hatchet to prevent mistakes.
These trees are felled either with the ax or saw, sometimes both. Fig.
205. When the trees are down, the lower branches and top are trimmed
off with axes, after which the trunks are sawed into logs of convenient
length.
[Illustration: FIG. 206.
HAULING SPRUCE LOGS TO THE SKIDWAY. ADIRONDACK MOUNTAINS, NEW YORK.]
These logs are dragged away and collected in piles. This is called
skidding, Fig. 206. Skidding is usually done with horses or oxen. From
these piles the logs are loaded upon sleds, Fig. 207, and hauled to
the place from which they are loaded on cars, rolled into a stream or
otherwise transferred to the sawmill. Fig. 208 illustrates a method
used in the south which combines skidding and hauling.
[Illustration: FIG. 207.
LOAD OF WHITE PINE LOGS, HUBBARD CO., MINNESOTA.]
[Illustration: FIG. 208.
HAULING LOGS BY MULE TEAM NEAR OCILLA, GEORGIA.]
Logs are transported to the sawmill in various ways: They may be loaded
on cars, and hauled to the millpond, Figs. 209 and 210. They may be
floated down some stream. Where a stream is not deep they are often
collected in the bed just below a specially prepared dam called a
splash-dam. When the dam is opened the sudden flood carries them along.
Logs are often made into rafts where the stream is large and deep or
they may be floated singly. Men called log or river drivers accompany
these logs. It is their duty to break up any jams which the logs may
form. River-driving is dangerous work and requires great daring on the
part of the men. They must learn to balance themselves on floating,
rolling logs.
[Illustration: FIG. 209.
LOADED TRAIN OF LONGLEAF PINE, BARHAM, LOUISIANA.]
When a log jam is broken the logs go out with a great rush and the
driver must make his escape as best he can.
=122. Milling.=--If the sawmill is located upon the banks of a running
stream the logs are enclosed by a log boom until they are wanted for
sawing. Fig. 211. Log booms are made by chaining logs together and
stretching them across the river; they are to the enclosed logs what
fences are to cattle.
Soaking logs in water helps to clean the wood. The mineral matter which
is soluble is washed out. Fig. 212.
[Illustration: FIG. 210.
UNLOADING LOGS FROM TRAIN, PINOGRANDE, CALIFORNIA.]
Three kinds of saws are in common use in cutting logs into lumber:
circular, band and gang. Circular saws cut faster than band-saws but
are rather wasteful because they cut such a wide kerf. A large circular
saw frequently cuts a kerf one-quarter of an inch wide. Gang saws
cut out several boards at the same time. Band-saws, because of their
economy, are displacing the others.
The common forms into which logs are sawed are timbers, planks and
boards. Timbers refer to the larger pieces such as are used for
framing; planks are wide pieces over one and one-half inches thick; and
boards are wide pieces less than one and one-half inches thick.
At the mill the log is drawn from the water, up a slide, Fig. 213, by
an endless chain. In the mill it is inspected for stones and spikes and
then measured. Next it is automatically pushed out of the slip upon a
sloping platform called the log deck where it is held by a stop until
it is wanted at the saw.
[Illustration: FIG. 211.
THE GLENS FALLS BOOM, HUDSON RIVER, NEW YORK.]
[Illustration: FIG. 212.
LOG POND NEAR OCILLA, GEORGIA.]
[Illustration: FIG. 214.
DOUBLE CUT SAW MILL, PINOGRANDE, CALIFORNIA.]
When the carriage is empty the stop is withdrawn and at the same time
revolves so as to throw the log upon the carriage. Iron hooks called
dogs are then fastened in the log in such a way that it cannot turn.
Fig. 214. The carriage and log move toward the saw and a slab is cut
off the log. A reversing lever takes the carriage back; again the log
is moved to the saw. This is repeated until a few boards are cut off.
The more modern band saws have teeth on each edge of the blade so that
the log is cut as the carriage moves backward as well as when it moves
forward.
[Illustration: FIG. 213.
LOG SLIDE AT A MILL IN SOUTHERN GEORGIA.]
The dogs are released and the log is given a half turn on the carriage
by means of a steam “canter.” The side from which the slab and boards
were sawed is placed against the knees--the standards or uprights of
the carriage--and the log again dogged. The opposite slab and a few
more boards are sawed off after which the log is given a quarter turn
and all but a few boards taken off.
A half turn of the log and the final sawings are made.
A series of “live” rolls--rolls which revolve in one direction--carry
off the boards. The rough edged boards, which constitute about
one-third of the whole number, are held by stops and finished on saws
called edgers.
The boards are now passed on to a trimmer or jump saw and cut to
standard lengths. Timbers are trimmed to length by a butting saw. Slabs
are sawed to a length of four feet one inch on a slasher. These slabs
are sawed into laths, pickets, or blocks the length of a shingle,
called shingle bolts. From these bolts shingles are sawed.
=123. Quarter Sawing.=--Fig. 215 shows a common way of sawing “quarter
sawed” lumber.
[Illustration: FIG. 215.]
The faces of most of the boards are cut nearly parallel to the
medullary rays, these rays come to the surface at small angles and make
the beautiful spotting often seen in oak and sycamore. Quarter-sawed
boards do not warp or twist as much as the plain sawed because the
annual rings are perpendicular to the face.
=124. Waste.=--Attached to every sawmill will be found tower-like
structures from the tops of which smoke issues, Fig. 216. These are
called burners and into them are thrown thousands of tons of waste
wood. Waste wood is used as fuel for the engines and for many other
purposes but there still remains much that is burned as the cheapest
way to get rid of it.
[Illustration: FIG. 216.
A MODERN SAWMILL, SHOWING REFUSE BURNER.]
=125. Lumber Transportation.=--Sawed lumber is transported to the yards
in various ways. It is loaded and carried by boats, by cars, and in
some places is floated to its destination in narrow wooden troughs
called flumes.
On the Pacific coast mills are frequently built out over the water on
piles so that the lumber is loaded directly from the saws. Frequently
lumber is formed into rafts and towed to its destination in a manner
similar to that of the log rafts of the Pacific.
=126. Seasoning.=--There are two methods of drying wood, in common use:
air drying and kiln-drying.
When lumber reaches its destination it is sorted and graded according
to lumbermen’s standards, after which, it is loaded upon trucks and
hauled to the storage yards.
Here, it is so placed that air can get at the four sides of each piece
and evaporate the water held by the “green” lumber. This is called
air seasoning. The time necessary to season a piece of lumber so that
it may be used for high-grade work depends upon the kind of wood, its
shape and size, the condition of the atmosphere, etc.
Two, three, and even four years are often required; the longer the
better, provided it is kept dry.
