

substantially built houses are still standing, but so shaken

and injured by the shocks that it will be impossible to repair

them. …

"It is extremely difficult to estimate the total loss of life

in the earthquake and fire. The Government have called on the

inhabitants to register the names of their killed and missing,

but up to this date [January 29] there has been little

response. On the 25th January, some eleven days after the

catastrophe, the numbers recorded at the Registrar’s Office

were only 121, although at least four times that number are

known to have been buried or cremated. The careful opinion of

prominent officials in Kingston is that the loss of life will

be about 1000. Of the injured the daily number of in-patients

at the hospital is about 300, mostly cases of concussions and

legs amputated. …

"The large numbers of women, children, and old or disabled men

encamped in the Public Gardens and racecourse, &c., were

supplied with food rations daily, under the supervision of the

Relief Committee. Over 3,000 people daily have been receiving

this relief. At no time does there appear to have been a

scarcity of food or water. A tremendous strain at once came on

the staff of the hospital, the place being besieged with the

injured and their relatives. Large numbers of medical men from

the out districts at once proceeded to Kingston and assisted

in attending to the wounded. With the aid of their ready

assistance, and that of many volunteer nurses from the civil

population, the hospital staff were enabled to cope with the

situation, and at the present time work is proceeding there

with great smoothness and regularity. The American ships

‘Indiana,’ ‘Missouri,’ and ‘Whipple,’ also, on arrival, landed

their surgeons, who at once established a hospital on shore

and rendered great assistance. …

"Directly after the earthquake, and while the fire was in

progress, the greater portion of the black and coloured

population were stupefied with terror and amazement, and lent

little or no aid to the white members of the community and the

troops and firemen in their rescue work. Vast numbers of them

fled from the city. Some became frenzied and ran here and

there declaring the end of the world had arrived, impeding the

work and terrifying the workers. Others formed groups and

commenced praying. At the Penitentiary, the prisoners, who

remained seated in their ranks on the parade ground all night,

spent the time in singing hymns without ceasing. As soon as

the first panic had subsided, the black population became

quite apathetic, and it was with great difficulty that the

Government were able to get able-bodied men to take part in

the work of demolition and clearing the streets. This, in

spite of the fact that the wages offered were 25 per cent.

more than the usual rate. …

"Considering the magnitude and widespread nature of the

disaster, the loss of life might easily have been on a much

larger scale. The earthquake came at a time of day when the

labouring part of the population were at work away from their

houses, and the streets in the busy commercial quarter

presented the comparatively deserted appearance so usual in

the afternoons in tropical places. As the streets in this

quarter were very narrow and the buildings on each side of

them lofty and of solid construction the loss of life must

have been largely increased had the earthquake happened during

the busy portion of the day. …

"Owing to the dry weather now prevailing here, the homeless

population, roughly encamped on the open spaces, are suffering

little or no hardship. It is to be hoped they may be

permanently sheltered before the wet season commences."

_Report by Major Chown, R. M. L. I., of

H. M. S. "Indefatigable"

dated Kingston, January 29, 1907._

{191}

Relief to the stricken island came so swiftly and profusely

from all parts of America, Europe, and almost every part of

the world, that Governor Swettenham was able to telegraph on

the 23d of January: "Money and provisions more than ample for

relief. Except for rebuilding no funds needed." Three ships of

the United States Navy, despatched by Admiral Evans from a

Cuban port on the instant of receiving news of the disaster,

reached Jamaica on the 17th and gave assistance in clearing

the ruins, besides rendering hospital service and furnishing

food and medical supplies. For the general lifting of the

community from its prostration, the British Government, in

May, by vote of Parliament, made a free grant to it of

£150,000, and a loan to the Colonial Government of £800,000

more.

_Correspondence relating to the Earthquake at Kingston,

Jamaica (Parliamentary Papers, Cd. 3560)._

EARTHQUAKES: Persia: A. D. 1909 (JANUARY).

Destructive shock in Luristan.

Seismographs in many parts of the world gave token of a

violent earthquake on the 23d of January, 1909; but three

weeks passed before the locality of the shock was learned. It

proved to have been centered in Western Persia, in the

mountainous province of Luristan, and to have been heavily

destructive of life. Its greatest severity was reported to

have been in a region at two days journey from Burujurd. Many

villages were wholly or partly destroyed, several having been

completely engulfed, and the loss of life is estimated to have

been between 5000 and 6000 people.

EARTHQUAKES: Portugal: A. D. 1909 (April).

Lisbon and its neighborhood upheaved.

Lisbon and the country surrounding it were shaken violently on

the evening of Friday, April 23d, 1909. There were no

fatalities in the city, but the outlying districts suffered

severely, especially the towns of Benavente, Samora, and Santo

Estevan. Reports three days after the disaster announced 46

killed and 38 injured at Benavente and Samora. Both villages

were completely destroyed, and their 6000 inhabitants,

starving and homeless, were encamped in the fields

EARTHQUAKES: Sumatra: A. D. 1909 (June).

Shocks and sea-wave in Upper Padang district.

News was received at The Hague in June, 1909, of severe shocks

of earthquake, on the 3d of that month, at Korinchi, Upper

Padang, Sumatra. The shocks were accompanied by an enormous

sea-wave. Two hundred and thirty people were killed and many

injured. Much damage was done.

----------EARTHQUAKES: End--------

ECHEGARAY, Jose.

See (in this Volume)

NOBEL PRIZES.

ECONOMIC FORESTRY.

See (in this Volume)

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES.

ECUADOR: A. D. 1901-1906.

From revolution to revolution.

General Eloy Alfaro, who was made President by the revolution

of 1895 (see in Volume VI.), was succeeded peacefully in 1901

by General Leonidas Plaza, and the latter, in turn, by Lugardo

Garcia; but in 1906 the revolutionary method was revived in

favor of General Alfaro, and he ousted Senor Garcia from the

presidential chair.

ECUADOR: A. D. 1901-1906.

Participation in Second and Third International Conferences

of American Republics, at Rio de Janeiro.

See (in this Volume)

AMERICAN REPUBLICS.

ECUADOR: A. D. 1905.

Arbitration of boundary question with Peru.

See (in this Volume)

PERU: A. D. 1905.

EDMONTON:

Capital of the Province of Alberta.

See (in this Volume)

CANADA: A. D. 1905.

----------EDUCATION: Start--------

EDUCATION: AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1907.

Latest Statistics of State Schools.

Statistics published in July, 1909, by the Commonwealth

Government show that over £2,500,000 was spent on education by

the Australian States in 1907 in 7500 State schools. The total

daily average attendance at the schools for the year was

444,000. The disbursements of the States on University

education amounted to £113,000.

EDUCATION: CANADA: A. D. 1905.

The question of State Support to Sectarian Schools revived on

the creation of two new Provinces.

See (in this Volume)

CANADA: A. D. 1905.

EDUCATION: CANADA: A. D. 1907.

The founding and endowment of Macdonald College.

On the 16th of October, 1907, there was opened a new college

of fine character and great importance, on a noble site,

overlooking the Ottawa river, at Sainte de Bellevue, twenty

miles west of Montreal. It bears the name of its founder. Sir

William Macdonald, from whom it received an endowment of

$4,000,000. This Macdonald College is divided into three

schools: The School for Teachers, the School of Agriculture,

the School of Household Science. Its main purposes are

announced to be:

(1) "The carrying on of research work and investigation and

the dissemination of knowledge, with particular regard to the

interests and needs of the population in rural districts"; and

(2) the providing of "suitable and effective training for

teachers, especially for those whose work will directly affect

the education in schools in rural districts." It thus

appropriates to itself a field of education for the betterment

of farm life and work, the important need of which, looking to

everything in national character and prosperity, is only

beginning to be understood.

EDUCATION: CHINA: A. D. 1887-1907.

Christian Mission Schools.

"In the historical Volume presented in 1907 at the Shanghai

Conference Dr. Arthur H. Smith makes the following interesting

comparison of the statistics presented at the three Protestant

Missionary Conferences held in China in 1887, 1890, and 1907:

See, in this Volume,

MISSIONS, CHRISTIAN.

1876. 1889. 1907.

Number of societies. 29 41 82

Foreign teachers. 473 1,296 3,833

Stations and substations. 602 5,734

Pupils in schools. 4,909 16,836 57,683

"The above statistics, although incomplete, do serve as an

indication of the vigorous growth of Protestant missionary

educational activity in China. In this work the various

missionary foundations made their most notable advance in

interdenominational cooperation. In many instances several

denominations have combined in union schools or colleges. …

One of the chief agencies in reaching this unity and effective

cooperation has been the Educational Association of China,

founded as early as 1887. …

{192}

"No survey of missionary education in China would be complete

without mention of the widespread, well-organized Roman

Catholic activities. Of the eleven different Catholic orders

having representatives in China, the Jesuits are carrying on

the largest educational work. In 1907, in their five colleges

and seventy-two schools, a total of 25,335 students were

enrolled. All the Catholic orders together supervise the

instruction of over 75,000 Chinese students; this total, it

will be seen, being somewhat higher than that of Protestant

missions."

_George Marvin,

The American Spirit in Chinese Education

(The Outlook, November, 1908)._

EDUCATION: A. D. 1901-1902.

Edicts of Reform.

Modernizing of Examinations for Literary Degrees

and for Military Degrees.

New Universities, Colleges, and Schools.

Students sent abroad.

"An Edict on Reform in Education, published by the Chinese

Government on the 29th of August, 1901, commanded the

abolition of essays or homilies on the Chinese classics in

examinations for literary degrees, and substituted for them

essays and articles on modern matters, Western laws, and

political economy. The same procedure was also to be observed

in the future in the examination of candidates for office. By

the same Edict it was ordered that as the methods in use for

gaining military degrees—namely, trials of strength with stone

weights, agility with the great sword, and marksmanship with

the bow and arrow on foot and on horseback—were not of the

slightest value in turning out men for the army, where

knowledge of strategy and military science were the sine quâ

non for military officers, these trials of strength, etc.,

should be thenceforth abolished forever.

"Another Edict for the establishment of new universities,

colleges, and schools in China was published on the 12th of

September, 1901. It commanded all existing colleges in the

empire to be turned into schools and colleges of Western

learning. Each provincial capital was to have a University

like the Peking University, whilst the colleges in the

prefectures and districts of the various provinces were to be

schools and colleges of the second and third classes.

"Another Edict, for sending students to be educated abroad,

was published on the 17th of September, 1901. It commanded the

Viceroys and Governors of other provinces of the Empire to

follow the example of the Viceroy Liu Kun-yi of Liangkiang,

Chang Chihtung of Hukuang, and Kuei Chun (Manchu) of Szechuen,

in sending young men of scholastic promise and ability abroad

to study any branch of Western science or art best suited to

their abilities and tastes, so that they might in time return

to China and place the fruits of their knowledge at the

service of the empire.

"Those who are acquainted with China know very well that many

of the Edicts of the Government do not amount to much more

than waste paper. In this case, however, it has not been so.

The Imperial College in Shansi has been opened, with some 300

students, in the hope that it will develop into one of the

provincial universities. It is divided into a Chinese and a

Foreign Department. … The Edicts have not been a dead letter

in the other provinces either, though there has been enormous

difficulty in getting a sufficient number of professors to

teach or of text-books to use. Some Chinamen who under the old

system of education would not have got more than £30 per annum

now get £240, and there are not enough of them. At the lowest

estimate text-books and books of general knowledge of the West

to the value of £25,000 must have been sold during this year

alone. Books to the value of £6,000 were sold by the Society

for the Diffusion of Christian Knowledge.

"I subjoin a list of the new colleges opened in ten different

provinces in 1901-1902:

Provinces. Funds provided.

Chekiang 50,000 strings of cash per annum

(about Taels 50,000, or over £6,000).

Honan. 30,000 Taels per annum.

