THE NATURAL HISTORY OF FISHES.
199. IN NATURAL HISTORY, FISHES form the fourth class in the system of
Linnaeus, and are described as having long under-jaws, eggs without
white, organs of sense, fins for supporters, bodies covered with concave
scales, gills to supply the place of lungs for respiration, and water
for the natural element of their existence. Had mankind no other
knowledge of animals than of such as inhabit the land and breathe their
own atmosphere, they would listen with incredulous wonder, if told that
there were other kinds of beings which existed only in the waters, and
which would die almost as soon as they were taken from them. However
strongly these facts might be attested, they would hardly believe them,
without the operation of their own senses, as they would recollect the
effect produced on their own bodies when immersed in water, and the
impossibility of their sustaining life in it for any lengthened period
of time. Experience, however, has taught them, that the "great deep" is
crowded with inhabitants of various sizes, and of vastly different
constructions, with modes of life entirely distinct from those which
belong to the animals of the land, and with peculiarities of design,
equally wonderful with those of any other works which have come from the
hand of the Creator. The history of these races, however, must remain
for ever, more or less, in a state of darkness, since the depths in
which they live, are beyond the power of human exploration, and since
the illimitable expansion of their domain places them almost entirely
out of the reach of human accessibility.
200. IN STUDYING THE CONFORMATION OF FISHES, we naturally conclude that
they are, in every respect, well adapted to the element in which they
have their existence. Their shape has a striking resemblance to the
lower part of a ship; and there is no doubt that the form of the fish
originally suggested the form of the ship. The body is in general
slender, gradually diminishing towards each of its extremities, and
flattened on each of its sides. This is precisely the form of the lower
part of the hull of a ship; and it enables both the animal and the
vessel, with comparative ease, to penetrate and divide the resisting
medium for which they have been adapted. The velocity of a ship,
however, in sailing before the wind, is by no means to be compared to
that of a fish. It is well known that the largest fishes will, with the
greatest ease, overtake a ship in full sail, play round it without
effort, and shoot ahead of it at pleasure. This arises from their great
flexibility, which, to compete with mocks the labours of art, and
enables them to migrate thousands of miles in a season, without the
slightest indications of languor or fatigue.
201. THE PRINCIPAL INSTRUMENTS EMPLOYED BY FISHES to accelerate their
motion, are their air-bladder, fins, and tail. By means of the
air-bladder they enlarge or diminish the specific gravity of their
bodies. When they wish to sink, they compress the muscles of the
abdomen, and eject the air contained in it; by which, their weight,
compared with that of the water, is increased, and they consequently
descend. On the other hand, when they wish to rise, they relax the
compression of the abdominal muscles, when the air-bladder fills and
distends, and the body immediately ascends to the surface. How simply,
yet how wonderfully, has the Supreme Being adapted certain means to the
attainment of certain ends! Those fishes which are destitute of the
air-bladder are heavy in the water, and have no great "alacrity" in
rising. The larger proportion of them remain at the bottom, unless they
are so formed as to be able to strike their native element downwards
with sufficient force to enable them to ascend. When the air-bladder of
a fish is burst, its power of ascending to the surface has for ever
passed away. From a knowledge of this fact, the fishermen of cod are
enabled to preserve them alive for a considerable time in their
well-boats. The means they adopt to accomplish this, is to perforate the
sound, or air-bladder, with a needle, which disengages the air, when the
fishes immediately descend to the bottom of the well, into which they
are thrown. Without this operation, it would be impossible to keep the
cod under water whilst they had life. In swimming, the _fins_ enable
fishes to preserve their upright position, especially those of the
belly, which act like two feet. Without those, they would swim with
their bellies upward, as it is in their backs that the centre of gravity
lies. In ascending and descending, these are likewise of great
assistance, as they contract and expand accordingly. The _tail_ is an
instrument of great muscular force, and largely assists the fish in all
its motions. In some instances it acts like the rudder of a ship, and
enables it to turn sideways; and when moved from side to side with a
quick vibratory motion, fishes are made, in the same manner as the
"screw" propeller makes a steamship, to dart forward with a celerity
proportioned to the muscular force with which it is employed.