[Illustration: FIG. 217.
KILN DRYING TUPELO, IONIA, MICHIGAN.]
It will never become perfectly dry because of the moisture in the air
itself. Because of the slowness of this method of seasoning, millmen
resort to artificial means. The lumber, as it is needed, is shut up in
a room heated by steam. Fig. 217 shows the method of “sticking” lumber
in preparing it for the kiln.
High temperature, no matter how much moisture may be contained in the
air, will evaporate water from wood.
Green, or fresh sap-wood may be partially seasoned by boiling it in hot
water or by steaming it.
Pine, spruce, cypress, cedar, etc., may be placed in the kiln as soon
as sawed, four days for one inch thick boards being sufficient to dry
them. Hard woods, such as oak, maple, birch, etc., are usually allowed
to “air season” for a period of from three to six months before being
placed in the kiln. Six to ten days additional kiln-drying is allowed
them.
The usual temperature for kilns is from 158 to 180 degrees Fahr.
Hardwoods lose moisture so slowly that to place them in the kiln
directly from the saw would cause them to shrink very unevenly and
hence make them subject to serious “checks”.
Lumber is frequently steamed to prevent its checking and “case
hardening” while being kiln dried.
=127. Lumber Terms and Measurements.=--“Clear” lumber is lumber which
is free from knots and sapwood.
“Dressed” lumber or “surfaced” or “sized” lumber is lumber which has
passed thru the planer.
The unit of measure is the board-foot which is one inch thick and
twelve inches square. Boards less than one inch thick are sold by the
square foot, face measure.
Shingles and lath are sold by the bundle. Moldings are sold by
“running” or lineal measure.
Prices are usually based upon the thousand feet; thus, 200 feet, 1st,
clear, S2S, (sized or surfaced on two sides) at $47 per M.
CHAPTER XII.
COMMON WOODS.
=128. Classification.=--According to botanical classification, woods
belong to the Flowering Plants (Phanerogamia). Classified further we
have:
(1) Naked seeds (gymnosperms)
1. Palm ferns, etc. (cycadaceæ)
2. Joint firs (gnetaceæ)
3. Pines, firs, etc. (conifers)
(2) Fruits (angiosperms)
1. One-seed-leaf (monocotyledons)
(Bamboos, palms, grasses, etc.)
2. Two-seed-leaf (dicotyledons)
_a._ Herbs.
_b._ Broad-leafed trees.
(oak, ash, elm, etc.)
Conifers and broad-leaved trees are alike in that they add a new layer
of wood each year which covers the old wood of root, trunk and branch.
They are known as exogens--outward growers.
In woods such as the palms, bamboos, and yuccas, growth is made from
within.
The new wood strands mingle with the old and cause the cross sections
to appear dotted, Fig. 218. Trees of this class--endogens--after some
years of growth form harder wood near the surface with younger and
softer growth toward the center--quite the reverse of the exogens.
There are no annual rings. Growth takes place mainly at the top.
Other classifications, such as deciduous, “hard woods,” “evergreens,”
“soft woods,” are in common use but are not very accurate.
[Illustration: FIG. 218.]
Deciduous trees are the broad-leaved trees and are so called because
they lose their leaves in the fall. Broad-leaved trees are also called
hard woods.
Conifers are called evergreens because their needle-shaped leaves
remain green on the tree the year around. They are also known as soft
woods.
Most of our timber is furnished by (1) the needle-leaved conifers and
(2) the broad-leaved trees.
CONIFEROUS WOODS.[1]
[1] The descriptive matter in small type is quoted, by permission,
from a report of the Division of Forestry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
[Illustration: FIG. 219.]
=129. Cedar.=--Fig. 219. Light, soft, stiff, not strong, of fine
texture; sap and heartwood distinct, the former lighter, the latter
a dull grayish brown, or red. The wood seasons rapidly, shrinks and
checks but little, and is very durable. Used like soft pine, but
owing to its great durability preferred for shingles, etc. Small
sizes used for posts, ties, etc. (Since almost all kinds of wood
are used for fuel and charcoal, and in the construction of fences,
barns, etc., the enumeration of these uses has been omitted in this
list.) Cedars usually occur scattered, but they form, in certain
localities, forests of considerable extent.
=130. Cypress.=--Fig. 220. Cypress wood in appearance, quality, and
uses is similar to white cedar. “Black cypress” and “white cypress”
are heavy and light forms of the same species. The cypress is a large
deciduous tree occupying much of the swamp and overflow land along
the coast and rivers of the Southern States.
[Illustration: FIG. 220.]
[Illustration: FIG. 221.]
=131. Pine.=--Fig. 221. Very variable, very light and soft in “soft”
pine, such as white pine; of medium weight to heavy and quite hard
in “hard” pine, of which longleaf or Georgia pine is the extreme
form. Usually it is stiff, quite strong, of even texture and more
or less resinous. The sapwood is yellowish white; the heartwood,
orange brown. Pine shrinks moderately, seasons rapidly and without
much injury; it works easily; is never too hard to nail (unlike oak
or hickory); it is mostly quite durable, and if well seasoned is
not subject to the attacks of boring insects. The heavier the wood,
the darker, stronger and harder it is, and the more it shrinks and
checks. Pine is used more extensively than any other kind of wood. It
is the principal wood in common carpentry, as well as in all heavy
construction, bridges, trestles, etc. It is used also in almost every
other wood industry, for spars, masts, planks, and timbers in ship
building, in car and wagon construction, in cooperage, for crates
and boxes, in furniture work, for toys and patterns, railway ties,
water pipes, excelsior, etc. Pines are usually large trees with few
branches, the straight, cylindrical, useful stem forming by far the
greatest part of the tree.
=132. Spruce.=--Fig. 222. Resembles soft pine, is light, very soft,
stiff, moderately strong, less resinous than pine; has no distinct
heartwood, and is of whitish color. Used like soft pine, but also
employed as resonance wood and preferred for paper pulp. Spruces,
like pines, form extensive forests; they are more frugal, thrive on
thinner soils, and bear more shade, but usually require a more humid
climate. “Black” and “white” spruce as applied by lumbermen, usually
refer to narrow and wide ringed forms of black spruce.
[Illustration: FIG. 222.]
[Illustration: FIG. 223.]
BROAD-LEAVED WOODS.
=133. Ash.=--Fig. 223. Wood heavy, hard, strong, stiff, quite tough,
not durable in contact with soil, straight grained, rough on the
split surface and coarse in texture. The wood shrinks moderately,
seasons with little injury, stands well and takes a good polish. In
carpentry ash is used for finishing lumber, stairways, panels, etc.;
it is used in shipbuilding, in the construction of cars, wagons,
carriages, etc., in the manufacture of farm implements, machinery,
and especially of furniture of all kinds, and also for harness work;
for barrels, baskets, oars, tool handles, hoops, clothespins, and
toys. The trees of the several species of ash are rapid growers, of
small to medium height with stout trunks; they form no forests, but
occur scattered in almost all broad-leaved forests.