Kweichow. 20,000 Taels per annum.

Fookien. 50,000 Mex. Dollars per annum.

(about £5,000).

Kiangsi. over 60,000 Mex. Dollars per annum.

Kwangtung. 100,000 Taels per annum.

Soochow several tens of thousands of Taels.

Nanking —

Shantung 50,000 Taels per annum.

Shansi 50,000 Taels per annum.

Chihli —

Prefectural Colleges

in Soochow. Taels 10,000.

Prefectural Colleges

in Shantung under

R. C. Bishop Anzer. Taels 2,000

"This comes to about half a million of Taels annually for the

whole Empire for modern education. Such is the new departure,

which dates from 1901-1902."

_Timothy Richard,

The New Education in China

(Contemporary Review, January, 1903)._

EDUCATION: A. D. 1906.

Chinese Students in Japan.

The following is from a communication to the State Department

at Washington from the American Legation at Tokyo, under date

of January 3, 1906:

"During the past year Chinese students have come to this

country in continually increasing numbers. Last summer the

number was estimated at 5000, of whom 2000 had been sent at

the expense of the Chinese Government. In November the number

is said to have reached 8000. In addition to the supervision

of the Chinese legation the students are looked after by eight

superintendents sent to reside here by their Government.

"Until recently the Japanese authorities seem to have done

nothing in this matter, but the magnitude of the number of

Chinese students finally made a certain degree of supervision

on their part seem wise. Accordingly, regulations for

controlling schools open to the Chinese were promulgated by

the minister for education on November 2, to go into effect

from the 1st instant. … The publication of these regulations

was greeted by a storm of protest. Bodies of Chinese students

passed indignant resolutions, saying that their liberty was

being assailed and seemed to find in the new rules an

indignity to their nationality. The restriction in choosing

schools and lodgings and the need of a letter of

recommendation annoyed them most. The agitation was so great

that over a thousand students returned to China; and no more

have been coming since the trouble."

{193}

EDUCATION: A. D. 1908.

The administration of the Department of Education in the

Chinese Government.

Under the date of November 9, 1908, the Peking correspondent

of the London _Times_ wrote of the administration of the

governmental Department of Education as follows:

"The Ministry of Education is under the presidency of a

learned scholar of the old type, Chang Chih-tung. The old

system of examination has entirely been abolished. Education

is improving, but there is little attempt at uniformity. There

is no lack of desire to learn, but the teaching outside of the

mission schools or of colleges under foreign control is quite

unsatisfactory. No attempt is made to obtain the services of

the best man. Japan engaged the best foreign teachers that

money could find, with the result that the standard of

education is there very high. But China seems to think any

teacher good enough so long as he is a shade better educated

than the pupil he has to teach."

On the other hand, Professor Thomas C. Chamberlin, of the

University of Chicago, who spent four months of the past year

in China, investigating educational conditions, has reported

that "the old education has practically passed away, and the

government is making strenuous, and on the whole remarkably

successful, efforts to build up a system of education modelled

on that of Europe and America. In all the larger cities of

China buildings have been erected, teachers and pupils

gathered, and schools of the modern type organized. In not a

few cases, as, for example, at Foochow and in the far west at

Chentu, the old examination halls have been torn down to make

place for schools modelled on those of the west."

EDUCATION: A. D. 1908.

Chinese Students in America.

"The disposition on the part of the Chinese Government to send

picked students to America for their education, although

interrupted formally years after the first set of twenty came

in 1872, has since 1890 shown a comparatively steady growth.

During the past year 155 Chinese students were maintained at

various educational institutions in this country on

foundations provided either by the Imperial or the Provincial

Governments. Out of this number seventy-one are under the

charge of the Imperial Chinese Legation at Washington;

twenty-seven are under the direction of Chang-Chuan,

Commissioner of Education for the Viceroyalties of Hupuh and

Kiang-man; fifty-seven others have been during the past year

under the direction of Dr. Tenny, at present Chinese Secretary

of our Legation at Peking. These last, although coming from

various parts of the Empire, all received their elementary

education at the Peyang College in Tientsin, of which Dr.

Tenny was formerly principal. At the request of Yuan-Shih-Kai,

then Viceroy of Chihli, of which province Tientsin is the

chief city, Dr. Tenny in 1906 assumed charge at Cambridge of

the Peiyang candidates sent to America, including those now at

Harvard and the various other colleges where, at his

suggestion, they were quartered. Since Dr. Tenny’s return in

July last to Peking, his position has been filled by the

appointment of Mr. H. F. Merrill, for many years Commissioner

of Customs at Tientsin. …

"Quite apart from this official recognition of the advantages

of an American education, many Chinese families send their

sons at their own expense to schools and colleges in this

country. It has been impossible to procure exact statistics of

the number of these privately supported students, but,

according to the best advices obtainable at the Chinese

Legation, there are about two hundred. …

"More important than anything that has yet taken place in this

movement of Chinese education in America is the recent

determination on the part of the Imperial Government to devote

a sum equal to that placed at their disposal by the remission

of the Boxer indemnity to the founding of an Educational

Mission in this country. … According to the terms of the

agreement contained in the note of Prince Ch’ing to Mr.

Rockhill last July, by the end of the fourth year from the

inauguration of the scheme four hundred students, sent by the

Imperial Government, will be added to the large and growing

number of their young fellow-countrymen already coming to

America."

_George Marvin,

The American Spirit in Chinese Education

(The Outlook, November, 1908)._

An English correspondent, writing from Peking, September 24,

1909, reported: "This week 47 students selected by examination

for proficiency in English and Chinese are leaving Peking for

the United States to enter upon studies paid for by funds from

the unexpended balance of the Boxer indemnity. They have been

selected from nearly 500 candidates who competed for this

great reward from many provinces of the Empire. An excellent

body of young men, they ought to do credit to their country."

See (in this Volume)

CHINA: A. D. 1901-1908.

EDUCATION: A. D. 1909.

Progress in Technical Education.

The following statements were in a Press despatch from

Tien-tsin, July, 1909:

"Technical education in China shows unmistakable signs of

extension. A very few years ago nothing existed which was

worthy of the name, while now it is not too much to say that

in the course of a few years the engineering schools of China

will be second only to the best in Europe and America.

Engineering courses are now being given at the following

institutions:

Imperial Polytechnic Institute, Shanghai;

Imperial University of Shansi, Tai-yuan-fu;

Tangshan Engineering and Mining College, Tangshan; and

Imperial Pei Yang University, Tien-tsin."

EDUCATION: A. D. 1909.

Formation in Great Britain and America of the China

Emergency Appeal Committee.

"Speaking at the Mansion House meeting [London] of the China

Emergency Committee held under the presidency of the Lord

Mayor on March 16, 1909, Sir Robert Hart, whose long work as

Inspector-General of the Imperial Chinese Customs has given

him the profoundest knowledge of China and its people, said:

‘We are alarmed lest Western knowledge and Western science may

give the Chinese people strength without principle, and may

even bring in a crude materialism without that higher teaching

and higher guidance which are necessary for the best welfare

of any people.’

"It is the realization of that danger, but even more a

realization of the needs of China, which have led to the

formation of the China Emergency Appeal Committee. … It is the

object of this Committee to utilize to the full the unexampled

present opportunity of establishing in China institutions

through which the Chinese people may be trained to educate

themselves in the Western knowledge and civilization which

they have set themselves to acquire.

{194}

"There is, first, China’s crying need of medical education—of

schools and hospitals in which Chinese students will be taught

and practise medicine and surgery. … Not less needed is the

establishment of colleges and centres for the training of

Chinese teachers for the primary and secondary schools which

are being established everywhere throughout this Empire of

400,000,000 inhabitants. The China Emergency Committee appeals

for £40,000 to build and equip these training colleges.

Thirdly, there is a demand throughout China for translations

of European books. The demand far exceeds the supply, though

it is only through literature that the Chinese gentleman will

acquaint himself with Western thought and learning. The books

sell in vast numbers, but the work of translation involves

heavy preliminary expenses. … These are the three objects for

the attainment of which the China Emergency Committee has been

established."

_London Times,

July 17, 1909._

On the initiative of the English Committee, of which Sir

Robert Hart is chairman, a proposal to move similarly in

America came before a recent conference of foreign mission

boards of the United States and Canada. A committee, Rev. Dr.

Arthur J. Brown, chairman, to whom the proposition was

referred, reported favorably. The conference approved the

report, and provided that a permanent committee be appointed,

to consist of those serving with Dr. Brown, together with

twelve laymen, to be chosen by the committee. This new

committee is "to promote a larger interest in Christian

education in China." It will assist the boards and other

Christian agencies and cooperate with the general education

committee appointed by the Shanghai conference and with the

China Educational Association.

EDUCATION: Cuba: A. D. 1899-1907.

Organization of Schools during the American Occupation.

Census-showing of results in 1907.

"During the American occupation of Cuba especial attention was

given to the establishment of common schools and other

educational institutions. The enrollment of the public schools

of Cuba immediately before the last war shows 36,306 scholars,

but an examination of the reports containing these figures

indicates that probably less than half the names enrolled

represented actual attendance. There were practically no

separate school buildings, but the scholars were collected in

the residences of the teachers. There were few books and

practically no maps, blackboards, desks, or other school

apparatus.

"The instruction consisted solely in learning by rote, the

catechism being the principal textbook, and the girls

occupying their time chiefly in embroidery. The teachers were

allowed to eke out their unpaid salaries by accepting fees

from the pupils. … At the end of the first six months of

American occupation the public school enrollment of the island

numbered 143,120. The schools were subjected to a constant and

effective inspection and the attendance was practically

identical with the enrollment. …

"All over the island the old Spanish barracks and the barracks

occupied by the American troops which had been withdrawn were

turned into schoolrooms after thorough renovation. The

pressure for education was earnest and universal. The

appropriations from the insular treasury for that purpose

during the first year of American occupation amounted to four

and a half millions.

"At the close of American occupation there were 121 boards of

education elected by the people (the system was kept out of

politics); the work of changing the old barracks throughout

the island into schoolhouses had been completed; a thoroughly

modern school building costing $50,000 had been erected at

Santiago; one school building in Habana had 33 rooms, with a

modern kindergarten, manual-training branch, two gymnasiums,

and baths; large schools had been established by changes in

government buildings at Guineas, Pinar del Rio, Matanzas,

Cieguo de Avila, and Colon; over 3600 teachers were subjected

to examination, and approximately 6000 persons applied for and

received examination as teachers. For six weeks during the

summer vacation of 1901, 4000 teachers were collected in

teachers’ institutes."

_Establishment of Free Government in Cuba

(58th Congress, 2d Session, Senate Document number 312)._

"The public-school system organized under the first

intervention in Cuba, is producing excellent results. Of the

population 10 years of age and over, 56.6 per cent could read,

showing a decided gain in that respect since 1899. Of the

native whites, 58.6 per cent could read, and of the colored 45

per cent were similarly educated."

_National Geographic Magazine,

February, 1909, p. 202._

EDUCATION: Egypt: A. D. 1901-1905.

Recent Development of Public Primary Schools.

Schools for Girls.

"Before the English occupation great masses of Egyptians

remained ignorant. Over 91 per cent. of the males and almost

99½ per cent. of the females could neither read nor write.

