GENERAL REMARKS.
540. In Our "INTRODUCTION TO COOKERY" (_see_ No. 76) we have described
the gradual progress of mankind in the art of cookery, the probability
being, that the human race, for a long period, lived wholly on fruits.
Man's means of attacking animals, even if he had the desire of
slaughtering them, were very limited, until he acquired the use of arms.
He, however, made weapons for himself, and, impelled by a carnivorous
instinct, made prey of the animals that surrounded him. It is natural
that man should seek to feed on flesh; he has too small a stomach to be
supported alone by fruit, which has not sufficient nourishment to
renovate him. It is possible he might subsist on vegetables; but their
preparation needs the knowledge of art, only to be obtained after the
lapse of many centuries. Man's first weapons were the branches of trees,
which were succeeded by bows and arrows, and it is worthy of remark,
that these latter weapons have been found with the natives of all
climates and latitudes. It is singular how this idea presented itself to
individuals so differently placed.
541. BRILLAT SAVARIN says, that raw flesh has but one
inconvenience,--from its viscousness it attaches itself to the teeth. He
goes on to say, that it is not, however, disagreeable; but, when
seasoned with salt, that it is easily digested. He tells a story of a
Croat captain, whom he invited to dinner in 1815, during the occupation
of Paris by the allied troops. This officer was amazed at his host's
preparations, and said, "When we are campaigning, and get hungry, we
knock over the first animal we find, cut off a steak, powder it with
salt, which we always have in the sabretasche, put it under the saddle,
gallop over it for half a mile, and then dine like princes." Again, of
the huntsmen of Dauphiny it is said, that when they are out shooting in
September, they take with them both pepper and salt. If they kill a very
fat bird, they pluck and season it, and, after carrying it some time in
their caps, eat it. This, they declare, is the best way of serving it
up.
542. SUBSEQUENTLY TO THE CROAT MODE, which, doubtless, was in fashion in
the earlier ages of the world, fire was discovered. This was an
accident; for fire is not, although we are accustomed to call it so, an
element, or spontaneous. Many savage nations have been found utterly
ignorant of it, and many races had no other way of dressing their food
than by exposing it to the rays of the sun.
543. THE INHABITANTS OF THE MARIAN ISLANDS, which were discovered in
1521, had no idea of fire. Never was astonishment greater than theirs
when they first saw it, on the descent of Magellan, the navigator, on
one of their isles. At first they thought it a kind of animal, that
fixed itself to and fed upon wood. Some of them, who approached too
near, being burnt, the rest were terrified, and durst only look upon it
at a distance. They were afraid, they said, of being bit, or lest that
dreadful animal should wound with his violent respiration and dreadful
breath; for these were the first notions they formed of the heat and
flame. Such, too, probably, were the notions the Greeks originally
formed of them.
544. FIRE HAVING BEEN DISCOVERED, mankind endeavoured to make use of it
for drying, and afterwards for cooking their meat; but they were a
considerable time before they hit upon proper and commodious methods of
employing it in the preparation of their food.
545. MEAT, THEN, PLACED ON BURNING FUEL was found better than when raw:
it had more firmness, was eaten with less difficulty, and the ozmazome
being condensed by the carbonization, gave it a pleasing perfume and
flavour. Still, however, the meat cooked on the coal would become
somewhat befouled, certain portions of the fuel adhering to it. This
disadvantage was remedied by passing spits through it, and placing it at
a suitable height above the burning fuel. Thus grilling was invented;
and it is well known that, simple as is this mode of cookery, yet all
meat cooked in this way is richly and pleasantly flavoured. In Homer's
time, the, art of cookery had not advanced much beyond this; for we read
in the "Iliad," how the great Achilles and his friend Patroclus regaled
the three Grecian leaders on bread, wine, and broiled meat. It is
noticeable, too, that Homer does not speak of boiled meat anywhere in
his poems. Later, however, the Jews, coming out of their captivity in
Egypt, had made much greater progress. They undoubtedly possessed
kettles; and in one of these, Esau's mess of pottage, for which he sold
his birthright, must have been prepared.
546. HAVING THUS BRIEFLY TRACED A HISTORY OF GASTRONOMICAL PROGRESSES,
we will now proceed to describe the various methods of cooking meat, and
make a few observations on the chemical changes which occur in each of
the operations.