=134. Basswood.=--Fig. 224. (Lime tree, American linden, lin, bee
tree): Wood light, soft, stiff but not strong, of fine texture, and
white to light brown color. The wood shrinks considerably in drying,
works and stands well; it is used in carpentry, in the manufacture
of furniture and woodenware, both turned and carved, in cooperage,
for toys, also for paneling of car and carriage bodies. Medium to
large sized trees, common in all Northern broad-leaved forests; found
throughout the Eastern United States.
[Illustration: FIG. 224.]
[Illustration: FIG. 225.]
[Illustration: FIG. 226.]
=135. Birch.=--Fig. 225. Wood heavy, hard, strong, of fine texture;
sapwood whitish, heartwood in shades of brown with red and yellow;
very handsome, with satiny luster, equaling cherry. The wood shrinks
considerably in drying, works and stands well and takes a good
polish, but is not durable if exposed. Birch is used for finishing
lumber in building, in the manufacture of furniture, in woodturnery
for spools, boxes, wooden shoes, etc., for shoe lasts and pegs,
for wagon hubs, ox yokes, etc., also in wood carving. The birches
are medium sized trees, form extensive forests northward and occur
scattered in all broad-leaved forests of the Eastern United States.
=136. Butternut.=--Fig. 226. (White Walnut.) Wood very similar to
black walnut, but light, quite soft, not strong and of light brown
color. Used chiefly for finishing lumber, cabinet work and cooperage.
Medium sized tree, largest and most common in the Ohio basin; Maine
to Minnesota and southward to Georgia and Alabama.
[Illustration: FIG. 227.]
=137. Cherry.=--Fig. 227. Wood heavy, hard, strong, of fine texture:
sapwood yellowish white, heartwood reddish to brown. The wood shrinks
considerably in drying, works and stands well, takes a good polish,
and is much esteemed for its beauty. Cherry is used chiefly as a
decorative finishing lumber for buildings, cars and boats, also
for furniture and for turnery. It is becoming too costly for many
purposes for which it is naturally suited. The lumber-furnishing
cherry of this country, the wild black cherry, is a small to medium
sized tree, scattered through many of the broad-leaved woods of the
western slope of the Alleghanies, but found from Michigan to Florida
and west to Texas.
=138. Chestnut.=--Fig. 228. Wood light, moderately soft, stiff, not
strong, of coarse texture; the sapwood light, the heartwood darker
brown. It shrinks and checks considerably in drying, works easily,
stands well, and is very durable. Used in cabinet work, cooperage,
for railway ties, telegraph poles, and locally in heavy construction.
Medium sized tree very common in the Alleghanies, occurs from Maine
to Michigan and southward to Alabama.
[Illustration: FIG. 228.]
[Illustration: FIG. 229.]
=139. Elm.=--Fig. 229. Wood heavy, hard, strong, very tough;
moderately durable in contact with the soil; commonly cross-grained,
difficult to split and shape, warps and checks considerably in
drying, but stands well if properly handled. The broad sapwood
whitish, heart brown, both shades of gray and red; on split surface
rough, texture coarse to fine, capable of high polish. Elm is used in
the construction of cars, wagons, etc., in boat and ship building,
for agricultural implements and machinery; in rough cooperage,
saddlery, and harness work, but particularly in the manufacture of
all kinds of furniture, where the beautiful figures, especially of
the tangential or bastard section, are just beginning to be duly
appreciated. The elms are medium to large sized trees, of fairly
rapid growth, with stout trunk, form no forests of pure growth, but
are found scattered in all the broad-leaved woods of our country.
=140. Gum.=--This general term refers to two kinds of wood usually
distinguished as sweet or red gum, and sour, black, or tupelo gum,
the former being a relative of the witch-hazel, the latter belonging
to the dogwood family.
Sweet Gum. Fig. 230. (red gum, liquidambar); Wood rather heavy,
rather soft, quite stiff and strong, tough, commonly cross-grained,
of fine texture; the broad sapwood whitish, the heartwood reddish
brown; the wood warps and shrinks considerably, but does not check
badly, stands well when fully seasoned, and takes good polish. Sweet
gum is used in carpentry, in the manufacture of furniture, for cut
veneer, for wooden plates, plaques, baskets, etc., also for wagon
hubs, hat blocks, etc. A large sized tree, very abundant, often
the principal tree in the swampy parts of the bottoms of the Lower
Mississippi Valley; occurs from New York to Texas and from Indiana to
Florida.
[Illustration: FIG. 230.]
[Illustration: FIG. 231.]
=141. Hickory.=--Fig. 231. Wood very heavy, hard and strong,
proverbially tough, of rather coarse texture, smooth and of straight
grain. The broad sapwood white, the heart reddish nut brown. It
dries slowly, shrinks and checks considerably, is not durable in
the ground, or if exposed, and, especially the sapwood, is always
subject to the inroads of boring insects. Hickory excels as carriage
and wagon stock, but is also extensively used in the manufacture of
implements and machinery, for tool handles, timber pins, for harness
work and cooperage. The hickories are tall trees with slender stems,
never form forests, occasionally small groves, but usually occur
scattered among other broad-leaved trees in suitable localities.
Hickory excels as carriage and wagon stock, but is also extensively
used in the manufacture of implements and machinery, for tool
handles, timber pins, for harness work and cooperage. The hickories
are tall trees with slender stems, never form forests, occasionally
small groves, but usually occur scattered among other broad-leaved
trees in suitable localities.
=142. Maple.=--Fig. 232. Wood heavy, hard, strong, stiff, and tough,
of fine texture, frequently wavy grained, thus giving rise to “curly”
and blister” figures; not durable in the ground or otherwise exposed.
Maple is creamy white, with shades of light brown in the heart;
shrinks moderately, seasons, works and stands well, wears smoothly
and takes fine polish. The wood is used for ceiling, flooring,
paneling, stairway and other finishing lumber in house, ship and
car construction; it is used for the keels of boats and ships, in
the manufacture of implements and machinery, but especially for
furniture, where entire chamber sets of maple rival those of oak.
Maple is also used for shoe lasts and other form blocks, for shoe
pegs, for piano actions, school apparatus, for wood type in show bill
printing, tool handles, wood carving, turnery and scroll work.
[Illustration: FIG. 232.]