Until within the last five years public primary education for

the poorer classes, aside from the mere learning of the Koran,

was almost unknown. At the present time public schools are

being established everywhere, and grants in aid of these

schools are paid in proportion to the attendance and the

records made by the pupils. Likewise, certain positions in the

civil service can be filled only by those who hold

certificates from schools of certain grades. As a consequence

there has been a great awakening of interest. Most of the

teachers of these public schools are Mohammedan, and the

schools are non-Christian in their instruction. The Koran is

still used as a text-book for many purposes, but the education

is practical in its general nature. The children are taught,

besides reading and writing, the elements of the sciences, and

they choose either French or English as the foreign language

which they will learn, and that in which they will receive

instruction in the more advanced studies where Arabic

text-books cannot readily be provided. It is a noteworthy fact

that while, in the earlier days, French was the language more

frequently chosen, nearly all the pupils are now selecting

English. There are also provisions for training in law,

medicine, agriculture, engineering, etc. The law school is the

most popular, while the agricultural college—although the

basis of Egyptian wealth and prosperity is and must always be

agriculture—suffers from lack of pupils. Female education has

not been neglected, and we may expect in the near future that

instead of 99½ per cent. of the women being unable to write, a

very large per cent. of the mothers of the country will be

able to give their children the rudiments of education at

home."

_Professor J. W. Jenks,

The Egypt of To-day

(International Quarterly Review, October, 1902)._

{195}

"A revolution is a growth, not a cataclysm: the seeds of the

Egyptian Revolution were sown in the autumn of 1901 when Miss

Amina Hafiz Maghrabi was admitted to the Stockwell Road

Training College for Teachers. Miss Amina is the daughter of

one of the Officials in the Ministry of Public Instruction at

Cairo, and after passing a preliminary examination was sent to

England to be educated at the expense of the Egyptian

Government. … Miss Amina spent nearly three years at

Stockwell; then she returned to her own people; now she is a

teacher at the Abbas Public Girls’ School at Cairo, and the

right hand of Miss Spears, the Principal; this seed is bearing

fruit. No Revolution can be a success unless the women take it

up, and it is the women who are going to turn Egypt upside

down; it is the Mussulman women who have already begun to do

so. …

"The really astonishing work that has been going on for nearly

two years is the education for the teaching profession of

girls of the better class aged from about fourteen to twenty.

There are two or three schools where these girls are received

as boarders, and carefully tended by European mistresses; the

amazing thing is that they throw aside their veils and consent

to be taught by men. … In all the State schools of Egypt the

Koran is taught. In one corner of the garden is a small room

built to serve as a mosque; attendance is voluntary, but three

times a day each girl retires there for private prayer.

"These schools have been recently founded to provide female

teachers; they have not been in existence long enough for any

girls to have completed the two-years’ course; it may be they

will fail in their primary object; it is possible that the

girls who have been educated will none of them persevere in

the teaching profession; nevertheless, as Egyptian wives and

mothers, they must become the leaders of the revolution."

_Edmund Verney,

A Revolution in Egypt

(Contemporary Review, July, 1905)._

EDUCATION: A. D. 1908.

Gordon Memorial College at Khartoum.

From the eighth annual report of the Director of Education in

the Sudan it appears that the Gordon Memorial College, founded

at Khartoum in 1899 (see, in Volume VI. of this work, EGYPT:

A. D. 1898-1899), is now composed of the following educational

units:

"The primary school, which has been attended by 190 pupils,

the training college—vernacular and English—by 178, of which

150 belong to the vernacular side, and the upper school for

the training of engineers and surveyors by 28 students. One

hundred and seventy-two are on the roll of the instructional

workshops. There is, he remarks, no doubt whatever about the

popularity of the military school among the inhabitants of the

country, both Arab and Sudanese. Some 20 young men have now

received commission in the famous black battalions, or in the

new Arab levies now being raised. They have almost all been

well reported on. He understood that the responsible Army

authorities propose to increase this school substantially, and

to render it capable of holding twice the present number of

cadets." The College is reported to have "felt the strain of

existing financial difficulties very keenly, and the rate of

progress has hardly been maintained this year."—1908.

EDUCATION: England: A. D. 1902.

The Education Act, in the interest of the Voluntary or

Church Schools.

Text of its provisions most obnoxious to the Nonconformists.

"Passive resistance" among them to the law.

The Education Act of 1870 created in England for the first

time a system of officially regulated and publicly supported

elementary schools.

See in Volume I. of this work,

EDUCATION: MODERN: ENGLAND: A. D. 1699-1870.

Those schools divided the work of elementary education with

schools of another, older system, founded, maintained, and

managed by the churches of the country,—mainly by the

predominant Established Church of England. The public

elementary schools, supported out of local rates and governed

by locally-elected school boards were called Board Schools;

the others were called Voluntary Schools. The latter received

some public money from an annual Parliamentary grant, but

nothing from the local taxation which supported the former. In

the Voluntary Schools under church control religious teaching

was prescribed and given systematically; in the Board Schools

it was not. Those who held religious teaching, of their own

denominational orthodoxy, to be a vital part of education,

were ardent partisans of the Voluntary Schools. Those who

approved the exclusion of theological differences from the

teaching of the Board Schools were equally ardent champions of

those. As a rule, the adherents of the Established Church and

of the Roman Catholic Church were opponents of the public

system, while the Dissenters or Nonconformists of all sects

gave it strenuous support. Thus the two systems were

mischievously antagonized, and almost from the beginning of

the operation of the Act of 1870 it had been manifest that one

or the other must ultimately give way to its rival.

In 1902 the Conservative party, in which the Established

Church of England is most largely represented, found itself

strong enough in Parliament to undertake the nationalizing of

the Voluntary Schools in England and Wales, incorporating them

with their rivals in one reconstructed national system, but

securing their domination in it, along with equal sharing from

the public purse. A Bill for the purpose was proposed to the

House of Commons on the 24th of March by Mr. Balfour, then the

Administration leader in the House. In his speech on a motion

for leave to bring it in he spoke of the need of a single

authority for education, primary, secondary, and technical; of

the disadvantages of the two organizations of elementary

schools, and of the absurdity of supposing that the great

number of Voluntary Schools and Endowed Schools could be swept

away and replaced at enormous public cost. The proposed Bill,

based on these views, would extinguish the local School Boards

and make the County Council in counties and the Borough

Council in county boroughs the one local education authority.

As introduced subsequently and enacted, after heated and long

debate, the Bill accomplished its leading objects, so far as

concerned elementary education, by provisions of which the

following is the text:

{196}

"Part III. Elementary Education.

5.

The local education authority shall throughout their area

have the powers and duties of a school board and school

attendance committee under the Elementary Education Acts, 1870

to 1900, and any other Acts, including local Acts, and shall

also be responsible for and have the control of all secular

instruction in public elementary schools not provided by them,

and school boards and school attendance committees shall be

abolished.

"6.

(1) All public elementary schools provided by the local

education authority shall, where the local education authority

are the council of a county, have a body of managers

consisting of a number of managers not exceeding four

appointed by that council, together with a number not

exceeding two appointed by the minor local authority. Where

the local education authority are the council of a borough or

urban district they may, if they think fit, appoint for any

school provided by them a body of managers consisting of such

number of managers as they may determine.

"(2) All public elementary schools not provided by the local

education authority shall, in place of the existing managers,

have a body of managers consisting of a number of foundation

managers not exceeding four appointed as provided by this Act,

together with a number of managers not exceeding two

appointed—

(_a_) where the local education authority are the council

of a county, one by that council and one by the minor local

authority; and

(_b_) where the local education authority are the council

of a borough or urban district, both by that authority.

"(3)

Notwithstanding anything in this section—

(_a_) Schools may be grouped under one body of managers

in manner provided by this Act; and

(_b_) Where the local education authority consider that

the circumstances of any school require a larger body of

managers than that provided under this section, that authority

may increase the total number of managers, so, however, that

the number of each class of managers is proportionately

increased.

"7.—

(1) The local education authority shall maintain and keep

efficient all public elementary schools within their area

which are necessary, and have the control of all expenditure

required for that purpose, other than expenditure for which,

under this Act, provision is to be made by the managers; but,

in the case of a school not provided by them, only so long as

the following conditions and provisions are complied with:—

"(_a_) The managers of the school shall carry out any

directions of the local education authority as to the secular

instruction to be given in the school, including any

directions with respect to the number and educational

qualifications of the teachers to be employed for such

instruction, and for the dismissal of any teacher on

educational grounds, and if the managers fail to carry out any

such direction the local education authority shall, in

addition to their other powers, have the power themselves to

carry out the direction in question as if they were the

managers; but no direction given under this provision shall be

such as to interfere with reasonable facilities for religious

instruction during school hours:

"(_b_) The local education authority shall have power to

inspect the school;

"(_c_) The consent of the local education authority shall

be required to the appointment of teachers, but that consent

shall not be withheld except on educational grounds; and the

consent of the authority shall also be required to the

dismissal of a teacher unless the dismissal be on grounds

connected with the giving of religious instruction in the

school. … [Here follow provisions relative to schoolhouses and

teachers’ dwellings.]

"(_3_) If any question arises under this section between

the local education authority and the managers of a school not

provided by the authority, that question shall be determined

by the Board of Education.

"(_4_) One of the conditions required to be fulfilled by

an elementary school in order to obtain a parliamentary grant

shall be that it is maintained under and complies with the

provisions of this section.

"(_5_) In public elementary schools maintained but not

provided by the local educational authority, assistant

teachers and pupil teachers may be appointed, if it is thought

fit, without reference to religious creed and denomination,

and, in any case in which there are more candidates for the

post of pupil teacher than there are places to be filled, the

appointment shall be made by the local education authority,

and they shall determine the respective qualifications of the

candidates by examination or otherwise.

"(_6_) Religious instruction given in a public elementary

school not provided by the local education authority shall, as

regards its character, be in accordance with the provisions

(if any) of the trust deed relating thereto, and shall be

under the control of the managers: Provided that nothing in

this subjection shall affect any provision in a trust deed for

reference to the bishop or superior ecclesiastical or other

denominational authority so far as such provision gives to the

bishop or authority the power of deciding whether the

character of the religious instruction is or is not in

accordance with the provisions of the trust deed.

"(_7_) The managers of a school maintained but not

provided by the local education authority shall have all

powers of management required for the purpose of carrying out

this Act, and shall (subject to the powers of the local

education authority under this section) have the exclusive

power of appointing and dismissing teachers.

"8.—

(1) Where the local education authority or any other persons

propose to provide a new public elementary school, they shall

give public notice of their intention to do so, and the

managers of any existing school, or the local education

authority (where they are not themselves the persons proposing

to provide the school), or any ten rate payers in the area for

which it is proposed to provide the school, may, within three

months after the notice is given, appeal to the Board of

Education on the ground that the proposed school is not

required, or that a school provided by the local education

authority, or not so provided, as the case may be, is better

suited to meet the wants of the district than the school

proposed to be provided, and any school built in contravention

of the decision of the Board of Education on such appeal shall

be treated as unnecessary.

{197}

"(2) If, in the opinion of the Board of Education, any

enlargement of a public elementary school is such as to amount

to the provision of a new school, that enlargement shall be so

treated for the purposes of this section.

"(3) Any transfer of a public elementary school to or from a

local education authority shall for the purposes of this

section be treated as the provision of a new school.

"9. The Board of Education shall, without unnecessary delay,

determine, in case of dispute, whether a school is necessary

or not, and, in so determining, and also in deciding on any

appeal as to the provision of a new school, shall have regard

to the interest of secular instruction, to the wishes of

parents as to the education of their children, and to the

economy of the rates; but a school for the time being

recognized as a public elementary school shall not be

considered unnecessary in which the number of scholars in

average attendance, as computed by the Board of Education, is

not less than thirty."