547. IN THIS COUNTRY, plain boiling, roasting, and baking are the usual
methods of cooking animal food. To explain the philosophy of these
simple culinary operations, we must advert to the effects that are
produced by heat on the principal constituents of flesh. When
finely-chopped mutton or beef is steeped for some time in a small
quantity of clean water, and then subjected to slight pressure, the
juice of the meat is extracted, and there is left a white tasteless
residue, consisting chiefly of muscular fibres. When this residue is
heated to between 158° and 177° Fahrenheit, the fibres shrink together,
and become hard and horny. The influence of an elevated temperature on
the soluble extract of flesh is not less remarkable. When the watery
infusion, which contains all the savoury constituents of the meat, is
gradually heated, it soon becomes turbid; and, when the temperature
reaches 133°, flakes of whitish matter separate. These flakes are
_albumen_, a substance precisely similar, in all its properties, to the
white of egg (see No. 101). When the temperature of the watery extract
is raised to 158°, the colouring matter of the blood coagulates, and the
liquid, which was originally tinged red by this substance, is left
perfectly clear, and almost colourless. When evaporated, even at a
gentle heat, this residual liquid gradually becomes brown, and acquires
the flavour of roast meat.
548. THESE INTERESTING FACTS, discovered in the laboratory, throw a
flood of light upon the mysteries of the kitchen. The fibres of meat are
surrounded by a liquid which contains albumen in its soluble state, just
as it exists in the unboiled egg. During the operation of boiling or
roasting, this substance coagulates, and thereby prevents the
contraction and hardening of the fibres. The tenderness of well-cooked
meat is consequently proportioned to the amount of albumen deposited in
its substance. Meat is underdone when it has been heated throughout only
to the temperature of coagulating albumen: it is thoroughly done when it
has been heated through its whole mass to the temperature at which the
colouring matter of the blood coagulates: it is overdone when the heat
has been continued long enough to harden the fibres.
549. THE JUICE OF FLESH IS WATER, holding in solution many substances
besides albumen, which are of the highest possible value as articles of
food. In preparing meat for the table, great care should be taken to
prevent the escape of this precious juice, as the succulence and
sapidity of the meat depend on its retention. The meat to be cooked
should be exposed at first to a quick heat, which immediately coagulates
the albumen on and near the surface. A kind of shell is thus formed,
which effectually retains the whole of the juice within the meat.
550. DURING THE OPERATIONS OF BOILING, BOASTING, AND BAKING, fresh beef
and mutton, when moderately fat, lose, according to Johnston, on an
average about--
In boiling. In baking. In roasting.
4 lbs. of beef lose 1 lb. 1 lb. 3 oz. 1 lb. 5 oz.
4 lbs. of mutton lose 14 oz. 1 lb. 4 oz. 1 lb. 6 oz.
BAKING.
[Illustration: BAKING DISH.]
551. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ROASTING MEAT AND BAKING IT, may be
generally described as consisting in the fact, that, in baking it, the
fumes caused by the operation are not carried off in the same way as
occurs in roasting. Much, however, of this disadvantage is obviated by
the improved construction of modern ovens, and of especially those in
connection with the Leamington kitchener, of which we give an engraving
here, and a full description of which will be seen at paragraph No. 65,
with the prices at which they can be purchased of Messrs. R. and J.
Slack, of the Strand. With meat baked in the generality of ovens,
however, which do not possess ventilators on the principle of this
kitchener, there is undoubtedly a peculiar taste, which does not at all
equal the flavour developed by roasting meat. The chemistry of baking
may be said to be the same as that described in roasting.
552. SHOULD THE OVEN BE VERY BRISK, it will be found necessary to cover
the joint with a piece of white paper, to prevent the meat from being
scorched and blackened outside, before the heat can penetrate into the
inside. This paper should be removed half an hour before the time of
serving dinner, so that the joint may take a good colour.
553. BY MEANS OF A JAR, many dishes, which will be enumerated under
their special heads, may be economically prepared in the oven. The
principal of these are soup, gravies, jugged hare, beef tea; and this
mode of cooking may be advantageously adopted with a ham, which has
previously been covered with a common crust of flour and water.