The maples are medium sized trees, of fairly rapid growth; sometimes
form forests and frequently constitute a large proportion of the
arborescent growth.
=143. Oak.=--Fig. 233. Wood very variable, usually very heavy and
hard, very strong and tough, porous, and of coarse texture; the
sapwood whitish, the heart “oak” brown to reddish brown. It shrinks
and checks badly, giving trouble in seasoning, but stands well, is
durable and little subject to attacks of insects. Oak is used for
many purposes; in shipbuilding, for heavy construction, in common
carpentry, in furniture, car and wagon work, cooperage, turnery, and
even in wood carving; also in the manufacture of all kinds of farm
implements, wooden mill machinery, for piles and wharves, railway
ties, etc. The oaks are medium to large sized trees, forming the
predominant part of a large portion of our broad-leaved forests, so
that these are generally “oak forests” though they always contain
a considerable proportion of other kinds of trees. Three well
marked kinds, white, red, and live oak are distinguished and kept
separate in the market. Of the two principal kinds, white oak is the
stronger, tougher, less porous, and more durable. Red oak is usually
of coarser texture, more porous, often brittle, less durable, and
even more troublesome in seasoning than white oak. In carpentry and
furniture work, red oak brings about the same price at present as
white oak. The red oaks everywhere accompany the white oaks, and like
the latter, are usually represented by several species in any given
locality. Live oak, once largely employed in shipbuilding, possesses
all the good qualities (except that of size) of the white oak, even
to a greater degree. It is one of the heaviest, hardest and most
durable building timbers of this country; in structure it resembles
the red oak but is much less porous.
[Illustration: FIG. 233.]
=144. Sycamore.=--Fig. 234 (button wood, button-ball tree, water
beech): Wood moderately heavy, quite hard, stiff, strong, tough,
usually crossgrained, of coarse texture, and white to light brown
color; the wood is hard to split and work, shrinks moderately, warps
and checks considerably but stands well. It is used extensively for
drawers, backs, bottoms, etc., in cabinetwork, for tobacco boxes,
in cooperage, and also for finishing lumber, where it has too long
been underrated. A large tree, of rapid growth, common and largest in
the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, at home in nearly all parts of the
eastern United States.
[Illustration: FIG. 234.]
[Illustration: FIG. 235.]
=145. Tulip Wood.=--Fig. 235. Tulip tree. (yellow poplar, white
wood): Wood quite variable in weight, usually light, soft, stiff but
not strong, of fine texture, and yellowish color; the wood shrinks
considerably, but seasons without much injury; works and stands
remarkably well. Used for siding, for paneling, and finishing lumber
in house, car and shipbuilding, for sideboards and panels of wagons
and carriages; also in the manufacture of furniture, implements and
machinery, for pump logs, and almost every kind of common woodenware,
boxes, shelving, drawers, etc. An ideal wood for the carver and
toy man. A large tree, does not form forests, but is quite common,
especially in the Ohio basin; occurs from New England to Missouri and
southward to Florida.
=146. Walnut.=--Fig. 236. Black Walnut. Wood heavy, hard, strong, of
coarse texture; the narrow sapwood whitish, the heartwood chocolate
brown. The wood shrinks moderately in drying, works and stands well,
takes a good polish, is quite handsome, and has been for a long time
the favorite cabinet wood in this country. Walnut formerly used, even
for fencing, has become too costly for ordinary uses, and is to-day
employed largely as a veneer, for inside finish and cabinet work,
also for turnery, for gunstocks, etc. Black walnut is a large tree,
with stout trunk, of rapid growth, and was formerly quite abundant
throughout the Alleghany region, occurring from New England to Texas,
and from Michigan to Florida.
[Illustration: FIG. 236.]
CHAPTER XIII.
WOOD FINISHING.
=147. Wood Finishes.=--Finishes are applied to wood surfaces (1) that
the wood may be preserved, (2) that the appearance may be enhanced.
Finishing materials may be classed under one or the other of the
following: Filler, stain, wax, varnish, oil, paint. These materials may
be used singly upon a piece of wood or they may be combined in various
ways to produce results desired.
=148. Brushes.=--Good brushes are made of bristles of the wild boar of
Russia and China. These bristles are set in cement and are firmly bound
by being wrapped with wire in round brushes or enclosed in metal in
flat brushes. Fig. 237.
[Illustration: FIG. 237.]
[Illustration: FIG. 238.]
A large brush, called a duster, is used for removing dust or loose dirt
from the wood, Fig. 238. Small brushes, used for tracing, usually have
chiseled edges, Fig. 239.
Bristle brushes are expensive and should be well cared for. Brushes
that have been used in shellac and are not soon to be used again should
be cleaned by rinsing them thoroughly in a cup of alcohol. This alcohol
may be used later for thinning shellac.
[Illustration: FIG. 239.]
Varnish and paint brushes should be cleaned in turpentine. If they are
to be laid away for some time, a strong soap suds, or lather made from
some of the soap powders, should be well worked into the brush, after
the preliminary cleansing. It should then be carefully pressed into
proper shape and laid away flat on a shelf. When the brush is to be
used again, it should first be washed out, to get rid of all the soap.
Brushes that are used from day to day should be kept suspended, when
not in use, as in Fig. 240, so that their bristles shall be kept moist,
without their touching the bottom of the bucket or can.
[Illustration: FIG. 240.]
[Illustration: FIG. 241.]
Since alcohol evaporates rapidly, shellac cans with cone tops should be
used or, better, a can in which the brush handle may extend through the
top.
Fig. 241 shows a can which is made double. Varnish is kept in the inner
portion and water in the outer ring. The cover fits over the inner
can and into the water space, thus sealing the varnish air-tight but
removing all danger of the cover’s sticking to the sides of the can.
The brush is suspended from the “cleaning wire” so that its bristles
rest in the liquid.
If delicate woods are to be varnished, stone or glass jars would better
be used to hold the liquid, for metal discolors it slightly.
[Illustration: FIG. 242.]
[Illustration: FIG. 243.]
=149. General Directions for Using Brush.=--(1) Hold the brush as in
Fig. 242. (2) Dip the end of the brush in the liquid to about one-third
the length of the bristles. (3) Wipe off the surplus liquid on the edge
of the can, wiping both sides of the brush no more than is necessary
to keep the liquid from dripping. A wire stretched across the can as
in Fig. 243 provides a better wiping place for the dripping brush.
In wiping the brush on the edge of the can, some of liquid is likely
to “run” down the outside. (4) Using the end of the brush, apply the
liquid near one end of the surface to be covered. (5) “Brush” in the
direction of the grain. (6) Work towards and out over the end of the
board, leveling the liquid to a smooth film of uniform thinness. The
strokes should be “feathered,” that is, the brush should be lowered
gradually at the beginning of the sweep and raised gradually at the
close, otherwise, ugly “laps” will result. The reason for working out
over the ends rather than from them will appear with a little thought.