The main contentions were raised by these sections of the

Bill, and as soon as their bearing and effect were discerned

the Nonconformist opposition was rallied in strong force. "The

main ground of objection taken," says the Annual Register,

"was that, while throwing the whole charge of the maintenance

of denominational schools (apart from that of the fabrics) on

public funds, it failed to secure to the local public any real

control over the management of the schools so maintained, and

amounted in effect to a new endowment of the Church of

England; also that it perpetuated and enhanced the injustice

of the pressure of the system of religious tests in the

profession of elementary teaching, which would now, it was

said, if the Bill should pass, be the permanent monopoly of

Anglicans in the schools educating more than half of the

children of the working classes. Denunciatory resolutions

based generally on grounds of this character, were passed by

the National Free Church Council, the London Congregational

Union (April 8), the General Committee of the Protestant

Dissenting Deputies, and other bodies; and at an early date a

disposition, to which both encouragement and expression were

vigorously administered by the British Weekly, was somewhat

extensively shown to urge that it would be the duty of

Nonconformists to refuse to pay the education rate if the Bill

should become law. Dr. Parker, of the City Temple, in a letter

to the _Times_ (April 5), avowed himself earnestly in

favour of this policy, which was also defended by the Rev. H.

Price Hughs. It was opposed by the Rev. John Watson, of

Liverpool (known in the literary world as ‘Ian Maclaren’), but

the voices of restraint among the Nonconformist opposition

were less audible than those of indignant reproach and

menace."

_Annual Register,

1902, p. 107._

The following from an article by Rev. J. Guinness Rogers shows

the attitude and feeling of the Nonconformist opposition:

"Hitherto a certain proportion of the cost of these schools

has been borne by Churchmen themselves, and Nonconformists

have been content to regard that as fairly providing for the

sectarian teaching that was given. They did not regard the

arrangement as wise or salutary. But they acquiesced

considering that they had no responsibility whatever for the

denominational teaching that was given. The new Act altered

all the conditions. The State now assumes all the

responsibility for the support of these schools. The last

vestige of voluntary support is swept away, and they become in

every sense part of the National School system. The burden of

their support is thrown upon the public funds. Only in the

matter of control and of their religious teaching do they

retain anything of their private character. … They are to be

supported out of the public funds. But they constitute a

privileged class of schools under private managers, and their

chief teachers have to belong to a particular Church and to

give instruction in its principles and doctrines. It is this

which has stirred the indignation of Nonconformists. They

conscientiously object to pay for the support of schools

staffed by Anglican teachers and employed in the dissemination

of Anglican doctrines. …

"For thirty years the Free Churches of England have quietly

submitted to an arrangement which practically left thousands

of the schools under the absolute sway of the clergy. There

were thus vast districts of the country, and those the

districts least open to the free play of public opinion, in

which Nonconformist children were forced into the ranks of the

pupils, while Non-conformist teachers were just as resolutely

kept out of these favoured preserves of sectarianism. But even

this did not satisfy the clergy and their friends. During

almost the whole of the period in question there have been

continual attempts to secure better terms for those already so

highly privileged. At length came the period for decided

action. … The whole character of our educational apparatus has

been changed, and changed in a manner as unfavourable to

constitutional liberty as to religious equality. School boards

were institutions in which Nonconformists had taken a deep

interest and in which in many of the large towns they had

achieved conspicuous success. They have been ruthlessly swept

away, and henceforth the work of education in our large towns

and cities is entrusted to committees chosen by County

Councils; Mr. Balfour showing here the same dislike of popular

control as characterises his administration in the House of

Commons. Can it be thought wonderful that Nonconformists have

been goaded into resistance by a policy so high-handed and so

determined? We have heard enough of the intolerable strain put

upon the supporters of the voluntary schools. The strain of

clerical intolerance and Tory partiality has become still more

intolerable."

_J. Guinness Rogers,

The Nonconformist Uprising

(Nineteenth Century, October, 1903)._

A weightier and more statesman like objection to the Act was

set forth by the Right Honourable James Bryce in the

following:

"Of all the causes which have kept education in England,

secondary as well as elementary, below the level it has

reached in such countries as Switzerland and Scotland and New

England, the most deep seated is the want of popular interest

and popular sympathy. The people have not felt the schools to

be their own, have not been associated with the management,

have not realised how largely the welfare and prosperity of

the nation depend on the instruction which each generation

receives. Since 1870 something has been done to stimulate

popular interest by the creation of School Boards (whose

admirable work in the large towns is admitted even by the

Ministry which proposes to destroy them), by the introduction

of a large representative element upon the governing bodies of

endowed secondary schools, and by entrusting County and

Borough Councils with power to spend money upon technical

instruction.

{198}

What can be plainer than that a wise statesmanship ought to

follow in the same path endeavouring to create everywhere

local educational authorities chosen by the people and

responsible to the people, keeping these local authorities up

to the mark by making a share in the imperial grant

conditional upon full efficiency, but teaching them to look

upon the schools as their own, and to feel that it is their

own interest as parents and citizens to make their schools

worthy of an advancing nation? No such idea has been present

to those who framed this Bill. It reduces, instead of in

creasing, the element of popular interest and popular control.

"School Boards are to be swept away, and with them those

elected women members who have been so valuable and

influential an element. The substituted County and Borough

Councils are, no doubt, elective bodies. But they have so many

functions already besides those educational functions which

are now to be thrown on them that the latter will play a small

part, and their discharge of those functions cannot be

effectively reviewed by the people at an election. Moreover,

every Council is directed to act through an Education

Committee largely, or possibly entirely, consisting of persons

outside their own bodies. It is certainly desirable to secure

an element of special knowledge. But the policy of these

committees—and policy (except as regards finance) is to rest

with them—will never be subject to any review by the electors,

to whom the committees are nowise responsible. The fault is

still worse when we come to the local managers. Where there

exist only denominational schools, there will be no popular

control at all, for the permissive appointment by the

Education Committee of not more than one-third of the local

managers is a merely nominal concession, quite illusory for

the purpose of securing any local power, any local interest,

any local sympathy. In most cases this permissive right of

appointment will probably be used to add to the denominational

managers some person or persons recommended by them, or one of

them, to the Education Committee, which sits in the distant

county town and may know nothing about the locality.

"It is not from any superstitious faith in popular election or

in what are called ‘democratic principles’ that I deplore

these provisions of the Bill. It is because they tend to

withdraw from education one of its most valuable propulsive

forces. Let us hear the Schools Inquiry Commissioners of 1868,

among whom were the present Archbishop of Canterbury, the late

Bishop of Winchester, and another eminent ecclesiastic.

"‘No skill in organisation, no careful adaptation of the means

in hand to the best ends, can do as much for education as the

earnest co-operation of the people. The American schools

appear to have no great excellence of method. But the schools

are in the hands of the people, and from this fact they derive

a force which seems to make up for all their deficiencies. …

In Zurich the schools are absolutely in the hands of the

people, and the complete success of the system must be largely

ascribed to this cause. … It is impossible to doubt that in

England also inferior management, if it were backed up by very

hearty sympathy from the mass of the people, would often

succeed better than much greater skill without such support.’

"These words were spoken of secondary education. They apply

with even greater force to elementary. The experience of

thirty-four years confirms them. But there is nothing in this

Bill to give effect to their principle."

_James Bryce,

A Few Words on the Few Education Bill

(Nineteenth Century, May, 1902)._

The Education Bill passed its third reading in the House of

Commons on the 3d of December, by a vote of 246 against 123,

being a majority of exactly two-thirds. In the House of Lords

it received brief discussion and a few amendments, which the

Commons accepted, and it was sent quickly to the King,

receiving the royal assent December 18. And now there came

into action the stubborn revolt which took the name of

"passive resistance,"—the refusal, that is, of a considerable

body of people to pay the rates levied for school purposes

under a law which they held to be unjust. Their attitude, and

the consequences they suffered, in imprisonment and the

seizure and sale of their property, are described in the

following passages from an article by one of the leaders of

the movement:

"It is difficult to believe that, at the beginning of the

twentieth century, Englishmen of high character and

indisputable loyalty are being sent to prison for exactly the

same reasons as those which were urged for committing John

Bunyan to Bedford Gaol; for exposing Richard Baxter to the

browbeating of Judge Jeffreys and a sentence of eighteen

months incarceration; and for sending George Fox to the

noisome dungeons of Carlisle and Derby, Lancaster and London.

Americans cannot credit it. The colonists of Canada and

Australia say, ‘Can these things be?'?; and even Englishmen

would never accept the humiliating conclusion, if they were

not confronted by the undeniable fact. The fact is that nearly

one hundred freemen of England, respectable and God-fearing

citizens, have been sentenced to different periods of

imprisonment since November, 1903. …

"Imprisonment is only one phase of this advancing cause;

another is that of the public sale of the furniture, pictures

and books of those who refuse to submit. The first sale was at

Wirksworth, in Derbyshire, on June 26th, 1903; and it has been

followed by about 1,600 more in different towns and villages,

all over England. … In one extremely flagrant instance, one

hundred pounds’ worth of goods were taken for the sum of

fifteen shillings, and in many cases fidelity to conscience

has meant loss of trade and of position, … No less than 40,000

summonses have been sent forth by the overseers to compel

recalcitrant rate-payers to appear before the magistrates and

‘show cause’ why they will not pay. …

"Now, it is for that process we cannot and will not pay any

rate whatever. We object to many of the provisions of the

Education Acts. They are anti-democratic, unfair, unjust; they

are destructive of educational efficiency and social peace;

but the one thing that has created the Passive Resistance

movement is not the destruction of the School Board, not the

loss of popular control, but this intrusion into the realm of

conscience by the State.

{199}

That is the prime factor in this situation. To that ‘we will

not submit,’ declared Mr. Fairbairn to Mr. Balfour when the

Bill was before the House. In short, we say with Bunyan to our

persecutors, ‘Where I cannot obey actively, there I am willing

to lie down, and to suffer what they shall do unto me.’"

_John Clifford,

Passive Resistance in England and Wales

(North American Review, March, 1905)._

In Wales, where the Nonconformists are very strong, the

resistance became more than passive. The County Councils

refused generally to put the Act into operation, and

Parliament, in August, 1904, passed what was described as the

"Welsh Coercion Act," to compel their obedience to it. This

Act authorized the central Board of Education, in the case of

a county proclaimed in default to provide for Church schools

and to deduct such appropriation from the Government rant for

educational uses to the county. As the deficit thus caused in

the sum available for the National schools would have to be

made up by the county, the recalcitrant county would thus

indirectly be saddled with the maintenance of the Church

schools. But Welsh resistance was not so easily overcome; for

a new plan was devised, according to which every proceeding

under the Coercion Act would be met by the resignation of

county education committees and managers of the National

schools. This would paralyze the central Board, which has no

power to fill the places thus vacated.

EDUCATION: A. D. 1904.

Church Attendance in School Hours.

A circular issued by the Board of Education, in July, relative

to the taking of children from Church schools, during school

hours, to attend Church services on Saints' days, caused great

dissatisfaction and complaint in Church circles. The practice

had been permitted hitherto; but the Board ruled that school

time-tables making provision for this must have the sanction

of the local school authorities, which in many cases were

opposed to the practice. A "Church Schools Emergency League"

was now organized to contest the action of the Board.

EDUCATION: A. D. 1905.

Underfed School Children.

An order issued by the Local Government Board, in April,

directed that, in the case of school children under sixteen,

found to be underfed, who were not blind, deaf or dumb, and

who were living with a father not in receipt of relief, there

must be application for relief made to the guardians of the

poor by a teacher empowered by the managers, or by an officer

authorized by the education authorities. The guardians must

then investigate the case and decide whether relief should be

given as a loan or in the ordinary mode, and notify the father

accordingly; thus giving the parent the opportunity to make

the needed provision himself. If he did not do so, the

guardians were empowered to recover from him the cost of the

necessary relief by county court process.

The report of the Board of Education for the year 1907-1908,

published in March, 1909, states with reference to the feeding

of necessitous school children that: "From December 21, 1906,

when the Education (Provision of Meals) Act, 1906, came into

operation, to July 31, 1908, 51 local education authorities

have been authorized to spend money from the rates in

providing food for school children. Of the 20 authorities

referred to in last year’s report as having taken power to

spend money for this purpose 14 have obtained sanction to

spend money in a second year."

EDUCATION: A. D. 1906.

