ARABIAN CONQUEST AND CULTURE
The dissemination of knowledge, customs, habits, and laws from common
centres of culture has been greatly augmented by population movements
or migrations, by great empires established, by wars of conquest, and
systems of intercommunication and transportation. The Babylonian,
Assyrian, Persian, Alexandrian, and Roman empires are striking examples
of the diffusion of knowledge and the spread of ideas over different
geographical boundaries and through tribal and national organizations;
and, indeed, the contact of the barbarian hordes with improved systems
of culture was but a process of interchange and intermingling of
qualities of strength and vigor with the conventionalized forms of
human society.
One of the most remarkable movements was that of the rise and expansion
of the Arabian Empire, which was centred about religious ideals of
Mohammed and the Koran. Having accepted the idea of one God universal,
which had been so strongly emphasized by the Hebrews, and having
accepted in part the doctrine of the teachings of Jesus regarding the
brotherhood of man, Mohammed was able through the mysticism of his
teaching, in the Koran, to excite his followers to a wild fanaticism.
Nor did his successors hesitate to use force, for most of their
conquests were accomplished by the power of the sword. At any rate,
nation after nation was forced to bow to Mohammedanism and the Koran,
in a spectacular whirlwind of conquest such as the world had not
previously known.
It is remarkable that after the decline of the old Semitic
civilization, as exhibited in the Babylonian and Assyrian empires, the
practical extinction of the Phoenicians, the conquest of Jerusalem, and
the spread of the Jews over the whole world, there should have risen a
new Semitic movement to disrupt {305} and disorganize the world. It is
interesting to note in this connection, also, that wherever the Arabs
went they came in contact with learned Jews of high mentality, who
co-operated with them in advancing learning.
_The Rise and Expansion of the Arabian Empire_.--Mohammedanism, which
arose in the beginning of the seventh century, spread rapidly over the
East and through northern Africa, and extended into Spain. All Arabia
was converted to the Koran, and Persia and Egypt soon after came under
its influence. In the period 623-640, Syria was conquered by the
Mohammedans, upper Asia in 707, and Spain in 711. They established a
great caliphate, extending from beyond the Euphrates through Egypt and
northern Africa to the Pyrenees in Spain. They burned the great
library at Alexandria, founded by Ptolemy, destroying the manuscripts
and books in a relentless zeal to blot out all vestiges of Christian
learning. In their passage westward they mingled with the Moors of
northern Africa, whom they had subdued after various struggles, the
last one ending in 709. In this year they crossed the Strait of
Gibraltar and encountered the barbarians of the north.
The Visigothic monarchy was in a ruined condition. Frequent internal
quarrels had led to the dismemberment of the government and the decay
of all fortifications, hence there was little organized resistance to
the incoming of the Arabs. All Spain, except in the far north in the
mountains of the Asturias, was quickly reduced to the sway of the
Arabs. They crossed the Pyrenees, and the broad territory of Gaul
opened before them, awaiting their conquest. But on the plains between
Tours and Poitiers they met Charles Martel with a strong army, who
turned the tide of invasion back upon itself and set the limits of
Mohammedan dominion in Europe.
In the tenth century the great Arabian Empire began to disintegrate.
One after another of the great caliphates declined. The caliphate of
Bagdad, which had existed so long in Oriental splendor, was first
dismembered by the loss of Africa. The fatimate caliphate of northern
Africa next lost its power, {306} and the caliphate of Cordova, in
Spain, brilliant in its ascendancy, followed the course of the other
two. The Arabian conquest of Spain left the country in a state of
tolerable freedom, but Cordova, like the others, was doomed to be
destroyed by anarchy and confusion. All the principal cities became in
the early part of the eleventh century independent principalities.
Thus the Mohammedan conquest, which built an extensive Arabian Empire,
ruling first in Asia, then Africa, and finally Europe, spreading abroad
with sudden and irresistible expansion, suddenly declined through
internal dissensions and decay, having lasted but a few centuries. The
peculiar tribal nature of the Arabian social order had not developed a
strong central organization, nor permitted the practice of organized
political effort on a large scale, so that the sudden transition from
the small tribe, with its peculiar government, to that of the
organization and management of a great empire was sufficient to cause
the disintegration and downfall of the empire. So far as political
power was concerned, the passion for conquest was the great impelling
motive of the Mohammedans.