(7) Now work toward the second end. The arrows, Fig. 244, show the
general directions of the final or feathering strokes.
[Illustration: FIG. 244.]
Edges are usually covered first and adjoining surfaces afterward.
It frequently happens that surplus liquid runs over a finished surface,
especially when working near the arrises. This surplus can be “picked
up” by wiping the brush upon the wire of the bucket until the bristles
are quite free of liquid, and giving the part affected a feathering
sweep.
If the object has an internal corner, work from that out over the
neighboring surfaces.
Panels and sunk places should be covered first. Afterward, the raised
places, such as stiles, rails, etc., may be attended to. Wherever
possible the work should be laid flat so that the liquid may be flowed
on horizontally. This is of especial advantage in varnishing. Vertical
work should always be begun at the top and carried downward.
Tracing consists in working a liquid up to a given line but not over
it, such as painting the sash of a window. Tracing requires a steady
hand and some practice. A small brush is generally used and the stroke
is made as nearly continuous as the flow of the liquid will allow. Fig.
245.
[Illustration: FIG. 245.]
=150. Fillers.=--Fillers are of two kinds, paste and liquid. They
are used to fill up the wood pores and thus give a smooth, level,
non-absorbent surface, upon which other coverings may be placed. Paste
fillers are for use upon coarse grained woods such as oak and chestnut,
while liquid fillers are for close grained woods such as Georgia pine.
Fillers are not a necessity, especially the liquid, but the saving
affected by their use is considerable. Not only are they cheaper than
varnish but one or two coats of filler will take the place and permit a
saving of two or three coats of the more expensive material.
Liquid filler should be applied evenly with a brush and allowed to dry
twenty-four hours, after which it may be sanded smooth with No. 00
paper. It is used mainly upon large work such as porch ceilings and
interior finish, like Georgia pine. On fine cabinet work, one or two
coats of thin white shellac is used as a filler upon close grained
wood. Shellac forms a surface which after twenty-four hours, can be
sandpapered so as to make a very smooth surface. Varnish applied to
the bare wood has a tendency to darken and discolor it. Filling with
shellac preserves the natural color.
Paste filler is sold by the pound in cans of various sizes. The best
fillers are made of ground rock crystal mixed with raw linseed oil,
japan and turpentine.
For preserving the natural color of the wood, filler is left white;
for Flemish, it is colored brown; for antique and weathered finishes,
it is dark. Fillers can be purchased ready colored.
=151. Filling with Paste Filler.=--(1) Thin the filler with turpentine
until it makes a thin paste. (2) With a stiff-bristled brush, force the
filler into the pores of the wood and leave the surface covered with a
thin coating. (3) Allow this to stand until the filler has “flatted,”
that is, until the “gloss” has disappeared and the filler becomes dull
and chalkish. The time required for this to take place varies. Twenty
minutes is not unusual. (4) Rub the filler off just as soon as it has
flatted--do not let it stand longer, for the longer it stands the
harder it is to remove. Rub across the grain as much as is possible,
using a wad of excelsior. Finish fine work by going over it a second
time with a cloth, rubbing with the grain as well as across, that the
“high lights” may be clear of filler.
On fine work use a felt pad to rub the filler into the pores, and rub
off with a cloth only.
Twenty-four hours should be allowed the filler to harden. One filling
is sufficient for ordinary work; on fine work the above process is
sometimes repeated after the first filling has hardened.
The striking contrasts in the grain of wood such as oak and chestnut,
obtained by the use of colored fillers, are due to the dark filler’s
remaining in the open grain but being wiped off of the close grain--the
“high lights.”
On quarter-sawed oak, each flake is sometimes sanded with fine paper,
No. 00, to remove the stain that the contrast may be sharper.
Excelsior and rags used in cleaning off filler must not be allowed
to lie around but must be burned for they are subject to spontaneous
combustion and are dangerous.
=152. Stains.=--Stains are used to darken the high lights of wood
preparatory to the application of a relatively darker filler. By
varying the intensity of the stain different results may be obtained
with the same color of filler. Stains are also used without fillers.
There are three kinds of stains: (1) water, (2) oil, (3) spirit. Each
kind has its advantages and its disadvantages.
Wood stains are cheap, penetrate the wood deeply, and are transparent.
They cause the grain of the wood to “rough up,” however, and for this
reason are used mainly upon hard woods which require darkening before
the application of a filler. The wood is sanded before the filler is
applied. Where water stain is not to be followed by filler, it is
customary to thoroughly moisten the surface to be covered with water
alone. After this has dried, the surface is sanded with fine paper and
the stain applied. The stain does not raise the grain as it otherwise
would.
Water stains may be applied with a brush or a sponge. They are
sometimes heated that they may enter the wood more deeply. Any coloring
matter that can be dissolved in water will make a wood dye or stain.
Oil stains, like water stains, are often used to stain wood before
filling. They are more generally used where no filling is desired. They
are easier to apply evenly than water or spirit stains. They do not
raise the grain of the wood like the other stains. On the other hand,
they do not penetrate and therefore cannot color hard woods dark.
Neither do they give the clear effects.
Most oil stains are applied with a brush, after which the surface of
the wood is immediately wiped clean with a cloth.
Spirit stains are but little used where surfaces of any size are to be
covered. They are expensive, fade easily, and are hard to apply evenly.
They are applied with a brush and dry very quickly.
A stain which penetrates deeply and is clear is obtained by placing the
wood in a closed receptacle in which is placed a dish of concentrated
ammonia. The fumes of this liquid cause a chemical change to take
place, giving to the wood a rich nut-brown color.
=153. Waxing.=--An old finish that has recently become popular is
that of waxing. It takes the place of the varnish, by which it was
supplanted years ago.
Wax finish is easily applied and is cheaper than varnish. It will not
stand wetting. However, it is easily repaired.
Our ancestors used to make wax polish by “cutting” beeswax with
turpentine.
Rapid drying and hardening waxes can be purchased now-a-days. They
require a smooth surface and a very thin application for a successful
result. Too much wax upon a rough surface will produce very ugly,
white, chalk-like spottings as the wax dries. These are especially
noticeable upon dark finishes. Waxes colored black overcome this but
are not needed if the ordinary wax is properly applied.