554. ALL DISHES PREPARED FOR BAKING should be more highly seasoned than
when intended to be roasted. There are some dishes which, it may be
said, are at least equally well cooked in the oven as by the roaster;
thus, a shoulder of mutton and baked potatoes, a fillet or breast of
veal, a sucking pig, a hare, well basted, will be received by
connoisseurs as well, when baked, as if they had been roasted. Indeed,
the baker's oven, or the family oven, may often, as has been said, be
substituted for the cook and the spit with greater economy and
convenience.
555. A BAKING-DISH, of which we give an engraving, should not be less
than 6 or 7 inches deep; so that the meat, which of course cannot be
basted, can stew in its own juices. In the recipe for each dish, full
explanations concerning any special points in relation to it will be
given.
BOILING.
556. BOILING, or the preparation of meat by hot water, though one of the
easiest processes in cookery, requires skilful management. Boiled meat
should be tender, savoury, and full of its own juice, or natural gravy;
but, through the carelessness and ignorance of cooks, it is too often
sent to table hard, tasteless, and innutritious. To insure a successful
result in boiling flesh, the heat of the fire must be judiciously
regulated, the proper quantity of water must be kept up in the pot, and
the scum which rises to the surface must be carefully removed.
557. MANY WRITERS ON COOKERY assert that the meat to be boiled should be
put into cold water, and that the pot should be heated gradually; but
Liebig, the highest authority on all matters connected with the
chemistry of food, has shown that meat so treated loses some of its most
nutritious constituents. "If the flesh," says the great chemist, "be
introduced into the boiler when the water is in a state of brisk
ebullition, and if the boiling be kept up for a few minutes, and the pot
then placed in a warm place, so that the temperature of the water is
kept at 158° to 165°, we have the united conditions for giving to the
flesh the qualities which best fit it for being eaten." When a piece of
meat is plunged into boiling water, the albumen which is near the
surface immediately coagulates, forming an envelope, which prevents the
escape of the internal juice, and most effectually excludes the water,
which, by mixing with this juice, would render the meat insipid. Meat
treated thus is juicy and well-flavoured, when cooked, as it retains
most of its savoury constituents. On the other hand, if the piece of
meat be set on the fire with cold water, and this slowly heated to
boiling, the flesh undergoes a loss of soluble and nutritious
substances, while, as a matter of course, the soup becomes richer in
these matters. The albumen is gradually dissolved from the surface to
the centre; the fibre loses, more or less, its quality of shortness or
tenderness, and becomes hard and tough: the thinner the piece of meat
is, the greater is its loss of savoury constituents. In order to obtain
well-flavoured and eatable meat, we must relinquish the idea of making
good soup from it, as that mode of boiling which yields the best soup
gives the driest, toughest, and most vapid meat. Slow boiling whitens
the meat; and, we suspect, that it is on this account that it is in such
favour with the cooks. The wholesomeness of food is, however, a matter
of much greater moment than the appearance it presents on the table. It
should be borne in mind, that the whiteness of meat that has been boiled
slowly, is produced by the loss of some important alimentary properties.
558. THE OBJECTIONS WE HAVE RAISED to the practice of putting meat on
the fire in cold water, apply with equal force to the practice of
soaking meat before cooking it, which is so strongly recommended by some
cooks. Fresh meat ought never to be soaked, as all its most nutritive
constituents are soluble in water. Soaking, however, is an operation
that cannot be entirely dispensed with in the preparation of animal
food. Salted and dried meats require to be soaked for some time in water
before they are cooked.
559. FOR BOILING MEAT, the softer the water is, the better. When spring
water is boiled, the chalk which gives to it the quality of hardness, is
precipitated. This chalk stains the meat, and communicates to it an
unpleasant earthy taste. When nothing but hard water can be procured, it
should be softened by boiling it for an hour or two before it is used
for culinary purposes.
560. THE FIRE MUST BE WATCHED with great attention during the operation
of boiling, so that its heat may be properly regulated. As a rule, the
pot should be kept in a simmering state; a result which cannot be
attained without vigilance.
561. THE TEMPERATURE AT WHICH WATER BOILS, under usual circumstances, is
212° Fahr. Water does not become hotter after it has begun to boil,
however long or with whatever violence the boiling is continued. This
fact is of great importance in cookery, and attention to it will save
much fuel. Water made to boil in a gentle way by the application of a
moderate heat is just as hot as when it is made to boil on a strong fire
with the greatest possible violence. When once water has been brought to
the boiling point, the fire may be considerably reduced, as a very
gentle heat will suffice to keep the water at its highest temperature.