_The Religious Zeal of the Arab-Moors_.--The central idea of the
Mohammedan conquest seems to have been a sort of religious zeal or
fanaticism. The whole history of their conquest shows a continual
strife to propagate their religious doctrine. The Arabians were a
sober people, of vivid imagination and excessive idealism, with
religious natures of a lofty and peculiar character. Their religious
life in itself was awe-inspiring. Originally dwelling on the plains of
Arabia, where nature manifested itself in strong characteristics,
living in one sense a narrow life, the imagination had its full play,
and the mystery of life had centred in a sort of wisdom and lore, which
had accumulated through long generations of reflection. There always
dwelt in the minds of this branch of the Semitic people a conception of
the unity of God, and when the revelation of God came to them through
Mohammed, when they realized "Allah is Allah, and Mohammed is his
prophet," they were swept entirely away by this religious conception.
When once {307} this idea took firm hold upon the Arabian mind, it
remained there a permanent part of life. Under military organization
the conquest was rapidly extended over surrounding disintegrated
tribes, and the strong unity of government built on the basis of
religious zeal.
So strong was this religious zeal that it dominated their entire life.
It turned a reflective and imaginative people, who had sought out the
hidden mysteries of life by the acuteness of their own perception, to
base their entire operations upon faith. Faith dominated the reason to
such an extent that the deep and permanent foundations of progress
could not be laid, and the vast opportunities granted to them by
position and conquest gradually declined for the lack of vital
principles of social order.
Not only had the Arabians laid the foundations of culture and learning
through their own evolution, but they had borrowed much from other
Oriental countries. Their contact with learning of the Far East, of
Palestine, of Egypt, of the Greeks, and of the Italians, had given them
an opportunity to absorb most of the elements of ancient culture.
Having borrowed these products, they were able to combine them and use
them in building an empire of learning in Spain. If their own subtle
genius was not wanting in the combination of the knowledge of the
ancients, and in its use in building up a system, neither lacked they
in original conception, and on the early foundation they built up a
superstructure of original knowledge. They advanced learning in
various forms, and furnished means for the advancement of civilization
in the west.
_The Foundations of Science and Art_.--In the old caliphates of Bagdad
and Damascus there had developed great interest in learning. The
foundation of this knowledge, as has been related, was derived from the
Greeks and the Orientals. It is true that the Koran, which had been
accepted by them as gospel and law, had aroused and inspired the
Arabian mind to greater desires for knowledge. Their knowledge,
however, could not be set by the limitations of the Koran, and the
desire {308} for achievement in learning was so great that scarcely a
century had passed after the burning of the libraries of Alexandria
before all branches of knowledge were eagerly cultivated by the
Arabians. They ran a rapid course from the predominance of physical
strength and courage, through blind adherence to faith, to the position
of superior learning. The time soon came when the scholar was as much
revered as the warrior.
In every conquered country the first duty of the conquerors was to
build a mosque in which Allah might be worshipped and his prophet
honored. Attached to this mosque was a school, where people were first
taught to read and write and study the Koran. From this initial point
they enlarged the study of science, literature, and art, which they
pursued with great eagerness. Through the appreciation of these things
they collected the treasures of art and learning wherever they could be
found, and, dwelling upon these, they obtained the results of the
culture of other nations and other generations. From imitation they
passed to the field of creation, and advances were made in the
contributions to the sum of human knowledge. In Spain schools were
founded, great universities established, and libraries built which laid
the permanent foundation of knowledge and art and enabled the
Arab-Moors to advance in science, art, invention, and discovery.
_The Beginnings of Chemistry and Medicine_.--In chemistry the careful
study of the elements of substances and the agents in composition was
pursued by the Arab-Moors in Spain, but it must be remembered that the
chemistry of their day is now known as alchemy. Chemistry then was in
its formative period and not a science as viewed in the modern sense.
Yet when we consider that the science of modern chemistry is but a
little over a century old, we find the achievements of the Arabians in
their own time, as compared with the changes which took place in the
following seven centuries, to be worthy of note.