In finishing with wax the following directions may be followed: (1)
Stain the wood, if a very dark finish is desired. (2) If the wood
is coarse-grained, put on two coats of paste filler and rub it off
carefully, that a smooth surface may be prepared. Allow the stain
twelve hours in which to dry, also each coat of the filler. (3) With
a soft cloth apply as thin a coating of wax as can be and yet cover
the wood. Wax is in paste form. (4) Allow this to stand five or ten
minutes, then rub briskly with a soft dry cloth to polish. (5) After
this coat has stood for twenty-four hours another may be applied in the
same manner.
A thin coat of shellac brushed evenly upon the hardened filler “brings
out” the grain and makes an excellent base for wax as well as varnish.
It should stand twenty-four hours and then be sanded smooth with No. 00
sandpaper before the wax is applied.
There are other patent preparations which give the same soft effects
as wax and are as easily applied--in fact, some of them are but wax in
liquid form.
=154. Varnishes.=--Varnishes are used where a hard transparent coating
is desired. There are two kinds, (1) shellac or spirit varnish, (2)
copal or oil varnish.
Varnishes vary greatly in quality and therefore in price. If made of
specially selected pale gum for use on light or white woods the price
will be higher than for that of ordinary color tho the quality may be
no higher.
Rubbing varnishes are so made that they may take a “rubbed finish.”
Varnishing should be done in a room in which the temperature can be
kept from 70 to 80 degrees Fahr., and which is comparatively free from
dust. The surface to be covered must be clean, dry and filled even and
smooth.
=155. Shellac.=--Shellac or spirit varnish is a solution of lac and
alcohol. Lac is soluble in both grain and wood alcohol but grain
alcohol is preferable. Beds of crude lac are found in parts of Africa
and South America where the lac has been left by the decay of leaves
and twigs which it at one time encrusted. Crude lac is deposited upon
leaves and twigs of certain of the lac-bearing trees by countless
numbers of insects which draw out the sap.
Stick-lac is crude lac which has been purified somewhat of the bodies
and eggs of the insects and rolled into stick forms. When crushed and
washed it is known as seed-lac. When fully purified, which is done by
melting and straining, it is spread out and is known as shellac.
White shellac is obtained by bleaching. Orange shellac is unbleached.
Pure white shellac is used where the more yellow shellac would
discolor. Orange shellac is stronger than white and will last longer
but is harder to apply because it sets more rapidly.
Shellac varnish sets quickly, dries hard but softens under moisture.
Unlike oil varnish, it does not “level up” and must, therefore, be
brushed on quickly, using long, even strokes. No spots must be omitted
for they cannot be “touched up.”
=156. Shellac Finishes.=--The use of one or more coats of shellac
preparatory to a varnish finish has been noted.
A very simple finish, and one that is easily applied, is obtained by
covering stained wood with a very thin coat of shellac.
To obtain the finish known as egg-shell gloss, (1) Coat the smooth wood
with from three to six applications of thin shellac. Allow each coat
twenty-four hours in which to harden. (2) Rub to a smooth surface
each hardened coat using curled hair or fine steel wool or fine oiled
sandpaper.
=157. Oil or Copal Varnishes.=--Oil varnish is composed of copal gum,
boiled oil and turpentine. Copal gums are obtained from Africa mainly,
in certain parts of which they are found as fossil resins, the remains
of forests which once covered the ground.
Pressed flaxseed furnish crude linseed oil while the long leaf pine of
the South, furnishes the turpentine pitch.
The oil is prepared for use by boiling it in huge kettles with
different materials which cause it to change chemically. It is then
put away to settle and age, that is to clear and purify itself. It
takes from one to six months for the oil to reach a proper degree
of clearness and purity. Turpentine is obtained from its pitch by
distillation.
The copal gums are melted and boiled thoroly with the oil. Turpentine
is added after the mixture of gum and oil has cooled sufficiently. The
whole is then strained several times, placed in tanks to age or ripen.
From one month to a year, or even more, is required.
The quality of varnish depends upon the qualities of the gums, the
proportion of oil and turpentine and the care which is exercised in the
boiling process.
=158. Flowing Copal Varnish.=--(1) Lay on the varnish quickly in a good
heavy coat. Use a good varnish brush and dip the bristles deeply into
the liquid, wiping them off just enough to prevent dripping. (2) Wipe
the bristles quite free of varnish; go over the surface and pick up as
much of the surplus liquid as the brush will hold. Replace the varnish
in the can by wiping the bristles on the wire of the can. Repeat until
the entire surface has been left with but a thin smooth coating.
Two, three, four or more coats are applied in this manner, forty-eight
hours being allowed between each for drying. Dry varnish comes off in
sanding as a white powder; if not dry it will come off on the sandpaper
as little black spots.
=159. Typical Finishes for Coarse-Grained Woods.=--Egg-Shell gloss:
(1) One coat of water stain, English, golden, etc., according to the
result desired. (2) Allow time to dry, then sandpaper lightly with fine
sandpaper. This is to smooth the grain and to bring up the highlights
by removing stain from some of the wood. Use No. 00 sandpaper and hold
it on the finger tips. (3) Apply a second coat of the stain diluted
about one-half with water. This will throw the grain into still higher
relief and thus produce a still greater contrast. Apply this coat of
stain very sparingly, using a rag. Should this stain raise the grain,
again rub lightly with fine worn sandpaper, just enough to smooth.
(4) When this has dried, put on a light coat of thin shellac. Shellac
precedes filling that it may prevent the high lights--the solid parts
of wood--from being discolored by the stain in the filler, and thus
causing a muddy effect. The shellac being thin does not interfere with
the filler’s entering the pores of the open grain. (5) Sand lightly
with fine sandpaper. (6) Fill with paste filler colored to match the
stain. (7) Cover this with a coat of orange shellac. This coat of
shellac might be omitted but another coat of varnish must be added.
(8) Sandpaper lightly. (9) Apply two or three coats of varnish. (10)
Rub the first coats with hair cloth or curled hair and the last with
pulverized pumice stone and crude oil or raw linseed oil.
Dull finish: A dead surface is obtained by rubbing the varnish after
it has become bone dry, with powdered pumice stone and water, using a
piece of rubbing felt. Rub until the surface is smooth and even being
careful not to cut thru by rubbing too long at any one spot. The edges
are most likely to be endangered. Use a wet sponge and chamois skin to
clean off the pumice.
Polished finish: The last coat should be rubbed first with pulverized
pumice stone and water, and then with rotten stone and water. For a
piano finish rub further with a mixture of oil and a little pulverized
rotten stone, using a soft felt or flannel. A rotary motion is
generally used and the mixture is often rubbed with the bare hand.
Gloss finish: For a gloss finish, the last coat is not rubbed at all.