202. THE BODIES OF FISHES are mostly covered with a kind of horny
scales; but some are almost entirely without them, or have them so
minute as to be almost invisible; as is the case with the eel. The
object of these is to preserve them from injury by the pressure of the
water, or the sudden contact with pebbles, rocks, or sea-weeds. Others,
again, are enveloped in a fatty, oleaginous substance, also intended as
a defence against the friction of the water; and those in which the
scales are small, are supplied with a larger quantity of slimy matter.
203. THE RESPIRATION OF FISHES is effected by means of those comb-like
organs which are placed on each side of the neck, and which are called
gills. It is curious to watch the process of breathing as it is
performed by the finny tribes. It seems to be so continuous, that it
might almost pass for an illustration of the vexed problem which
conceals the secret of perpetual motion. In performing it, they fill
their mouths with water, which they drive backwards with a force so
great as to open the large flap, to allow it to escape behind. In this
operation all, or a great portion, of the air contained in the water, is
left among the feather-like processes of the gills, and is carried into
the body, there to perform its part in the animal economy. In proof of
this, it has been ascertained that, if the water in which fishes are
put, is, by any means, denuded of its air, they immediately seek the
surface, and begin to gasp for it. Hence, distilled water is to them
what a vacuum made by an air-pump, is to most other animals. For this
reason, when a fishpond, or other aqueous receptacle in which fishes are
kept, is entirely frozen over, it is necessary to make holes in the ice,
not so especially for the purpose of feeding them, as for that of giving
them air to breathe.
204. THE POSITIONS OF THE TEETH OF FISHES are well calculated to excite
our amazement; for, in some cases, these are situated in the jaws,
sometimes on the tongue or palate, and sometimes even in the throat.
They are in general sharp-pointed and immovable; but in the carp they
are obtuse, and in the pike so easily moved as to seem to have no deeper
hold than such as the mere skin can afford. In the herring, the tongue
is set with teeth, to enable it the better, it is supposed, to retain
its food.
205. ALTHOUGH NATURALISTS HAVE DIVIDED FISHES into two great tribes, the
_osseous_ and the _cartilaginous_, yet the distinction is not very
precise; for the first have a great deal of cartilage, and the second,
at any rate, a portion of calcareous matter in their bones. It may,
therefore, be said that the bones of fishes form a kind of intermediate
substance between true bones and cartilages. The backbone extends
through the whole length of the body, and consists of vertebrae, strong
and thick towards the head, but weaker and more slender as it approaches
the tail. Each species has a determinate number of vertebrae, which are
increased in size in proportion with the body. The ribs are attached to
the processes of the vertebrae, and inclose the breast and abdomen. Some
kinds, as the rays, have no ribs; whilst others, as the sturgeon and
eel, have very short ones. Between the pointed processes of the
vertebrae are situated the bones which support the dorsal (back) and the
anal (below the tail) fins, which are connected with the processes by a
ligament. At the breast are the sternum or breastbone, clavicles or
collar-bones, and the scapulae or shoulder-blades, on which the
pectoral or breast fins are placed. The bones which support the ventral
or belly fins are called the _ossa pelvis_. Besides these principal
bones, there are often other smaller ones, placed between the muscles to
assist their motion.
206. SOME OF THE ORGANS OF SENSE IN FISHES are supposed to be possessed
by them in a high degree, and others much more imperfectly. Of the
latter kind are the senses of touch and taste, which are believed to be
very slightly developed. On the other hand, those of hearing, seeing,
and smelling, are ascertained to be acute, but the first in a lesser
degree than both the second and third. Their possession of an auditory
organ was long doubted, and even denied by some physiologists; but it
has been found placed on the sides of the skull, or in the cavity which
contains the brain. It occupies a position entirely distinct and
detached from the skull, and, in this respect, differs in the local
disposition of the same sense in birds and quadrupeds. In some fishes,
as in those of the ray kind, the organ is wholly encompassed by those
parts which contain the cavity of the skull; whilst in the cod and
salmon kind it is in the part within the skull. Its structure is, in
every way, much more simple than that of the same sense in those animals
which live entirely in the air; but there is no doubt that they have the
adaptation suitable to their condition. In some genera, as in the rays,
the external orifice or ear is very small, and is placed in the upper
surface of the head; whilst in others there is no visible external
orifice whatever. However perfect the _sight_ of fishes may be,
experience has shown that this sense is of much less use to them than
that of smelling, in searching for their food. The optic nerves in
fishes have this peculiarity,--that they are not confounded with one
another in their middle progress between their origin and their orbit.