In the eleventh century a philosopher named Geber knew the chemical
affinities of quicksilver, tin, lead, copper, iron, {309} gold, and
silver, and to each one was given a name of the planet which was
supposed to have special influence over it. Thus silver was named for
the moon, gold for the sun, copper for Venus, tin for Jupiter, iron for
Vulcan, quicksilver for Mercury, and lead for Saturn. The influences
of the elements were supposed to be similar to the influence of the
heavenly bodies over men. This same chemist was acquainted with
oxidizing and calcining processes, and knew methods of obtaining soda
and potash salts, and the properties of saltpetre. Also nitric acid
was obtained from the nitrate of potassium. These and other similar
examples represent something of the achievements of the Arabians in
chemical knowledge. Still, their lack of knowledge is shown in their
continued search for the philosopher's stone and the attempt to create
the precious metals.
The art of medicine was practised to a large extent in the Orient, and
this knowledge was transferred to Spain. The entire knowledge of these
early physicians, however, was limited to the superficial diagnosis of
cases and to a knowledge of medicinal plants. By the very law of their
religion, anatomy was forbidden to them, and, indeed, the Arabians had
a superstitious horror of dissection. By ignorance of anatomy their
practice of surgery was very imperfect. But their physicians,
nevertheless, became renowned throughout the world by their use of
medicines and by their wonderful cures. They plainly led the world in
the art of healing. It is true their superstition and their astrology
constantly interfered with their better judgment in many things, but
notwithstanding these drawbacks they were enabled to develop great
interest in the study of medicine and to accomplish a great work in the
advancement of the science. In _Al Makkari_ it is stated "that disease
could be more effectively checked by diet than by medicine, and that
when medicine became necessary, simples were far preferable to compound
medicaments, and when these latter were required, as few drugs as
possible ought to enter into their composition." This exhibits the
thoughtful reflection that was {310} given to the administration of
drugs in this early period, and might prove a lesson to many a modern
physician.
Toward the close of their career, the Arabian doctors began the
practice of dissecting and the closer study of anatomy and physiology,
which added much to the power of the science. Yet they still believed
in the "elixir of life," and tried to work miracle cures, which in many
respects may have been successful. It is a question whether they went
any farther into the practice of miracle cures than the quacks and
charlatans and faith doctors of modern times have gone. The influence
of their study of medicine was seen in the great universities, and
especially in the foundation of the University at Salerno at a later
time, which was largely under the Arabian influence.
_Metaphysics and Exact Science_.--It would seem that the Arab-Moors
were well calculated to develop psychological science. Their minds
seemed to be in a special measure metaphysical. They laid the
foundation of their metaphysical speculations on the philosophy of the
Greeks, particularly that of Aristotle, but later they attempted to
develop originality, although they succeeded in doing little more, as a
rule, than borrowing from others. In the early period of Arabian
development the Koran stood in the way of any advancement in
philosophy. It was only at intervals that philosophy could gain any
advancement. Indeed, the philosophers were driven away from their
homes, but they carried with them many followers into a larger field.
The long list of philosophers who, after the manner of the Greeks, each
attempted to develop his own separate system, might be mentioned,
showing the zeal with which they carried on inquiry into metaphysical
science. As may be supposed, they added little to the sum of human
knowledge, but developed a degree of culture by their philosophical
speculations.
But it is in the exact sciences that the Arabs seem to have met with
the greatest success. The Arabic numerals, probably brought from India
to Bagdad, led to a new and larger use of arithmetic. The decimal
system and the art of figures were {311} introduced into Spain in the
ninth century, and gave great advancement in learning. But, strange to
relate, these numerals, though used so early by the Arabs in Spain,
were not common in Germany until the fifteenth century. The importance
of their use cannot be overestimated, for by means of them the Arabians
easily led the world in astronomy, mechanics, and mathematics.
The science of algebra is generally attributed to the Arabians. Its
name is derived from gabara, to bind parts together, and yet the origin
of this science is not certain. It is thought that the Arabs derived
their knowledge from the Greeks, but in all probability algebra had its
first origin among the philosophers of India.
The Arabians used geometry, although they added little to its
advancement. Geometry had reached at this period an advanced stage of
progress in the problems of Euclid. It was to the honor of the
Arabians that they were the first of any of the Western peoples to
translate Euclid and use it, for it was not until the sixteenth century
that it was freely translated into the modern languages.