Education Bill passed by the House of Commons and killed

by amendments in the House of Lords.

The defeat of the Conservatives and Unionists in the

Parliamentary elections of January, 1906, was ascribed very

largely to popular dissatisfaction with the Education Act of

1902. Hence, on the resignation of the Balfour Ministry and

the call of the Liberals, under Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman,

to the administration of the Government, the new masters of

legislative authority were held to have received a mandate

from the people to amend the objectionable law. On the 9th of

April a Bill to that end was brought forward by Augustine

Birrell, President of the Board of Education and again the old

disputes over denominational religious teaching in schools

supported by the public at large were re-enlivened and

re-heated, in Parliament and out. In December it passed the

House of Commons by a majority of 192, and went to the Lords.

A succinct and clear statement of the intent of the Bill, as

framed by the Government, was given in an article contributed

to _The Outlook_ of August 4, 1906, by Dr. Clifford

Webster Barnes, Special Commissioner of the Religious

Education Association to investigate moral and religious

instruction in European schools. In the framing of the Bill it

had been assumed that the overwhelming majority which swept

the new Government into power had determined that the

following principles should be enacted into law:

1. Unification of the public school system.

2. Complete local control where public funds are received.

3. Abolition of religious tests for teachers.

"The new bill by its first clause," wrote Dr. Barnes, "has

virtually met these three requirements. It makes it impossible

for the State, hereafter, to recognize or provide for any

school unless it comes under the absolute control of the local

authority; and as church boards are thus supplanted, religious

tests for teachers need no longer be feared. In later clauses,

also, special safeguards are arranged to protect the teachers

from this sort of test. If the bill, after providing the

necessary machinery with which to carry out its first clause,

went no further, the extreme Nonconformist would undoubtedly

have given it most hearty support, and the wrath of the Church

party might possibly have been no greater. But love for fair

play has prevailed in the Cabinet, and the Liberal Government

has proved its right to the title by introducing, in clauses

2, 3, and 4, special provisions for leasing the denominational

schools and for permitting their owners to give the religious

instruction distinctive of the church to which they belong. …

"The bill, therefore, makes the following concessions:

"1. For the purpose of continuing any existing voluntary

school it permits the local authority, on some arrangement

being made with the owners, to take over such school, provided

it is structurally fit. The State will then pay the entire

cost of maintenance, keep the property in good repair, and use

it only between the hours of 9 a. m. and 4 p. m., from Monday

to Friday inclusive. At all other times the owners are

privileged to do with it as they see fit. On two mornings of

the week, between 9 and 9.45, the religious teaching peculiar

to the denomination owning the property may be given, but

children whose parents do not wish such teaching are to be

excused during that time.

{200}

"2. In urban areas where there is a population of five

thousand or over, a Church school may remain as denominational

as at present, the distinctive dogmas of the Church being

taught as much as may be desired, provided the parents of

four-fifths of the children vote in favor of this arrangement,

and provided, also, that there are accommodations in some

neighboring school for those whose parents prefer

undenominational instruction. In every case that portion of

the religious teaching which is distinctively denominational

must be paid for by the church giving it. Statistics show that

by this concession one hundred per cent. of the Jewish schools

will be able to preserve their denominational character,

seventy-five per cent. of the Catholic schools, fifty per

cent. of the Wesleyan, and twenty-five per cent. of the Church

of England. By the previous concession, of course, all the

remaining schools of the various denominations will be able to

give their distinctive theological teaching on two mornings of

each week.

"But this denominational instruction is not the only religious

education which the schools will provide. By the bill of 1870

local authorities were permitted to introduce a kind of simple

Bible teaching which has been nicknamed, from the author of

the act, ‘Cowper-Templeism.’ It consists of Bible lessons

covering the Old and New Testaments arranged according to some

well-planned syllabus, the majority of these being modeled

after that of the London County Council. The exercise opens

with prayer and a hymn, after which the children tell the

Bible story of the day and are assisted by the teacher to draw

from it some suitable moral lesson, but no creed or religious

formulary distinctive of any denomination can be used. This

teaching must be given in the first hour of the morning,

between 9 and 9.45, and any child may be excused from

attendance upon the request of its parent. It is a significant

fact that the Nonconformists of 1870 were unanimously opposed

to the Cowper-Temple clause, and that it was put through only

by the strong and united effort of the bishops. Now it is the

Nonconformists who, to a man, favor this kind of instruction,

while some at least of the bishops, in their eagerness to

preserve denominationalism, go so far as to say ‘this teaching

undermines the foundations of Christianity.’"

In the House of Lords the Bill came under the Church

influences which had dictated the Act of 1902, and it was

slashed with amendments which would totally reverse its

operation on all the controverted points. That procedure

killed the measure, of course; and so the burning school

question remains unsettled, while England gives much thought

to another question,—What to do with the House of Lords?

See (in this Volume)

ENGLAND: A. D. 1906 (APRIL-DECEMBER).

EDUCATION: A. D. 1907 (November).

Failure to compromise the Religious Sectarian Differences

concerning Public Education.

Attempts to negotiate a compromise with the religious bodies

whose antagonism wrecked the Education Bill of 1906 went so

far as to induce the Government, in November, 1907, to

introduce a Bill embodying the points on which agreement had

been reached. The outcome was stated in the report of the

Board of Education for 1907-1908, as follows:

"It became apparent after some progress had been made in

Committee that denominational assent could only be obtained by

still further concessions, including a substantial increase in

the grant to contracting-out schools. Your Majesty’s

Government have always maintained that the number of schools

availing themselves of the privilege of contracting-out, must

be strictly limited, that the grant provided by the Bill was

sufficient to afford a limited number of schools a reasonable

chance of existence, and that to increase the grant beyond

this sum would enable the great majority of schools to take

advantage of the privilege, and would involve the

establishment of a system of contracting-out as the rule

instead of the exception. In view of the impossibility of

obtaining agreement without such amendments as were, in the

opinion of your Majesty’s Government, inadmissible, it was

found necessary to withdraw the Bill."

EDUCATION: A. D. 1908.

Provisions of the Children Act relating to Industrial and

Reformatory Schools.

See (in this Volume)

CHILDREN, UNDER THE LAW.

EDUCATION: A. D. 1908-1909.

Oxford Teaching for Working People.

In 1908 the Convocation of the University of Oxford passed a

statute which gave the University Extension Delegacy power to

form a committee consisting of working-class representatives

in equal numbers with members of the Delegacy, with the object

of enabling Oxford to take its proper share in the work of

providing higher education for the manual working classes. In

January, 1909, the committee organized eight tutorial classes,

at Chesterfield, Glossop, Littleborough, Longton, Oldham,

Rochdale, Swindon and Wrexham. At the end of the first twelve

weeks of the work results were reported, as follows: "The

number of students enrolled was about 234, among whom were 20

women; and all of these pledged themselves to study

continuously under the supervision of the tutors provided by

Oxford for a period of three years. The subjects studied were

industrial history and economics. … The members with few

exceptions are men and women engaged in manual labour during

the day. Out of 169 students 48 were engineers, 35 were

engaged in the textile industries, 17 belonged to the building

trades, 12 were labourers, ten were potters, seven were in the

clothing trades, five were miners, and four were printers.

Sixty per cent. of the 234 students were under the age of 34.

Many of them were members' of working-class organizations. …

Few students abandoned the classes after beginning to attend

them, except for reasons such as illness, overtime or

unemployment. The average attendances are about 90 per cent.

of the maximum, possible. The paper work in some cases would

probably compare with the work done by first-class students in

the final honours schools at Oxford. … The committee consider

that any movement to shorten the hours of labour would

enormously increase the opportunities for higher education

among work people."

{201}

EDUCATION: A. D. 1909.

Official Reports and Statements of the extent and operation

of the English agencies of Public Education.

On the 2d of March, the President of the Board of Education,

Mr. Runciman, received a deputation of the Parliamentary

Committee of the Trade Union Congress, who presented a

resolution passed at the Congress stating that no solution of

the educational problem would be satisfactory that did not

give free education from the elementary school to the

University, and demanding the immediate abolition of fees in

secondary schools and technical colleges. One of the speakers

of the deputation complained that secondary school fees were

mounting so high that working people could not afford to pay

them, and that in some cases the rule as to the reservation of

25 per cent. of free places in secondary schools had not been

observed. Mr. Runciman, in reply, said that the difficulties

which had been raised centered around local finance. The Board

of Education had not been idle during the last three years in

assisting local authorities, especially for secondary

education. In the year 1906-1907 the grant for this purpose

amounted to £480,000; £691,000 was granted in 1907-1908; and in

the estimate for 1908-1909 £802,000 was put aside for secondary

education; and as far as he could see at present the amount to

be granted for secondary education purposes next year would be

even larger. … Of the total number of secondary schools which

were now required to comply with the free places regulation,

368, or more than half, provided in 1907-1908 more than the

stipulated 25 per cent., and the great majority of the whole

of them provided the 25 per cent. There were, it was true, a

number of cases where a smaller number of free places had been

granted, but that fact was due purely to local considerations.

… He should do all he could to prevent secondary schools from

becoming class schools, but it was not every child who was

suitable to enter a secondary school, and they must have a

fairly good standard examination for the child who wished to

enter. He would very much deplore indeed if the cost of

secondary education were to make it prohibitive, or so to

restrict to allow it to be open only to the children of

well-to-do-parents. He hoped, before the new regulations were

published, to clear away some of the obstacles in the

direction of throwing open a larger number of free places to

scholars and towards making the secondary schools as much

schools for the clever poor children as for the clever rich

children.

[Transcriber's note: The text between "must have a …"

and "… were published" is covered with an opaque ink stain.

Some words are guesses.]

A few days later in March the report of the general Board of

Education for the school year 1907-1908 was issued, bringing

statistical information of the English schools down to the

31st of July in the latter year. During the year then ended,

the number of new public elementary schools sanctioned under

the Education Act, 1902, was, in England, 215, giving

accommodation for 80,351 children, and in Wales 64,

accommodating 13,942 students. Enlargements, numbering 94 and

21 respectively, provided accommodation for 17,697 children in

England and 3,407 in Wales. During the year ending July 31,

1907, the number of ordinary public elementary schools in

England and Wales increased by 44, the council schools

increasing by 223, while the number of voluntary schools

decreased by 179. One hundred voluntary schools were

transferred to local education authorities. During the next 12

months the number of schools grew by 47, the number of council

schools having increased by 205, and the number of voluntary

schools having decreased by 158.

As regards higher elementary schools, 35 schools of the new

type existed on August 1, 1907, by which date there were left

26 such schools of the old type. The changes during the

succeeding year brought the total number of higher elementary

schools of the new type to 38, and the number of such schools

of the old type to 21 by August 1, 1908. The number of

scholars on the registers of elementary schools decreased

during 1906-1907 by 22,584, due mainly to a continued diminution

in the number of scholars under five years of age. During

1907-1908 the number of scholars on the registers increased by

12,166, a further decrease in the number of scholars under

five being more than balanced by a large increase in the

number of scholars between the ages of five and twelve.

The report records a growth of secondary schools receiving

grants from the Board, both in the numbers of such schools and

of the pupils attending them, and also in their effectiveness.

The Board adds:

"There are still areas where the amount of public secondary

school provision is wholly inadequate, or where its quality

falls much short of any standard that can be regarded as even

provisionally satisfactory. But there is no area in which the

Board have to note actual retrogression."

As regards evening schools, the report says:

"The total number of students enrolled in these schools during

1906-1907 diminished from 749,491 to 736,512; but there was a

considerable increase in the number of efficient students."