562. THE SCUM WHICH RISES to the surface of the pot during the operation
of boiling must be carefully removed, otherwise it will attach itself to
the meat, and thereby spoil its appearance. The cook must not neglect to
skim during the whole process, though by far the greater part of the
scum rises at first. The practice of wrapping meat in a cloth may be
dispensed with if the skimming be skillfully managed. If the scum be
removed as fast as it rises, the meat will be cooked clean and pure, and
come out of the vessel in which it was boiled, much more delicate and
firm than when cooked in a cloth.
563. WHEN TAKEN FROM THE POT, the meat must be wiped with a clean cloth,
or, what will be found more convenient, a sponge previously dipped in
water and wrung dry. The meat should not be allowed to stand a moment
longer than necessary, as boiled meat, as well as roasted, cannot be
eaten too hot.
564. THE TIME ALLOWED FOR THE OPERATION OF BOILING must be regulated
according to the size and quality of the meat. As a general rule, twenty
minutes, reckoning from the moment when the boiling commences, may be
allowed for every pound of meat. All the best authorities, however,
agree in this, that the longer the boiling the more perfect the
operation.
565. A FEW OBSERVATIONS ON THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF SALTED MEAT may be
properly introduced in this place. Every housewife knows that dry salt
in contact with fresh meat gradually becomes fluid brine. The
application of salt causes the fibres of the meat to contract, and the
juice to flow out from its pores: as much as one-third of the juice of
the meat is often forced out in this manner. Now, as this juice is pure
extract of meat, containing albumen, osmazome, and other valuable
principles, it follows that meat which has been preserved by the action
of salt can never have the nutritive properties of fresh meat.
566. THE VESSELS USED FOR BOILING should be made of cast-iron, well
tinned within, and provided with closely-fitting lids. They must be kept
scrupulously clean, otherwise they will render the meat cooked in them
unsightly and unwholesome. Copper pans, if used at all, should be
reserved for operations that are performed with rapidity; as, by long
contact with copper, food may become dangerously contaminated. The
kettle in which a joint is dressed should be large enough to allow room
for a good supply of water; if the meat be cramped and be surrounded
with but little water, it will be stewed, not boiled.
567. IN STEWING, IT IS NOT REQUISITE to have so great a heat as in
boiling. A gentle simmering in a small quantity of water, so that the
meat is stewed almost in its own juices, is all that is necessary. It is
a method much used on the continent, and is wholesome and economical.
[Illustration: BOILING-POT.]
[Illustration: STEWPAN.]
Two useful culinary vessels are represented above. One is a
boiling-pot, in which large joints may be boiled; the other is a
stewpan, with a closely-fitting lid, to which is attached a long
handle; so that the cover can be removed without scalding the
fingers.
[Illustration: HOT-PLATE.]
568. THE HOT-PLATE is a modern improvement on the old kitchen ranges,
being used for boiling and stewing. It is a plate of cast iron, having a
closed fire burning beneath it, by which it is thoroughly well heated.
On this plate are set the various saucepans, stewpans, &c.; and, by this
convenient and economical method, a number of dishes may be prepared at
one time. The culinary processes of braising and stewing are, in this
manner, rendered more gradual, and consequently the substance acted on
becomes more tender, and the gravy is not so much reduced.
BROILING.
[Illustration: REVOLVING GRIDIRON.]
569. GENERALLY SPEAKING, small dishes only are prepared by this mode of
cooking; amongst these, the beef-steak and mutton chop of the solitary
English diner may be mentioned as celebrated all the world over. Our
beef-steak, indeed, has long crossed the Channel; and, with a view of
pleasing the Britons, there is in every _carte_ at every French
restaurant, by the side of _à la Marengo_, and _à la Mayonnaise,--bifteck
d'Angleterre_. In order to succeed in a broil, the cook must have a
bright, clear fire; so that the surface of the meat may be quickly heated.
The result of this is the same as that obtained in roasting; namely, that
a crust, so to speak, is formed outside, and thus the juices of the meat
are retained. The appetite of an invalid, so difficult to minister to, is
often pleased with a broiled dish, as the flavour and sapidity of the meat
are so well preserved.