But in trigonometry the Arabians, by the introduction of the use of the
sine, or half-chord, of the double arc in the place of the arc itself,
made great advancement, especially in the calculations of surveying and
astronomy. In the universities and colleges of Spain under Arabian
dominion we find, then, that students had an opportunity of mastering
nearly all of the useful elementary mathematics. Great attention was
paid to the study of astronomy. Here, as before, they used the Greek
knowledge, but they advanced the study of the science greatly by the
introduction of instruments, such as those for measuring time by the
movement of the pendulum and the measurement of the heavenly bodies by
the astrolabe.
Likewise they employed the word "azimuth" and many other terms which
show a more definite knowledge of the relation of the heavenly bodies.
They were enabled, also, to {312} measure approximately a degree of
latitude. They knew that the earth was of spheroid form. But we find
astrology accompanying all this knowledge of astronomy. While the
exact knowledge of the heavenly bodies had been developed to a certain
degree, the science of star influence, or astrology, was cultivated to
a still greater extent. Thus they sought to show the control of mind
forces on earth, and, indeed, of all natural forces by the heavenly
bodies. This placed mystical lore in the front rank of their
philosophical speculations.
_Geography and History_.--In the study of the earth the Arabians showed
themselves to be practical and accurate geographers. They applied
their mathematical and astronomical knowledge to the study of the
earth, and thus gave an impulse to exploration. While their theories
of the origin of the earth were crude and untenable, their practical
writings on the subject derived from real knowledge, and the practical
instruction in schools by the use of globes and maps, were of immense
practical value.
Their history was made up chiefly of the histories of cities and the
lives of prominent men. There was no national history of the rise and
development of the Arabian kingdom, for historical writing and study
were in an undeveloped state.
_Discoveries, Inventions, and Achievements_.--It cannot be successfully
claimed that the Arabians exhibited very much originality in the
advancement of the civilized arts, yet they had the ability to take
what they found elsewhere developed by other scholars, improve upon it,
and apply it to the practical affairs of life. Thus, although the
Chinese discovered gunpowder over 3,000 years ago, it remained for the
Arabs to bring it into use in the siege of Mecca in the year 690, and
introduce it into Spain some years later. The Persians called it
Chinese salt, the Arabians Indian snow, indicating that it might have
originated in different countries. The Arab-Moors used it in their
wars with the Christians as early as the middle of the thirteenth
century. They excelled also in making paper from flax, or cotton,
which was probably an imitation {313} of the paper made by the Chinese
from silk. We find also that the Arabs had learned to print from
movable type, and the introduction of paper made the printing-press
possible. Linen paper made from old clothes was said to be in use as
early as 1106.
Without doubt the Arab-Moors introduced into Spain the use of the
magnet in connection with the mariner's compass. But owing to the fact
that it was not needed in the short voyages along the coast of the
Mediterranean, it did not come into a large use until the great voyages
on the ocean, in the beginning of the fourteenth century. Yet the
invention of the mariner's compass, so frequently attributed to Flavio
Giorgio, may be as well attributed to the Arab-Moors.
Knives and swords of superior make, leather, silk, and glass, as well
as large collections of delicate jewelry, show marked advancement in
Arabian industrial art and mechanical skill.
One of the achievements of the Arab-Moors in Spain was the introduction
of agriculture, and its advancement to an important position among the
industries by means of irrigation. The great, fertile valleys of Spain
were thus, through agricultural skill, made "to blossom as the rose."
Seeds were imported from different parts of the world, and much
attention was given to the culture of all plants which could be readily
raised in this country. Rice and cotton and sugar-cane were cultivated
through the process of irrigation. Thus Spain was indebted to the
Arab-Moors not only for the introduction of industrial arts and skilled
mechanics, but the establishment of agriculture on a firm foundation.
_Language and Literature_.--The language of the Arabians is said to be
peculiarly rich in synonyms. For instance, it is said there are 1,000
expressions for the word "camel," and the same number for the word
"sword," while there are 4,000 for the word "misfortune." Very few
remnants of the Arabic remain in the modern European languages. Quite
a number of words in the Spanish language, fewer in English and in
{314} other modern languages, are the only remnants of the use of this
highly developed Arabian speech. It represents the southern branch of
the Semitic language, and is closely related to the Hebrew and the
Aramaic. The unity and compactness of the language are very much in
evidence. Coming little in contact with other languages, it remained
somewhat exclusive, and retained its original form.