Statistics of the elementary schools of London for the year

1907-1908, published in March, 1909, in the annual report of the

education officer of the London County Council, showed that

the average number of children on the rolls of schools

maintained by the Council during the year was 731,706. Of this

number, 566,086 were on the rolls of London County Council

schools and 165,620 on the rolls of non-provided schools. The

average number of children in attendance during the year was

650,861, of whom 505,698 were at London County Council schools

and 145,163 at non-provided schools. The total number of

teachers engaged on March 31, 1908, was 17,562, of whom 13,030

were in London County Council schools and 4,532 in

non-provided schools. The salaries of these teachers amounted

to £1,820,816 and £443,468 respectively. On March 31, 1908,

the average salaries of head teachers and certificated

assistants (excluding teachers "on supply") were—for masters

in London County Council schools, £174 13s. 4d., and for

mistresses, £125 11s.; for masters in non-provided schools,

£144 1s. 7d., and for mistresses, £104 6s. 3d.

With reference to the size of classes the report states that

the number of pupils per class teacher was, in the case of

London County Council schools, 44.8, and in the case of

non-provided schools 37.5. Ten years ago the number was 55.2.

The gross expenditure on elementary schools was,

approximately, £4,000,000. The cost of London County Council

schools was about £3,400,000, and of non-provided schools

£600,000. About £1,257,000 of Government grant was earned and

of this £971,000 was in respect of London County Council

schools and £286,000 in respect of non-provided schools.

{202}

Under the Education (Administrative Provisions) Act, 1907, the

London County Council is empowered to provide vacation schools

or classes during the holidays, or assist voluntary agencies

formed for this purpose. Hitherto the council has given

assistance to voluntary agencies, but in 1909 it was proposed

by the Children’s Care (Central) Sub-Committee of the

Education Committee of the council that the council should

itself organize vacation schools.

Debate in the House of Commons on the Education Estimates was

opened by the President of the Board of Education, Mr.

Runciman, on the 14th of July. In the course of his speech he

made the following statements:

"The Board of Education is now one of the greatest of the

spending departments, and a rough estimate of the amount of

public money spent on public education in this country shows

that we have cognizance of an expenditure of something like

£28,000,000 on elementary, secondary, and higher education,

and over and above that of a sum of probably £8,000,000 to

£10,000,000 spent by other authorities and other persons.

These estimates affect no fewer than 3,000,000 parents and

about 6,000,000 children. The improvement which has been made

in the elementary education system during the last five years

has been mainly machinery improvement rather than improvement

in the curriculum.

"The secondary and technical branches of the work which were

formerly under the control of South Kensington are now treated

as two different departments. In the old days technical

education was too technicalized and too little in touch with

the practical affairs, necessities, and actual circumstances

of life. It has been the object of the Board of Education

therefore to generalize secondary education, and so far as it

comes under the control of the Board to make technical

education more practical with a closer bearing on the duties

likely to be required from the young men and women who pass

through these classes. The improvement has been led, as might

have been expected, in the North of England, where classes

have been definitely graded. …

"The secondary schools of England and Wales have shown a most

marked improvement, both in numbers and character, during the

last few years. Progress has been noted in several directions.

First of all, the number of schools aided by grants and the

number of pupils attending those schools have gone up year by

year since 1902. The 272 secondary schools of that year have

increased to 800, and even since 1905-1906 the increase has been

at the same rate. I think in 1905-1906 there were only about 600

secondary schools in this country; now there are over 800.

About 60 new secondary schools are being added every school

year, and the number of pupils is increasing to an even

greater extent. The increase during the years 1902-1905 was

about 6,000 per annum, and the increase now has risen to over

10,000 per annum, so that the total number of pupils in

secondary schools is now 134,000, or very nearly 135,000. The

grants which have been made to secondary schools have, of

course, increased very considerably. It is impossible to

expect local authorities to spend much of their money on the

expenses of secondary schools unless they receive a large

measure of State aid. The grants have gone up during the seven

years from 1902 to the present time from £129,000 per annum to

over half a million; and this great increase in pupils, in the

amount of money spent on the schools, and in the number of

schools in the country, has been marked at the same time by a

raising of the standard of the teachers employed in those

schools, by an increase in the length of the school life of

the pupils who attend those schools, and by an incalculable

improvement in the curriculum and the efficiency of those

schools. I think we may look back with satisfaction on the

increase of the secondary schools over which we have control."

At the annual conference of the National Union of Teachers,

held at Morecambe, in April, 1909, with about 2000 in

attendance, the address of the incoming President contained

some interesting statements relative to the national teaching

staff.

"The character of the teaching staff in the elementary schools

of England and Wales," he remarked, "as shown by the latest

available return of the Board of Education, was: Of

certificated teachers, 89,078, or 49 percent.; of

uncertificated teachers, 40,569, or 22 per cent.; of

supplementary teachers, 21,984, or 12 per cent.; and of pupil

teachers, 27,227, or 15 per cent. The 22,000 so-called

supplementary teachers, possessing scarcely any educational

equipment, were utterly unfitted in most cases for the

important duties they were called upon to perform. Their sole

passports to the teaching profession were that they must be at

least one year over 17 and had been successfully vaccinated;

yet they were answerable for the education of nearly 600,000

children. The Board of Education proposed that in future each

member of this class of teacher should count on the staff for

20 instead of 30 children, while other regulations provided

for the limitation of the numbers to be employed in the

schools, and for the withdrawal by the board of the

recognition of a supplementary teacher at any time if not

efficient. This was indeed a step in the right direction, and

showed that Mr. Runciman was really solicitous that there

should be an improvement in the quality of the teachers at

work in the schools. There were also many young persons termed

student teachers whose academic training was unexceptionable.

They were really apprentices, but the Board of Education had

regarded each of these young people, who might never have been

in an elementary school before, or done a day’s teaching

anywhere, and who were away one day out of every five, as an

efficient teacher equal to educating 45 children on every

occasion on which the school was opened. … There were some 500

well-equipped college-trained certificated teachers waiting to

fill the gap which would be caused by the new regulations of

the Board of Education, and an additional 4,000 would be

seeking employment in August."

{203}

EDUCATION: A. D. 1909 (MAY).

Revival of Passive Resistance to the Act of 1902.

The defeat of the Education Bill of 1906 wakened the spirit of

"passive resistance" afresh; but it was not until May, 1909, that

a reorganization of the movement was undertaken. As the result

of a conference then held in London, under the presidency of

Dr. Clifford, resolutions were adopted for the "organizing of

the whole passive resistance forces of the country into a new

league," to act on the following lines:

"(1) Suffering imprisonment where the resister has no

distrainable goods;

(2) suffering the distraint of goods without repurchase;

(3) suffering distraint of goods and afterwards buying them

back;

(4) protesting before the magistrates and then paying, on

order, the rate."

It was also resolved to urge upon the Government "the absolute

necessity of encouraging from national funds the building at

the earliest practicable moment of council schools in those

areas in which there are no undenominational schools, and also

the provision of unsectarian colleges in all parts of the

country where these are needed."

To a delegation from the League which waited, subsequently, on

the Head of the Board of Education, Mr. Runciman, the latter

said, with reference to the Act of 1902, that it "could not be

got rid of by administration. It would be a mischievous

precedent for any Minister to attempt to undo what Parliament

had done. He was, however, prepared to administer the Act

fairly and justly, and he was not going to show any favour to

any particular class of school. Dealing with the question of

the improvements in the conditions governing the existence of

training colleges, he said that during the past 12 months the

accommodation in training colleges for Nonconformist teachers,

or those who were not prepared to be bound by any

denominational creed, had greatly increased. Since 1905 there

had been a gradual increase, until there now existed 3,800

more places for that class of teacher than existed when the

Government came into power."

EDUCATION: A. D. 1909.

Educational demands of the Trade Unions.

The British Trade Union Congress, at Ipswich, in September,

1909, adopted a resolution urging workers to continue their

efforts to secure Parliamentary and municipal recognition of

the trade union education policy, which demanded:

"(1) The State maintenance of school children;

(2) scientific physical education, with individual medical

inspection and records of the physical development of all

children attending State schools, and skilled medical

attendance and treatment for any requiring it; and in order to

secure this:

(_a_) the development of the Medical Department at the

Board of Education, the head of which should be directly

responsible to the Board of Education, to whom he shall

report annually;

(_b_) the payment of an adequate grant from the

Imperial Exchequer for purposes of medical inspection and

for the establishment under every education authority of

properly equipped centres for medical treatment;

(_c_) the establishment under every education

authority of scientifically organized open air recovery

schools, the cost to be borne by the community as a whole

and not in any part by charitable contributions;

(3) the complete dissociation of these reforms from Poor Law

administration;

(4) that secondary and technical education be an integral part

of every child’s education and be secured by such a reform and

extension of the scholarship system as would place a

maintenance scholarship within the reach of every child, and

thus make it possible for all children to be full time day

pupils up to the age of 16;

(5) that the best intellectual and technical training be

provided for the teachers of the children, that each

educational district be required to train the number of pupil

teachers demanded by local needs and to establish training

colleges, preferably in connexion with Universities or

University colleges;

(6) that the provision of educational buildings and facilities

be obligatory upon the local authority, who should always

maintain administrative control of the buildings and the

facilities so provided;

(7) that the cost of education be met by grants from the

Imperial Exchequer and by the restoration of misappropriated

educational endowments; and further, having regard to the

increasing cost of popular education, and also to the

increasing value and notoriously undemocratic administration

of the University and public school endowments, the Congress

called upon the Parliamentary Committee to press the

Government to appoint a Royal Commission to inquire into and

report upon the educational endowments of the country."

EDUCATION: FRANCE: A. D. 1903.

Execution of the Associations Law.

Closing of the schools of the Religious Orders.

State Monopoly of Education established.

See (in this Volume)

FRANCE: A. D. 1901 (APRIL-OCTOBER), and 1903.

EDUCATION: FRANCE: A. D. 1907.

Enlistment of teachers in the Syndicalist

(Labor Union) Movement.

See (in this Volume)

LABOR ORGANIZATION: FRANCE: A. D. 1907.

EDUCATION: France: A. D. 1909.

A late awakening to the need of better technical and

industrial training.

France has been slow in understanding the modern necessity of

systematic industrial training and technical education, in

order to keep her workmen abreast of the more alert and

enterprising peoples in efficiency and skill. She has trusted

too long, it seems, to the old customs of apprenticeship, and

apprenticeship has decayed in her workshop practice, as it has

decayed everywhere else. The situation, as brought recently to

notice, was described as follows in a Paris letter to the

London _Times_, in May, 1909:

"Legislative enactments of recent date, limiting the hours of

labour for young people and placing under strict regulations

those workshops where children and adults are employed

together, have led to so much discontent among employers who

take apprentices that the majority of the masters, especially

those who obtain no immediate profit from the work of the

apprentices, have abandoned the practice of endeavouring to

train young people likely to be of use to them in the future.

The consequences are that the level of professional skill and

competence is becoming lowered among the rising generation of

workmen, and all are now agreed that the discovery of some

remedy is a matter of extreme urgency. It seems to be admitted

that in a very few years this evil may become one of fatal

importance in the case more especially of the art industries

and of those involving mechanical skill.

"The report of the Parliamentary Commission appointed to make

inquiry into this question has just been published, together

with the draft of the proposed legislation on this subject,

while the resolutions adopted at a Congress of Commerce and

National Industries, which has just taken place at Paris, are

entirely in accord with the views and suggestions of the above

Commission.

"The remedies unanimously demanded are as follows:

1. That it be made compulsory for all young persons of both

sexes, under 18 years of age, who may be employed either in

commerce or industry, to attend courses of technical

instruction (_cours de perfectionnement_).

2. These courses are to take place in the daytime, upon days

and at hours determined for each locality by committees

composed of representatives of the municipal authorities, the

associations of manufacturers, and of the workpeople. The

selection of the dates and hours in question is to be made in

such a way as to accord best with the respective interests of

the manufacturers and the educational requirements. Employers

will be bound to enable their workpeople to set apart

sufficient time to attend the classes.