570. THE UTENSILS USED FOR BROILING need but little description. The
common gridiron, for which see engraving at No. 68, is the same as it
has been for ages past, although some little variety has been introduced
into its manufacture, by the addition of grooves to the bars, by means
of which the liquid fat is carried into a small trough. One point it is
well to bear in mind, viz., that the gridiron should be kept in a
direction slanting towards the cook, so that as little fat as possible
may fall into the fire. It has been observed, that broiling is the most
difficult manual office the general cook has to perform, and one that
requires the most unremitting attention; for she may turn her back upon
the stewpan or the spit, but the gridiron can never be left with
impunity. The revolving gridiron, shown in the engraving, possesses some
advantages of convenience, which will be at once apparent.
FRYING.
[Illustration: SAUTÉ PAN.]
571. THIS VERY FAVOURITE MODE OF COOKING may be accurately described as
boiling in fat or oil. Substances dressed in this way are generally well
received, for they introduce an agreeable variety, possessing, as they
do, a peculiar flavour. By means of frying, cooks can soon satisfy many
requisitions made on them, it being a very expeditious mode of preparing
dishes for the table, and one which can be employed when the fire is not
sufficiently large for the purposes of roasting and boiling. The great
point to be borne in mind in frying, is that the liquid must be hot
enough to act instantaneously, as all the merit of this culinary
operation lies in the invasion of the boiling liquid, which carbonizes
or burns, at the very instant of the immersion of the body placed in it.
It may be ascertained if the fat is heated to the proper degree, by
cutting a piece of bread and dipping it in the frying-pan for five or
six seconds; and if it be firm and of a dark brown when taken out, put
in immediately what you wish to prepare; if it be not, let the fat be
heated until of the right temperature. This having been effected,
moderate the fire, so that the action may not be too hurried, and that
by a continuous heat the juices of the substance may be preserved, and
its flavour enhanced.
572. THE PHILOSOPHY OF FRYING consists in this, that liquids subjected
to the action of fire do not all receive the same quantity of heat.
Being differently constituted in their nature, they possess different
"capacities for caloric." Thus, you may, with impunity, dip your finger
in boiling spirits of wine; you would take it very quickly from boiling
brandy, yet more rapidly from water; whilst the effects of the most
rapid immersion in boiling oil need not be told. As a consequence of
this, heated fluids act differently on the sapid bodies presented to
them. Those put in water, dissolve, and are reduced to a soft mass; the
result being _bouillon_, stock, &c. (_see_ No. 103). Those substances,
on the contrary, treated with oil, harden, assume a more or less deep
colour, and are finally carbonized. The reason of these different
results is, that, in the first instance, water dissolves and extracts
the interior juices of the alimentary substances placed in it; whilst,
in the second, the juices are preserved; for they are insoluble in oil.
573. IT IS TO BE ESPECIALLY REMEMBERED, in connection with frying, that
all dishes fried in fat should be placed before the fire on a piece of
blotting-paper, or sieve reversed, and there left for a few minutes, so
that any superfluous greasy moisture may be removed.
574. THE UTENSILS USED FOR THE PURPOSES OF FRYING are confined to
frying-pans, although these are of various sizes; and, for small and
delicate dishes, such as collops, fritters, pancakes, &c., the _sauté_
pan, of which we give an engraving, is used.
COOKING BY GAS.
[Illustration: GAS STOVE.]
575. GAS-COOKING can scarcely now be considered a novelty,--many
establishments, both small and large, have been fitted with apparatus
for cooking by this mode, which undoubtedly exhibits some advantages.
Thus the heat may be more regularly supplied to the substance cooking,
and the operation is essentially a clean one, because there can be no
cinders or other dirt to be provided for. Some labour and attention
necessary, too, with a coal fire or close stove, may be saved; and,
besides this, it may, perhaps, be said that culinary operations are
reduced, by this means, to something like a certainty.
576. THERE ARE, HOWEVER, WE THINK, MANY OBJECTIONS to this mode of
cooking, more especially when applied to small domestic establishments.