The one passes over the other without any communication; so that the
nerve which comes from the left side of the brain goes distinctly to the
right eye, and that which comes from the right goes distinctly to the
left. In the greater part of them, the eye is covered with the same
transparent skin that covers the rest of the head. The object of this
arrangement, perhaps, is to defend it from the action of the water, as
there are no eyelids. The globe in front is somewhat depressed, and is
furnished behind with a muscle, which serves to lengthen or flatten it,
according to the necessities of the animal. The crystalline humour,
which in quadrupeds is flattened, is, in fishes, nearly globular. The
organ of _smelling_ in fishes is large, and is endued, at its entry,
with a dilating and contracting power, which is employed as the wants of
the animal may require. It is mostly by the acuteness of their smell
that fishes are enabled to discover their food; for their tongue is not
designed for nice sensation, being of too firm a cartilaginous substance
for this purpose.
207. WITH RESPECT TO THE FOOD OF FISHES, this is almost universally
found in their own element. They are mostly carnivorous, though they
seize upon almost anything that comes in their way: they even devour
their own offspring, and manifest a particular predilection for all
living creatures. Those, to which Nature has meted out mouths of the
greatest capacity, would seem to pursue everything with life, and
frequently engage in fierce conflicts with their prey. The animal with
the largest mouth is usually the victor; and he has no sooner conquered
his foe than he devours him. Innumerable shoals of one species pursue
those of another, with a ferocity which draws them from the pole to the
equator, through all the varying temperatures and depths of their
boundless domain. In these pursuits a scene of universal violence is the
result; and many species must have become extinct, had not Nature
accurately proportioned the means of escape, the production, and the
numbers, to the extent and variety of the danger to which they are
exposed. Hence the smaller species are not only more numerous, but more
productive than the larger; whilst their instinct leads them in search
of food and safety near the shores, where, from the shallowness of the
waters, many of their foes are unable to follow them.
208. THE FECUNDITY OF FISHES has been the wonder of every natural
philosopher whose attention has been attracted to the subject. They are
in general oviparous, or egg-producing; but there are a few, such as the
eel and the blenny, which are viviparous, or produce their young alive.
The males have the _milt_ and the females the _roe_; but some
individuals, as the sturgeon and the cod tribes, are said to contain
both. The greater number deposit their spawn in the sand or gravel; but
some of those which dwell in the depths of the ocean attach their eggs
to sea-weeds. In every instance, however, their fruitfulness far
surpasses that of any other race of animals. According to Lewenhoeck,
the cod annually spawns upwards of nine millions of eggs, contained in a
single roe. The flounder produces one million; the mackerel above five
hundred thousand; a herring of a moderate size at least ten thousand; a
carp fourteen inches in length, according to Petit, contained two
hundred and sixty-two thousand two hundred and twenty-four; a perch
deposited three hundred and eighty thousand six hundred and forty; and a
female sturgeon seven millions six hundred and fifty-three thousand two
hundred. The viviparous species are by no means so prolific; yet the
blenny brings forth two or three hundred at a time, which commence
sporting together round their parent the moment they have come into
existence.
209. IN REFERENCE TO THE LONGEVITY OF FISHES, it is affirmed to surpass
that of all other created beings; and it is supposed they are, to a
great extent, exempted from the diseases to which the flesh of other
animals is heir. In place of suffering from the rigidity of age, which
is the cause of the natural decay of those that "live and move and have
their being" on the land, their bodies continue to grow with each
succeeding supply of food, and the conduits of life to perform their
functions unimpaired. The age of fishes has not been properly
ascertained, although it is believed that the most minute of the species
has a longer lease of life than man. The mode in which they die has been
noted by the Rev. Mr. White, the eminent naturalist of Selbourne. As
soon as the fish sickens, the head sinks lower and lower, till the
animal, as it were, stands upon it. After this, as it becomes weaker, it
loses its poise, till the tail turns over, when it comes to the surface,
and floats with its belly upwards. The reason for its floating in this
manner is on account of the body being no longer balanced by the fins of
the belly, and the broad muscular back preponderating, by its own
gravity, over the belly, from this latter being a cavity, and
consequently lighter.