3. The course of instruction is to be adapted in each district

to the requirements of the local trades."

{204}

EDUCATION: FRANCE: A. D. 1909.

Clerical attack on the Secular or Neutral Schools.

Antagonism between the Roman Catholic Church and the

Government was newly accentuated in October, 1909, by a

clerical attack on the so-called "neutral" schools,—that is,

the secular or lay schools, publicly maintained and

administered. This was opened by a pastoral letter, signed by

French cardinals, archbishops, and bishops, in which those

faithful to the Church were warned against sending their

children to these schools, whose religious neutrality was said

to be in reality a bitter opposition to religion and church.

The Catholic schools, it was urged, must be kept up if the

Church is to be kept up. "In proportion as the schools from

which religious instruction is banished keep on filling up,

our churches will grow empty." The pastoral letter put the ban

on more than a dozen text-books on French history and civics

whose views it found pernicious. "If, therefore," the letter

concluded, "parents perceive that the souls of their children

are imperilled in the so-called neutral schools, they must not

hesitate, under pain of forfeiting the sacraments of the

church."

This roused anti-clerical extremists to demand the

establishing of a State monopoly of education, making the lay

school compulsory and suppressing all private schools in which

religion is taught. But the sounder republicans, in public

life and in journalism, gave no countenance to this. The

_Petite République_ reminded its advocates that there are

at present 1,122,375 children who attend private schools, and

that to establish Government schools for them would cost some

$75,000,000; or, if secondary schools be included,

$88,000,000. In addition an annual expenditure of $15,000,000

would be necessitated for upkeep and salaries. The Temps,

taking higher grounds of principle, condemned the scheme as

one that would essentially parallel the Revocation of the

Edict of Nantes. France, it declared, is a free country; every

creed has the perfect right to provide for its adherents the

kind of religious education which it thinks proper. At the

same time the _Temps_ pointed out that the opponents of

the lay schools are not merely attacking abuses that may have

crept into them, but mean to strike at the principle of

religious neutrality. It admitted the existence of wrongs that

need righting, saying it cannot be denied that some of the

school books are disfigured by partiality on various points

affecting history, patriotism, and religion, and that this is

contrary both to the letter and to the spirit of the law. This

evil must, the _Temps_ urges, be eradicated. But the

_école laïque_, says the _Temps_, cannot be

destroyed without destroying the Republic.

This, too, was the fundamental proposition of Premier Briand,

in a speech of admirable tone which he made, October 30th, at

a great banquet in Paris which inaugurated the new buildings

of _La Ligue de l'Enseignement_. The neutral school, he

declared, was the corner stone of the Republic. As reported in

_The Times_ of London, he went on to say:

"It was natural that the adversaries of the Republic should

attack the school—the mould in which the Republican spirit and

the character of Frenchmen and Frenchwomen was formed. Certain

people were pleading the dictates of conscience as the

explanation of the campaign which they had just started. Why

had they not attacked the school before? He would remind them

that the _école laïque_ existed before the recent

separation of Church and State; it had existed under the

Concordat. Why did not the conscience of its opponents seek

any expression till now? … The Government was determined to

give the country the means of defending the 'neutral’ school,

and measures to that end had been prepared by the Ministry.

But the most effective defence was that which would be

conducted by private initiative like that of the Ligue de

l’Enseignement and by the male and female teachers themselves.

The teaching in the schools, M. Briand continued, ‘ought not

to be directed against any one; in order to secure the

confidence of the parents it ought not to be of a polemical

character; in order to be effective it must not let the

passions of the street invade the schoolroom.’ Let them leave

violent language to their opponents and not play the game of

their opponents by indulging in violent methods."

This seems to have been the spirit in which the matter was

brought officially before the Chamber of Deputies, by M.

Steeg, the reporter on the Budget of Public Instruction. The

following is from a summary of his remarks on this subject:

"He says that it would be difficult to come to terms with the

Bishops of the disestablished Roman Catholic Church, who will

never, he thinks, agree to recognize with good will the

neutral school. He remarks, however, that no pretext must be

furnished to the Bishops for their attacks upon the school,

and that they must not be enabled to appeal against the

Republican Government to the idea of ‘neutrality’ itself. As

to the associations of parents, which are now being formed in

accordance with the Episcopal views, M. Steeg recognizes that

they are quite lawful. He only fears that they may sometimes

transgress by reason of excessive zeal; but he declares that

the best way of avoiding their interference is to make the

management of the schools irreproachable. The objections

raised against some of the school-books are, he thinks,

obviously exaggerated. But he considers that scrupulous care

ought to be exercised in resisting all temptation to borrow

for the purposes of the neutral school the weapons of

sectarian propagandism. … He continues; ‘We should not desire

that the book placed in the hands of a school child should in

any sense whatever contain a single proposition that is

perilous or open to suspicion. Let there be no veiled

proselytism supported by ingenious distortions of fact or

interpretations with an object.’"

{205}

The _Temps_ remarks; "M. Steeg’s language does him

credit, and it is a pleasure to see a politician of the

Extreme Left recognizing, with a strong sense of philosophic

truth, that respect for the past is perfectly compatible with

justice to the present and preparation for the future."

EDUCATION: FRANCE: A. D. 1909.

Appointment of the Abbé Loisy, Professor of Religions

in the College de France.

See (in this Volume)

FRANCE: A. D. 1909 (MARCH).

EDUCATION: Germany: Technical Education.

Causes of its great development and

wonderful industrial results.

Its influence on International Trade.

"How much Germany owes to her system it would be almost

impossible to estimate. Certainly no other country has turned

the education of children and young people to such enormous

advantage. A good and efficient education has been made not

only accessible but also compulsory in every corner of the

country, and one of the most priceless features of this

education has been and is the inculcation of real, personal

interest in the national welfare. Further, the fullest

possible use has been made of scientific investigations, and

all sciences have been drawn into the service of the nation.

The result of this has been truly amazing; in fact, wholly

undreamt of. There can no longer be any doubt that Germany’s

industrial advance is mainly due to the extent and

thoroughness with which technical education is being

conducted. Briefly stated, the secret of the pronounced

success of the technical colleges in the Fatherland lies in

the fact that they have kept pace with the ever-increasing

scope of all branches of science in general, and, to the same

extent, with the ever-increasing demands of the present day

industrial enterprises upon scientific investigation and

research."

_Louis Elkind,

Germany's Commercial Relations

(Fortnightly Review, July, 1906)._

What seems to be the most satisfying explanation that has been

given of causes or reasons lying behind the extraordinary

development of scientific training on practical lines in

Germany, resulting in so wonderful a speed of industrial

progress within the passing generation, was cited from a

German scientist by President Pritchett, of the Massachusetts

Institute of Technology, in an article contributed to the

_Review of Reviews_, February, 1906.

"About a year ago, I heard a famous chemist in Germany explain

the present industrial supremacy of his country in words

something like these: ‘Forty years ago,’ said he, ‘the

scientific men of the various German states devoted their

study almost wholly to theoretical subjects. They were

humorously described as given up to investigations of the

dative case and similar impractical problems. In a measure

this was true. The investigators of that day had a wholesome

contempt for anything which promised direct utilitarian

results. But the development of the spirit of research

throughout the German universities trained a great army of men

to be expert investigators, and when a united Germany arose to

crown the labors of William I. and of Bismarck, with it came a

great national spirit in which the men of science shared. They

realized that to them were committed the great industrial

problems which must be solved in order to make the nation

strong, and scientific research, which up till then had been

mainly theoretical, was turned to the immediate solution of

the industrial problems of the nation. No longer the dative

case alone, but the development of the chemical, electrical,

and mineral resources of the country formed the avenues of

scientific activity, and scientific research, which had till

then been looked upon as theoretical accomplishment, became

the greatest financial asset of the Fatherland.’

"There is truth in this statement. The research habit, long

cultivated in German universities, had nourished a body of men

trained to research, men who had acquired the research habit

and the spirit of investigation. When, therefore, the problems

of industrial development began to appeal strongly to the

national spirit, the country had a trained body of men to call

upon who threw themselves heartily and enthusiastically into

these practical industrial problems."

A correspondent of the London _Times_, writing in May,

1909, draws attention to an influence on international trade

exerted by the German technical schools which is generally

overlooked: "In the German technical high schools," he writes,

"an appreciable proportion of the students are foreigners from

various countries in Europe. Among these foreign students the

Russians and Poles hold the first place in Germany as regards

numbers, there being about 2,000. There are also an

appreciable number of Scandinavians and Dutchmen, with a few

Belgians, Spaniards, Italians, South Americans, and Slavs from

Austria and the Balkan States. There are very few Englishmen,

Frenchmen, or Americans. … At present quite a large proportion

of the engineers and manufacturers in the neutral countries on

the Continent have been educated in Germany or Switzerland,

and as a result there is a great bias in favour of German

machinery and productions. … As the outcome of this feeling it

is a difficult matter for British manufacturers of machinery

to obtain a hearing when tenders are being considered on the

Continent, as the prejudice in favour of German or Swiss

machinery is strong."

EDUCATION: Germany: A. D. 1898-1904.

Rise of Commercial Universities.

A report on Commercial Instruction in Germany by Dr. Frederic

Rose, British Consul at Stuttgart, presented to Parliament in

September, 1904 (Cd. 2237), gives the following account of the

rise of the Commercial Universities which have been developed

in Germany since 1898, carrying the process of training young

men for business life to a higher point than had been aimed at

in the older commercial schools:

"The commercial universities for higher commercial instruction

(Handelshochschulen) have been founded within the last six

years [1898-1904] and mark a further step in the development

of commercial instruction in Germany. Their aim is to afford

persons engaged in business and industry on a large scale

(Grosskaufleute and Grossindustrielle), masters at commercial

schools, administration officials, bank officials, Consular

officials, secretaries to Chambers of Commerce, and so forth,

a deeper and broader measure of instruction in commercial and

national economical matters than that provided by the various

commercial schools. The special province of the commercial

universities lies less in the mere acquisition of

commercial-technical knowledge and attainments for immediate

practical detailed application, than in the attempt to provide

a general mental schooling for the higher branches of the

commercial profession.

{206}

They are intended to awaken and develop the mental faculties

of a merchant, to enable him to grasp the inner working and

meaning of national and international economy, and to

understand and judge its causes and results, its temporary and

permanent phenomena; as far as commercial officials are

concerned they are intended to impart general knowledge and

understanding of the economic conditions of commerce and

industry with their manifold aims and requirements.

"This measure of university education (Akademische Bildung) is

also intended to raise the social position of the mercantile

profession, and to increase its political importance and

influence in public life. Generally speaking the instruction

is arranged to include the following subjects:—Political

economy, commercial history and geography, commercial law in

all its aspects, the organisation and management of commercial

undertakings and their technical details, industrial law,

financial science, bank, exchange, monetary, and credit

operations, State and administrative law, and so forth."

At the writing of Dr. Rose’s report there were four of these

commercial universities. The oldest, at Leipsic and Aix, were

founded in 1898, the former in connection with the Leipsic

University, the latter connected with the Aix Technical

University. The other two, at Frankfort-on-the-Main and at

Cologne, were opened in 1901. The Frankfort University, which

bears also the name of "Academy of Social and Commercial

Science," and the Cologne University, are both independently

organized. "The initiative for the foundation of the

commercial universities," says Dr. Rose, "has been taken by

Chambers of Commerce and municipalities, and not by the

governments of the German States. The latter, however, are now

becoming aware of the importance of the movement. For the

present their action is limited to the supervision exercised

by the Ministers of Education and Industry and Commerce. …

"The foundation of the commercial universities has brought

forward many opponents, who not only deny their utility but

consider them actually harmful, because the persons they

instruct become too old before they engage in practical

business work. … The extreme opponents go further and deny

that a commercial university is able to train practical

business men, and assert that this can only be done by close

and continual contact with actual business life, and that the

acquisition of too much theoretical knowledge injures the

practical faculties. …

"The whole opposition to the commercial universities seems to

be based upon a narrow-minded and vague idea of the part they

are destined to play in the future. … Unless industrial and

commercial life in the future is to degenerate wholly into one

fierce and relentless struggle for one-sided aggrandisement,

to the detriment of other members of the social body, ample

opportunities for the thorough comprehension of the social and

economic conditions of the present day must be provided."