=160. Patching.=--It frequently happens in rubbing with pumice that
the varnish is cut thru so that the bare wood shows. To patch such a
spot proceed as follows: (1) Sandpaper the bare place lightly with
very fine paper, No. 00, to smooth the grain of the wood raised by the
pumice water. (2) If the wood has been stained or filled, color the
spot to match the rest of the finish. Apply a little with a cloth and
wipe off clean. (3) When this has dried, apply a thin coat of varnish
to the bare wood, carefully. Draw it out beyond the bare wood a little,
“feathering” it so that there shall not be a ridge. (4) Allow this to
dry hard and apply a second coat, feathering it beyond the surface
covered by the first coat. (5) Repeat until the required thickness
has been obtained; then (6) rub with pumice and water. Rub lightly,
using a little pumice and much water. The slightly raised rings made
by the lapping of one coat upon another will need special attention.
It is best not to sandpaper between coats, because of the danger of
scratching the rubbed finish adjoining the patch.
=161. Painting.=--The purpose of paints is to preserve the wood by
covering it with an opaque material. Paints are usually composed of
white lead or zinc oxide and coloring materials mixed or thinned with
raw or boiled linseed oil. Turpentine is also used for thinning and as
a drying agent.
Paint must be well brushed out so that a thin film may result.
In painting, (1) Cover the knots with shellac, or the oil of the paint
will be absorbed thru two or three coats and a discoloration result.
(2) Put on a prime coat. This coat should be mixed as thin as it can
be and still not “run” when applied to vertical surfaces. (3) Fill the
nail holes with putty. Sand lightly if a smooth finish is desired. (4)
Apply two or three coats of paint thin enough to flow freely but thick
enough to cover well and not “run.”
The second coat is given a little more than the usual amount of
turpentine that a “flat effect” may prepare the way for the final gloss
coat. If the last coat is to be dull, turpentine is used in it as well
as the second. Oil causes gloss, turpentine causes a dull or flat
effect.
APPENDIX I.
ADDITIONAL JOINTS.
[Illustration: Butt Joint.]
[Illustration: Hopper Joint.]
[Illustration: Toe Nail Joint.]
[Illustration: Glued and Blocked Joint.]
[Illustration: Doweled Butt Joint.]
[Illustration: Draw Bolt Joint.]
PLATE 1.
[Illustration: End-Lap Joint.]
[Illustration: Middle-Lap Joint.]
[Illustration: Lapped Dove-tail Joint.]
[Illustration: Ledge or Rabbet.]
[Illustration: Gained Joint.]
[Illustration: Through Mortise & Tenon.]
PLATE 2.
[Illustration: Stub Mortise & Tenon.]
[Illustration: Pinned Mortise & Tenon.]
[Illustration: Double Mortise and Tenon.]
[Illustration: Slip Joint.]
[Illustration: Wedged Mortise & Tenon.]
[Illustration: Fox Tail Tenon.]
PLATE 3.
[Illustration: Dove-tail Mortise & Tenon.]
[Illustration: Tusk Tenon.]
[Illustration: Stretcher Joint.]
[Illustration: Stretcher Joint.]
[Illustration: Ledge and Miter Joint.]
[Illustration: Spline Miter.]
PLATE 4.
[Illustration: Dovetail Dado.]
[Illustration: Lapped & Strapped Joint.]
[Illustration: Fished Joint--A.]
[Illustration: Fished Joint--B.]
[Illustration: Splice Joint.]
[Illustration: Scarf Joint.]
PLATE 5.
[Illustration: Spliced Joint.]
[Illustration: Scarf Joint.]
[Illustration: Bevel-Shoulder Joint.]
[Illustration: Thrust Joint--A.]
[Illustration: Thrust Joint--B.]
PLATE 6.
[Illustration: Spline Joint.]
[Illustration: Matched Joint.]
[Illustration: Rabbeted & Fillistered Joint.]
[Illustration: Beaded Joint.]
PLATE 7.
APPENDIX II.
WOOD FINISHING RECIPES.
=1. Wax.=--Cut up beeswax and add to it about one-third of its volume
of turpentine. Heat to the boiling point in a double boiler. Or, melt
a quantity of beeswax and to this add an equal quantity of turpentine.
Care must be taken that the turpentine shall not catch fire.
=2. Water Stains.=--Any coloring matter that is soluble in water will
make a stain.
Mahogany: Three quarts of boiling water, one ounce of Bismarck-brown
aniline.
Brown: Extract of logwood, the size of a walnut, dissolved by boiling
in four ounces of water. Apply hot and repeat until the desired color
is obtained.
Black: First stain the wood brown with the logwood solution. Coat this
with a stain prepared as follows: Soak a teaspoonful of cast iron
filings in four ounces of acetic acid or vinegar. Allow it to stand for
a week, stirring it occasionally.
Walnut: Make a strong solution of powdered bichromate of potash and hot
water. Over this stain, apply a coat of the logwood stain.
=3. Oil Stains.=--Coach colors ground in Japan when thinned with
turpentine make good stain. Mix in the proportion of one-half gallon of
turpentine to one pound of color and add a little boiled oil. Colors
commonly used are drop black, Vandyke brown, medium chrome yellow,
burnt and raw umber and burnt and raw sienna.
Green: Drop-black, two parts, medium chrome yellow, one part, a little
red to kill the brightness.
Walnut: Asphaltum with a little Venetian red.
Golden oak: Asphaltum and turpentine thinned like water, to be followed
with filler darkened with burnt umber and black.
Antique oak: Raw sienna properly thinned, with a little burnt umber and
black added.
4. Spirit Stains.
Black: Alcohol and aniline black.
Mahogany: Alcohol and Bismark brown.
Aniline stains cut with alcohol, and mixed with white shellac and
banana oil or amyl alcohol in equal parts make good stains for small
pieces of work.
APPENDIX III.
WORKING DRAWINGS.
A working drawing of an object consists of one or more views of that
object so drawn that they make known the size, shape, kind of material,
etc.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
A working drawing differs from a perspective. The former represents
an object as it really is, the second, represents the object as it
appears. Fig. 1.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
=1. Instruments.=--Special instruments are required for the making of
a mechanical drawing. Fig. 2 shows a drawing-board with paper fastened
to it, also a T-square and the two triangles. A compass is needed for
drawing circles and arcs of circles.
The T-square is used for drawing horizontal lines. The head must be
held firmly against the edge of the board and the lines drawn from
left to right. Vertical and oblique lines are drawn from the T-square
upward, the triangles being held against the edge of the T-square
which, at the same time, is held against the edge of the board.