210. FISHES ARE EITHER SOLITARY OR GREGARIOUS, and some of them migrate
to great distances, and into certain rivers, to deposit their spawn. Of
sea-fishes, the cod, herring, mackerel, and many others, assemble in
immense shoals, and migrate through different tracts of the ocean; but,
whether considered in their solitary or gregarious capacity, they are
alike wonderful to all who look through Nature up to Nature's God, and
consider, with due humility, yet exalted admiration, the sublime
variety, beauty, power, and grandeur of His productions, as manifested
in the Creation.
FISH AS AN ARTICLE OF HUMAN FOOD.
211. AS THE NUTRITIVE PROPERTIES OF FISH are deemed inferior to those of
what is called butchers' meat, it would appear, from all we can learn,
that, in all ages, it has held only a secondary place in the estimation
of those who have considered the science of gastronomy as a large
element in the happiness of mankind. Among the Jews of old it was very
little used, although it seems not to have been entirely interdicted, as
Moses prohibited only the use of such as had neither scales nor fins.
The Egyptians, however, made fish an article of diet, notwithstanding
that it was rejected by their priests. Egypt, however, is not a country
favourable to the production of fish, although we read of the people,
when hungry, eating it raw; of epicures among them having dried it in
the sun; and of its being salted and preserved, to serve as a repast on
days of great solemnity.
The modern Egyptians are, in general, extremely temperate in
regard to food. Even the richest among them take little pride,
and, perhaps, experience as little delight, in the luxuries of
the table. Their dishes mostly consist of pilaus, soups, and
stews, prepared principally of onions, cucumbers, and other cold
vegetables, mixed with a little meat cut into small pieces. On
special occasions, however, a whole sheep is placed on the
festive board; but during several of the hottest months of the
year, the richest restrict themselves entirely to a vegetable
diet. The poor are contented with a little oil or sour milk, in
which they may dip their bread.
212. PASSING FROM AFRICA TO EUROPE, we come amongst a people who have,
almost from time immemorial, occupied a high place in the estimation of
every civilized country; yet the Greeks, in their earlier ages, made
very little use of fish as an article of diet. In the eyes of the heroes
of Homer it had little favour; for Menelaus complained that "hunger
pressed their digestive organs," and they had been obliged to live upon
fish. Subsequently, however, fish became one of the principal articles
of diet amongst the Hellenes; and both Aristophanes and Athenaeus allude
to it, and even satirize their countrymen for their excessive partiality
to the turbot and mullet.
So infatuated were many of the Greek gastronomes with the love
of fish, that some of them would have preferred death from
indigestion to the relinquishment of the precious dainties with
which a few of the species supplied them. Philoxenes of Cythera
was one of these. On being informed by his physician that he was
going to die of indigestion, on account of the quantity he was
consuming of a delicious fish, "Be it so," he calmly observed;
"but before I die, let me finish the remainder."
213. THE GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATION OF GREECE was highly favourable for the
development of a taste for the piscatory tribes; and the skill of the
Greek cooks was so great, that they could impart every variety of relish
to the dish they were called upon to prepare. Athenaeus has transmitted
to posterity some very important precepts upon their ingenuity in
seasoning with salt, oil, and aromatics.
At the present day the food of the Greeks, through the combined
influence of poverty and the long fasts which their religion
imposes upon them, is, to a large extent, composed of fish,
accompanied with vegetables and fruit. Caviare, prepared from
the roes of sturgeons, is the national ragout, which, like all
other fish dishes, they season with aromatic herbs. Snails
dressed in garlic are also a favourite dish.
214. AS THE ROMANS, in a great measure, took their taste in the fine
arts from the Greeks, so did they, in some measure, their piscine
appetites. The eel-pout and the lotas's liver were the favourite fish
dishes of the Roman epicures; whilst the red mullet was esteemed as one
of the most delicate fishes that could be brought to the table.