EDUCATION: Germany: A. D. 1906.

The Language Question In the Polish Provinces.

"Strike" of school children.

See (in this Volume)

GERMANY: A. D. 1906-1907.

EDUCATION: INDIA:

A recent report of its schools and colleges.

See (in this Volume)

INDIA: A. D. 1907-1909.

EDUCATION: INDIA: A. D. 1908.

American Mission Schools.

"Increasing interest is now being concentrated on Burma and

India, where an illiterate population seems to need far more

education than has yet been provided by Great Britain. In

Burma the Baptists play the leading role, educating no less

than twenty-four thousand pupils. In India, however, the

Methodists lead, with a record of over thirty-seven thousand

pupils. They have two colleges at Lucknow. The Baptists have a

college at Ongole, and have about fifteen thousand pupils in

their schools. The Congregationalists have a college at

Madura, and have also about fifteen thousand pupils in India,

added to their total of ten thousand in Ceylon. The

Presbyterians have a college at Lahore and one at Allahabad,

and are educating about ten thousand pupils in the Empire."

_American Schools Abroad

(The Outlook, May 2, 1908)._

EDUCATION: International Interchanges:

Of Professors.

Of Students.

Of Teachers’ visits.

A fund provided by Mr. James Hazen Hyde, of New York, enabled

Harvard University, in 1904, to accept an invitation from the

Sorbonne, at Paris, to send one of its professors to give a

course of lectures at that ancient institution of learning, on

subjects relating to the United States. Professor Barrett

Wendell was chosen for the pleasant mission, and has been

followed by others in succeeding years, who have given courses

in various French universities, while the compliment has been

returned, in lecturing visits from a number of the most

distinguished men of letters and learning in France.

This opened what seems to have become an established and

widening system of lecturing interchanges between American and

European Universities, tending greatly to promote better

acquaintance between nations and better understanding of each

other. At about the time, or soon after, the mission of

Professor Wendell to Paris, arrangements were made for a

similar interchange between Harvard and the University of

Berlin. In a communication to _The Outlook_ of February

18, 1905, Professor Kuno Francke, Curator of the Germanic

Museum at Harvard University, gave an account of the

circumstances which led to this latter. In March, 1901, as he

relates, there were conferences in Berlin with Dr. Althoff,

Commissioner-General of the Prussian Universities, and with

other Prussian officials of eminence, having for their object

the promotion of the Germanic Museum. "The upshot of these

conferences," said the Professor, "was the draft of a

provisional agreement between the Prussian Government and

Harvard University, according to which for a period of five

successive years an exchange of professors between Harvard and

Berlin University was to be instituted, in such a manner that

every year one member of each of the two institutions would

enter for at least three months the regular teaching staff of

the other institution, it being understood that in each case

the visiting member represent subjects or methods distinctly

peculiar to his country.

{207}

This scheme, which met with the hearty support of President

Eliot, was discussed and approved a year later by the Harvard

Faculty, and reached its consummation a few months ago, [1904]

when, through the intercession of Professor Harnack, an

official proposition embodying it was made by the Prussian

Government to the Harvard Corporation, and adopted by the

same. It is most fortunate that the German Emperor, with his

quick grasp of international relations and his deep sympathy

for the American people, has now given to this whole subject a

much wider scope by proposing to extend the exchange of

professors to other universities in America and Germany; for

it seems as though such a measure could not fail to open the

way toward a veritable fraternization of the moral,

intellectual, and industrial leaders of both nations."

In the latter part of 1905, a Theodore Roosevelt Professorship

of American History and Institutions, in the University of

Berlin, was endowed with the sum of $50,000 by Mr. James

Speyer, of New York, the endowment being placed in the hands

of the trustees of Columbia University. The plan of this

professorship had been arranged with the German Emperor by

President Butler, of Columbia, at an interview in the previous

summer. Nominations to it would be made by the trustees of

Columbia University, subject to confirmation by the Prussian

Ministry of Education and to the Emperor’s sanction; each

incumbent to hold the office for one year, and the incumbents

to be so chosen that in successive years the field of American

history, constitutional and administrative law, economic and

sociological problems and movements, education, contributions

to science, technology, the arts and literature, be presented

with some fullness; the professorship to be filled by members

of any American institution of learning, or by scholars not

connected with academic institutions. The scheme involved also

the establishment at Columbia University of a similar

professorship of German history and institutions, the lectures

in New York to be delivered in English. The first incumbent of

the new professorship in Berlin was Dr. Burgess, Professor of

Political Science in Columbia University, who began his work

in Berlin in the winter of 1906-1907, and took as his subject

American constitutional history.

A movement looking to the establishment of similar

interchanges between American and Scandinavian Universities

was inaugurated in 1908 by the "Scandinavian American

Solidarity," a society organized in the United States that

year, with Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, of Columbia University,

for its President, and Professor Carl Lorentzen, of New York

University, for its Secretary. The Danes resident in New York

City and Chicago arranged that President Butler of Columbia

and President MacCracken of New York University should each

give lectures at the University of Copenhagen that year, and

raised the necessary funds. The lectures were given at

Christiania, as well as at Copenhagen, and appear to have

aroused a widespread interest. Norwegian and Swedish

Universities and the University of Helsingfors, in Finland,

have signified a wish to participate in the interchange, and

it is more than likely to become permanently arranged.

An educational interchange of a different character, but

equally important, was instituted in 1906 by Mr. Alfred

Mosely, an English gentleman of great wealth, who invited five

hundred English, Scotch, and Irish teachers to visit and

inspect American schools at his expense. Between November,

1906 and March, 1907, they came in parties of twenty-five,

some remaining one month in the country, some two, and some

even more, visiting many parts of it and all descriptions of

its schools. They were selected by an advisory committee in

London, which aimed to have them fully representative of the

men and women who are engaged in the work of the British and

Irish schools.

A return visit of some hundreds of American teachers to Great

Britain and Ireland, in similar parties, under the auspices of

the National Civic Federation, was made in the fall of 1908.

The schools of both countries gained, beyond question, from

what each had to offer of suggestion to the other.

The organization of a "new educational movement to provide for

the interchange of University students among the

English-speaking peoples" was announced in England in June,

1909. "The object," it was stated, "is to provide

opportunities for as many as possible of the educated youth of

the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States (who, it is

reasonable to suppose, will become leaders in thought, action,

civic and national government in the future), to obtain some

real insight into the life, customs, and progress of other

nations at a time when their own opinions are forming, with a

_minimum_ of inconvenience to their academic work and the

least possible expense."

A great number of the most distinguished men of the time in

British public and professional life were listed among the

officers and committee-members of the organization, with Lord

Strathcona as President for the United Kingdom. As set forth

in the prospectus of the society, "the additional objects of

the movement are to increase the value and efficiency of, as

well as to extend, present University training by the

provision of certain Travelling Scholarships for practical

observation in other countries under suitable guidance. These

scholarships will enable those students to benefit who might

otherwise be unable to do so through financial restrictions.

It also enables the administration to exercise greater power

of direction in the form the travel is to take. In addition to

academic qualifications, the selected candidate should be what

is popularly known as an ‘all round’ man; the selection to be

along the lines of the Rhodes Scholarships. …

"To afford technical and industrial students facilities to

examine into questions of particular interest to them in

manufactures, &c., by observation in other countries and by

providing them with introductions to leaders in industrial

activity.

"To promote interest in travel as an educational factor among

the authorities of Universities, with a view to the

possibility of some kind of such training being included in

the regular curricula.

"To promote interest in other Universities, their aims and

student life, the compulsory physical training, and methods of

working their ways through college, for example, being

valuable points for investigation.

"To promote international interchange for academic work among

English-speaking Universities. …

{208}

"It is proposed to establish two students’ travelling bureaux,

one in New York and one in London; an American secretary

(resident in New York) and a British secretary (resident in

London), both of whom shall be college men appointed to afford

every facility to any graduate or undergraduate of any

University who wishes to visit the United States, Canada, or

the United Kingdom for the purpose of obtaining an insight

into the student, national, and industrial life of those

countries."

Further announcements of the plans of the organization were

made in November, including the following:

"It should be pointed out that, although the scholarships

proper will be reserved for undergraduates of the Universities

who are already midway through their course, the provision of

scholarships by no means defines the scope of the movement.

The bureau will afford facilities to all _bona fide_

students—whether dons, scholars, or commoners—who wish to gain

a practical insight into the work and life of other portions

of the world.

"The travelling students will have the advantage of reduced

rates of travel; of the special information which the bureau

will be able to afford; and of the privilege of being brought

as far as possible into contact with the actualities of those

countries to which they go, whether persons, places, or

institutions. …

"The method of election to the scholarships, which it is

purposed shall number not less than 28 for each year of the

experimental triennium—14 in the United Kingdom, ten in the

United States, and four in Canada—will be along the lines of

the Rhodes scholarships. The candidate, it is stated, shall,

as far as possible, be what is popularly known as an all-round

man, who plays a part in his college life and whose character

makes him popular."

EDUCATION: Ireland: A. D. 1909.

Organization of the two new Irish Universities.

On the 1st day of October, 1909, the two Universities created

by the Irish Universities Act of 1908 came into existence.

"That day also was fixed for the dissolution of the Royal

University of Ireland, the duties of which are now to be

distributed between the new National University in Dublin and

Queen’s University, Belfast. Circumstances, however, have

given the Royal University a short reprieve. It cannot be

dissolved until the autumn degrees of the present year have

been conferred. These degrees will be given as the result of

examinations which are now in progress, and it is probable

that the University’s last public function will be a conferring

of degrees on the last Friday in October. It will cease to

exist in the first or second week of November. …

"The National University itself consists of a Senate and

officers with large powers but with no local habitation. The

University has its concrete embodiment in the new University

Colleges, formerly Queen’s Colleges, at Cork and Galway.

University College, Dublin, is so far only concrete in the

sense that its governing body has been called into existence.

At the present time it has no teaching and no college

buildings. The former of these wants will be supplied almost

immediately. The University Commissioners will meet early next

month to appoint a teaching staff, and the college will be

available for students at the beginning of November. As

regards staffs, the Dublin College is differently situated

from those at Cork and Galway. For the latter colleges

teaching staffs exist ready made in the staffs of the old

Queen’s Colleges, which are to be taken over in accordance

with the provisions of the Act. …

"Nothing has yet been done in connexion with the buildings of

the new college in Dublin, though various sites have been

suggested, including that of the Royal Hospital at Kilmainham.

… The cases of Queen’s University, Belfast, and of the

University Colleges at Cork and Galway present no

difficulties. These institutions will have teaching staffs

within a couple of weeks, and all their buildings and

classrooms are in going order.

"The agitation of the Gaelic League in favour of the

compulsory teaching of Irish in the National University is

vigorously maintained. It is most improbable that the Senate

will yield to this agitation; and the result of their firmness

will be, if the league fulfils its threats, a rather serious

boycott of the University."

_Dublin Correspondent London Times,

September 30, 1909._

An Associated Press despatch from Dublin, October 24,

announced that "among the appointments to the new National

University of Ireland are Dr. Douglas Hyde, president of the

Gaelic League, as professor of modern Gaelic. Dr. Henebry,

formerly of Washington, D. C., has been appointed to the

professorship of the Irish language in the University College,

Cork."

EDUCATION: KOREA:

American Mission Schools.