=2. Conventions.=--Since it would be impossible to make full-sized
drawings of some objects--a house for instance--it is customary to use
a scale and by means of it make a smaller drawing, which shall have
all of its parts properly proportioned. For example, if a drawing has
printed upon it “¹⁄₂ inch = 1 inch,” it means for every inch of the
object the drawing is but one-half an inch. The scale is to be used
for measuring only. There is quite a variety of scales. Whatever scale
is used, the numbers placed upon the drawing must represent the size of
the object and not of the drawing.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
In Fig. 3 is shown a mechanical drawing of a common wood spool. It will
be seen that there are different kinds of lines. Each has its meaning,
as follows:
[Illustration:
1. Light line--For penciling and cross-hatching.
2. Full line--For visible outlines of objects and limits of parts.
3. Heavy line--For border lines.
4. Dot line--For invisible outlines of objects and limits of invisible
parts. Same width as 2.
5. Dash line--For projection lines. Same width as 1.
6. Long dash line--For dimension lines. Same width as 1.
7. Dot-and-dash line--For center lines and section lines. Same width as
1.]
When there is not room for the figures that represent dimensions, the
arrow heads may be turned in the direction of the measurement and
placed outside. The figure, too, may be placed outside if necessary.
Nothing but the letters, the figures and the barbs--not the shafts--of
the arrow are drawn free-hand.
Sometimes, it is desirable to have one dimension shorter than the scale
selected would allow; this is done by means of a broken view: Fig. 4.
The figured dimension prevents confusion.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
In Fig. 5, is shown a sectional drawing. Sectional drawings represent
an object as it would appear if cut, with the part nearer the worker
removed. Sections are indicated by “cross hatching,” the lines being
equally spaced and drawn at an angle of 45 degrees.
Screws and nails are represented as in Fig. 6.
[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
=3. Projection and Relation of Views.=--The names and the relative
positions of three views are shown in Fig. 7. From these it will be
seen (1) that the different views are arranged with reference to the
front view, so that the part of a side view which is nearest the
front view represents a part of the front of the object, (2) that the
corresponding horizontal measurements of top and front views are alike,
(3) that the corresponding vertical measurements of front and side
views are alike, (4) that the corresponding vertical measurements of
the top view and horizontal measurements of a side view are alike.
=4. Letters and Figures.=--Letters are usually made freehand, light
ruled lines at the top and bottom acting as guides. A simple style of
letter and figure is shown in Fig. 8. They are placed in spaces that
the proportion of the parts may the more readily be seen. They may be
narrowed or widened by changing the width of the spaces, and shortened
or lengthened by changing the height of the spacer.
[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
=5. Constructions.=--The hexagon, or six-sided figure; the octagon,
or eight-sided figure; and the ellipse are so very frequently used in
simple woodwork, that their construction is given here.
[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
Directions for hexagon, Fig. 9: Describe a circle of a size equal
to the required distance of hexagon from corner to corner. Draw the
diameter A-B. With the point A as a center, using the radius of
the circle, cut the circle at 1 and 2. With B as a center, and the
same radius, cut the circle at 3 and 4. Connect A-1, A-2, 2-3, etc.
Connecting every other point, as A-3, 2-B, etc., makes a six-pointed
star.
[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
Directions for octagon, Fig. 10: Draw a square with a width equal to
the desired width of the octagon from side to side. Draw the diagonals.
With the points A, B, C, and D as centers and a radius equal to
one-half the diagonal, cut the sides of the square at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8. Connect these points as shown.
[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
Directions for ellipse, Fig. 11: An ellipse is a curve such that the
sum of the distances from any point on it to two fixed points called
the focii shall always be the same.
An easy way to construct such a curve is to place two thumb tacks at
the focii, attach the ends of a string to them. With a pencil moving
freely in the string but holding it taut draw the curve. By moving the
tacks farther apart or closer together and by lengthening or shortening
the string, the size and shape of the curve may be changed as desired.
[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
=6. Order of Procedure.=--Beginners should strive to know and to
acquire good practice in drawing. Before beginning see that the pencil
is properly sharpened.
(1) Determine the size and spacings of the views so that the parts of
the drawings may be properly placed.
(2) With light full lines block out the different views. Blocking-out
lines are made of indefinite length and the proper distances marked
off on them after they are drawn. Holding the rule or scale upon the
drawing vertically, mark off the vertical spaces. Draw light lines thru
these points. Upon one of these horizontal lines lay off the horizontal
spaces. Draw light vertical lines thru these points. Fig. 12.
(3) Put on the dimensions.
(4) Put on the lettering.
(5) The drawing is ready for inking. In blocking-out, all lines are
made full, light. In inking, the different kinds must be represented
properly. Fig. 13. If it is not to be inked go over the lines that
represent edges with the pencil a second time so that the outlines of
the object will “stand out.”
Books on the Manual Arts
=Beginning Woodwork.= At Home and in School. By CLINTON SHELDON VAN
DEUSEN; illustrated by Edwin Victor Lawrence.
A full and clear description in detail of the fundamental processes
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=Problems in Woodworking.= By M. W. MURRAY.
A convenient collection of good problems ready to place in the hands
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=Problems in Furniture Making.= By FRED D. CRAWSHAW.
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=Problems in Mechanical Drawing.= By CHARLES A. BENNETT. With
drawings made by Fred D. Crawshaw.
This book consists of 80 plates and a few explanatory notes, and
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Price, $1.00. Board covers, 20 cents extra.
=Classroom Practice in Design.= By JAMES PARTON HANEY.
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=The Wash Method of Handling Water Colour.= By FRANK FORREST
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[Illustration]
The Manual Arts Press
Peoria, Illinois
Transcriber’s Notes
Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling have been retained except as
mentioned under Changes made below.
Page 35, ... being careful to hold so as to get the full benefit ...:
part of the sentence appears to be missing.
Pages 132-133: Figs. 214 and 213 appear in reverse order in the
source document.
Page 146, paragraph starting Hickory excels as carriage and wagon
stock ...: the repeated paragraph is also repeated in the source
document; ... giving rise to “curly” and blister” figures ...: should
be either “curly and blister” or “curly” and “blister”.
Page 156, Wood stains are cheap ...: possibly an error for Water
stains are cheap ....
Changes made
Several obvious minor typographical errors have been corrected
silently. Some punctuation inconsistencies in illustration captions
and references have been standardised.
Captions with Figs. 95, 119, 193: dashes have been added to some of
the entries for consistency.
Page 9: heading PART I. TOOLS AND ELEMENTARY PROCESSES. has been
inserted cf. the Table of Contents.
Page 43: A True and smooth ... has been replaced with 1. True and
smooth ....
Page 98: ... Chapter I, Sec-1 ... has been changed to ... Chapter I,
Section 1 ....
Page 116: PART THREE has been changed to PART III for consistency.
Page 138: dicotyledon has been changed to dicotyledons.
Page 171: bicromate has been changed to bichromate.