For instance, the ingenious machinery necessary for carrying it out,
requires cooks perfectly conversant with its use; and if the gas, when
the cooking operations are finished, be not turned off, there will be a
large increase in the cost of cooking, instead of the economy which it
has been supposed to bring. For large establishments, such as some of
the immense London warehouses, where a large number of young men have to
be catered for daily, it may be well adapted, as it is just possible
that a slight increase in the supply of gas necessary for a couple of
joints, may serve equally to cook a dozen dishes.
ROASTING.
577. OF THE VARIOUS METHODS OF PREPARING MEAT, ROASTING is that which
most effectually preserves its nutritive qualities. Meat is roasted by
being exposed to the direct influence of the fire. This is done by
placing the meat before an open grate, and keeping it in motion to
prevent the scorching on any particular part. When meat is properly
roasted, the outer layer of its albumen is coagulated, and thus presents
a barrier to the exit of the juice. In roasting meat, the heat must be
strongest at first, and it should then be much reduced. To have a good
juicy roast, therefore, the fire must be red and vigorous at the very
commencement of the operation. In the most careful roasting, some of the
juice is squeezed out of the meat: this evaporates on the surface of the
meat, and gives it a dark brown colour, a rich lustre, and a strong
aromatic taste. Besides these effects on the albumen and the expelled
juice, roasting converts the cellular tissue of the meat into gelatine,
and melts the fat out of the fat-cells.
578. IF A SPIT is used to support the meat before the fire, it should be
kept quite bright. Sand and water ought to be used to scour it with, for
brickdust and oil may give a disagreeable taste to the meat. When well
scoured, it must be wiped quite dry with a clean cloth; and, in spitting
the meat, the prime parts should be left untouched, so as to avoid any
great escape of its juices.
579. KITCHENS IN LARGE ESTABLISHMENTS are usually fitted with what are
termed "smoke-jacks." By means of these, several spits, if required, may
be turned at the same time. This not being, of course, necessary in
smaller establishments, a roasting apparatus, more economical in its
consumption of coal, is more frequently in use.
[Illustration: BOTTLE-JACK, WITH WHEEL AND HOOK.]
580. THE BOTTLE-JACK, of which we here give an illustration, with the
wheel and hook, and showing the precise manner of using it, is now
commonly used in many kitchens. This consists of a spring inclosed in a
brass cylinder, and requires winding up before it is used, and
sometimes, also, during the operation of roasting. The joint is fixed to
an iron hook, which is suspended by a chain connected with a wheel, and
which, in its turn, is connected with the bottle-jack. Beneath it stands
the dripping-pan, which we have also engraved, together with the
basting-ladle, the use of which latter should not be spared; as there
can be no good roast without good basting. "Spare the rod, and spoil the
child," might easily be paraphrased into "Spare the basting, and spoil
the meat." If the joint is small and light, and so turns unsteadily,
this may be remedied by fixing to the wheel one of the kitchen weights.
Sometimes this jack is fixed inside a screen; but there is this
objection to this apparatus,--that the meat cooked in it resembles the
flavour of baked meat. This is derived from its being so completely
surrounded with the tin, that no sufficient current of air gets to it.
It will be found preferable to make use of a common meat-screen, such as
is shown in the woodcut. This contains shelves for warming plates and
dishes; and with this, the reflection not being so powerful, and more
air being admitted to the joint, the roast may be very excellently
cooked.
[Illustration: DRIPPING-PAN AND BASTING-LADLE.]
581. IN STIRRING THE FIRE, or putting fresh coals on it, the
dripping-pan should always be drawn back, so that there may be no danger
of the coal, cinders, or ashes falling down into it.
582. UNDER EACH PARTICULAR RECIPE there is stated the time required for
roasting each joint; but, as a general rule, it may be here given, that
for every pound of meat, in ordinary-sized joints, a quarter of an hour
may be allotted.
[Illustration: HEAT-SCREEN.]
583. WHITE MEATS, AND THE MEAT OF YOUNG ANIMALS, require to be very well
roasted, both to be pleasant to the palate and easy of digestion. Thus
veal, pork, and lamb, should be thoroughly done to the centre.
584. MUTTON AND BEEF, on the other hand, do not, generally speaking,
require to be so thoroughly done, and they should be dressed to the
point, that, in carving them, the gravy should just run, but not too
freely. Of course in this, as in most other dishes, the tastes of
individuals vary; and there are many who cannot partake, with
satisfaction, of any joint unless it is what others would call
overdressed.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
QUADRUPEDS.