With all the elegance, taste, and refinement of Roman luxury, it
was sometimes promoted or accompanied by acts of great
barbarity. In proof of this, the mention of the red mullet
suggests the mode in which it was sometimes treated for the, to
us, _horrible_ entertainment of the _fashionable_ in Roman
circles. It may be premised, that as England has, Rome, in her
palmy days, had, her fops, who had, no doubt, through the medium
of their cooks, discovered that when the scales of the red
mullet were removed, the flesh presented a fine pink-colour.
Having discovered this, it was further observed that at the
death of the animal, this colour passed through a succession of
beautiful shades, and, in order that these might be witnessed
and enjoyed in their fullest perfection, the poor mullet was
served alive in a glass vessel.
215. THE LOVE OF FISH among the ancient Romans rose to a real mania.
Apicius offered a prize to any one who could invent a new brine
compounded of the liver of red mullets; and Lucullus had a canal cut
through a mountain, in the neighbourhood of Naples, that fish might be
the more easily transported to the gardens of his villa. Hortensius, the
orator, wept over the death of a turbot which he had fed with his own
hands; and the daughter of Druses adorned one that she had, with rings
of gold. These were, surely, instances of misplaced affection; but there
is no accounting for tastes. It was but the other day that we read in
the "_Times_" of a wealthy _living_ English hermit, who delights in the
companionship of rats!
The modern Romans are merged in the general name of Italians,
who, with the exception of macaroni, have no specially
characteristic article of food.
216. FROM ROME TO GAUL is, considering the means of modern locomotion,
no great way; but the ancient sumptuary laws of that kingdom give us
little information regarding the ichthyophagous propensities of its
inhabitants. Louis XII. engaged six fishmongers to furnish his board
with fresh-water animals, and Francis I. had twenty-two, whilst Henry
the Great extended his requirements a little further, and had
twenty-four. In the time of Louis XIV. the cooks had attained to such a
degree of perfection in their art, that they could convert the form and
flesh of the trout, pike, or carp, into the very shape and flavour of
the most delicious game.
The French long enjoyed a European reputation for their skill
and refinement in the preparing of food. In place of plain
joints, French cookery delights in the marvels of what are
called made dishes, ragouts, stews, and fricassees, in which no
trace of the original materials of which they are compounded is
to be found.
217. FROM GAUL WE CROSS TO BRITAIN, where it has been asserted, by, at
least, one authority, that the ancient inhabitants ate no fish. However
this may be, we know that the British shores, particularly those of the
North Sea, have always been well supplied with the best kinds of fish,
which we may reasonably infer was not unknown to the inhabitants, or
likely to be lost upon them for the lack of knowledge as to how they
tasted. By the time of Edward II., fish had, in England, become a
dainty, especially the sturgeon, which was permitted to appear on no
table but that of the king. In the fourteenth century, a decree of King
John informs us that the people ate both seals and porpoises; whilst in
the days of the Troubadours, whales were fished for and caught in the
Mediterranean Sea, for the purpose of being used as human food.
Whatever checks the ancient British may have had upon their
piscatory appetites, there are happily none of any great
consequence upon the modern, who delight in wholesome food of
every kind. Their taste is, perhaps, too much inclined to that
which is accounted solid and substantial; but they really eat
more moderately, even of animal food, than either the French or
the Germans. Roast beef, or other viands cooked in the plainest
manner, are, with them, a sufficient luxury; yet they delight in
living _well_, whilst it is easy to prove how largely their
affections are developed by even the prospect of a substantial
cheer. In proof of this we will just observe, that if a great
dinner is to be celebrated, it is not uncommon for the appointed
stewards and committee to meet and have a preliminary dinner
among themselves, in order to arrange the great one, and after
that, to have another dinner to discharge the bill which the
great one cost. This enjoyable disposition we take to form a
very large item in the aggregate happiness of the nation.
218. THE GENERAL USE OF FISH, as an article of human food among
civilized nations, we have thus sufficiently shown, and will conclude
this portion of our subject with the following hints, which ought to be
remembered by all those who are fond of occasionally varying their
dietary with a piscine dish:--
I. Fish shortly before they spawn are, in general, best in condition.
When the spawning is just over, they are out of season, and unfit for
human food.
II. When fish is out of season, it has a transparent, bluish tinge,
however much it may be boiled; when it is in season, its muscles are
firm, and boil white and curdy.
III. As food for invalids, white fish, such as the ling, cod, haddock,
coal-fish, and whiting, are the best; flat fish, as soles, skate,
turbot, and flounders, are also good.
IV. Salmon, mackerel, herrings, and trout soon spoil or decompose after
they are killed; therefore, to be in perfection, they should be prepared
for the table on the day they are caught. With flat fish, this is not of
such consequence, as they will keep longer. The turbot, for example, is
improved by being kept a day or two.
GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR DRESSING FISH.
219. IN DRESSING FISH, of any kind, the first point to be attended to,
is to see that it be perfectly clean. It is a common error to wash it
too much; as by doing so the flavour is diminished. If the fish is to be
boiled, a little salt and vinegar should be put into the water, to give
it firmness, after it is cleaned. Cod-fish, whiting, and haddock, are
far better if a little salted, and kept a day; and if the weather be not
very hot, they will be good for two days.
220. WHEN FISH IS CHEAP AND PLENTIFUL, and a larger quantity is
purchased than is immediately wanted, the overplus of such as will bear
it should be potted, or pickled, or salted, and hung up; or it may be
fried, that it may serve for stewing the next day. Fresh-water fish,
having frequently a muddy smell and taste, should be soaked in strong
salt and water, after it has been well cleaned. If of a sufficient size,
it may be scalded in salt and water, and afterwards dried and dressed.
221. FISH SHOULD BE PUT INTO COLD WATER, and set on the fire to do very
gently, or the outside will break before the inner part is done. Unless
the fishes are small, they should never be put into warm water; nor
should water, either hot or cold, be poured _on_ to the fish, as it is
liable to break the skin: if it should be necessary to add a little
water whilst the fish is cooking, it ought to be poured in gently at the
side of the vessel. The fish-plate may be drawn up, to see if the fish
be ready, which may be known by its easily separating from the bone. It
should then be immediately taken out of the water, or it will become
woolly. The fish-plate should be set crossways over the kettle, to keep
hot for serving, and a clean cloth over the fish, to prevent its losing
its colour.
222. IN GARNISHING FISH, great attention is required, and plenty of
parsley, horseradish, and lemon should be used. If fried parsley be
used, it must be washed and picked, and thrown into fresh water. When
the lard or dripping boils, throw the parsley into it immediately from
the water, and instantly it will be green and crisp, and must be taken
up with a slice. When well done, and with very good sauce, fish is more
appreciated than almost any other dish. The liver and roe, in some
instances, should be placed on the dish, in order that they may be
distributed in the course of serving; but to each recipe will be
appended the proper mode of serving and garnishing.
223. IF FISH IS TO BE FRIED OR BROILED, it must be dried in a nice soft
cloth, after it is well cleaned and washed. If for frying, brush it over
with egg, and sprinkle it with some fine crumbs of bread. If done a
second time with the egg and bread, the fish will look so much the
better. If required to be very nice, a sheet of white blotting-paper
must be placed to receive it, that it may be free from all grease. It
must also be of a beautiful colour, and all the crumbs appear distinct.
Butter gives a bad colour; lard and clarified dripping are most
frequently used; but oil is the best, if the expense be no objection.
The fish should be put into the lard when boiling, and there should be a
sufficiency of this to cover it.
224. WHEN FISH IS BROILED, it must be seasoned, floured, and laid on a
very clean gridiron, which, when hot, should be rubbed with a bit of
suet, to prevent the fish from sticking. It must be broiled over a very
clear fire, that it may not taste smoky; and not too near, that it may
not be scorched.
225. IN CHOOSING FISH, it is well to remember that it is possible it may
be _fresh_, and yet not _good_. Under the head of each particular fish
in this work, are appended rules for its choice and the months when it
is in season. Nothing can be of greater consequence to a cook than to
have the fish good; as if this important course in a dinner does not
give satisfaction, it is rarely that the repast goes off well.
RECIPES.