When it came into Spain the Arabic language reigned almost supreme, on
account of the special domination of Arabic influences. Far in the
north of Spain, however, among the Christians who had adopted the Low
Latin, was the formation of the Spanish language. The hatred of the
Spaniards for the Arabs led these people to refuse to use the language
of the conquerors. Nevertheless, the Arabic had some influence in the
formation of the Spanish language. The isolated geographic terms, and
especial names of things, as well as idioms of speech, show still that
the Arabian influence may be traced in the Spanish language.
In literature the Arabians had a marked development. The Arabian
poetry, though light in its character, became prominent. There were
among these Arabians in Spain ardent and ready writers, with fertile
fancy and lively perception, who recited their songs to eager
listeners. The poet became a universal teacher. He went about from
place to place singing his songs, and the troubadours of the south of
France received in later years much of their impulse indirectly from
the Arabic poets. While the poetry was not of a high order, it was
wide-reaching in its influence, and extended in later days to Italy,
Sicily, and southern France, and had a quickening influence in the
development of the light songs of the troubadours. The influence of
this lighter literature through Italy, Sicily, and southern France on
the literature of Europe and of England in later periods is well marked
by the historians. In the great schools rhetoric and grammar were also
taught to a considerable extent. In the universities these formed one
of the great branches of special culture. We find, then, on the
linguistic {315} side that the Arabians accomplished a great deal in
the advancement of the language and literature of Europe.
_Art and Architecture_.--Perhaps the Arabians in Spain are known more
by their architecture than any other phase of their culture. Not that
there was anything especially original in it, except in the combination
which they made of the architecture of other nations. In the building
of their great mosques, like that of Cordova and of the Alhambra, they
perpetuated the magnificence and splendor of the East. Even the actual
materials with which they constructed these magnificent buildings were
obtained from Greece and the Orient, and placed in their positions in a
new combination. The great original feature of the Mooresque
architecture is found in the famous horseshoe arch, which was used so
extensively in their mosques and palaces. It represented the Roman
arch, slightly bent into the form of a horseshoe. Yet from
architectural strength it must be considered that the real support
resting on the pillar was merely the half-circle of the Roman arch,
while the horseshoe was a continuation for ornamental purposes.
The Arab-Moors were forbidden the use of sculpture, which they never
practised, and hence the artistic features were limited to
architectural and art decorations. Many of the interior decorations of
the walls of these great buildings show advanced skill. Upon the
whole, their buildings are remarkable mainly in the perpetuation of
Oriental architecture rather than in the development of any originality
except in skill of decoration and combination.
_The Government of the Arab-Moors Was Peculiarly Centralized_.--The
caliph was at the head as an absolute monarch. He appointed viceroys
in the different provinces for their control. The only thing that
limited the actual power of the caliph was the fact that he was a
theocratic governor. Otherwise he was supreme in power. There was no
constitutional government, and, indeed, but little precedent in law.
The government depended somewhat upon the whims and caprices {316} of a
single individual. It was said that in the beginning the caliph was
elected by the people, but in a later period the office became
hereditary. It is true the caliph, who was called the "vicar of God,"
or "the shadow of God," had his various ministers appointed from the
wise men to carry out his will. Yet, such was the power of the people
what when in Spain they were displeased with the rulings of the judges,
they would pelt the officers or storm the palace, thus in a way
limiting the power of these absolute rulers.
The government, however, was in a precarious condition. There could be
nothing permanent under such a regime, for permanency of government is
necessary to the advancement of civilization. The government was
non-progressive. It allowed no freedom of the people and gave no
incentive to advancement, and it was a detriment many times to the
progressive spirit. Closely connected with a religion which in itself
was non-progressive, we find limitations set upon the advancement of
the civilization of the Arab-Moors in Spain.
_Arabian Civilization Soon Reached Its Limits_.--One views with wonder
and astonishment the brilliant achievements of the Arabian
civilization, extending from the Tagus to the Indus. But brilliant as
it was, one is impressed at every turn with the instability of the
civilization and with its peculiar limitations. It reached its
culmination long before the Christian conquest. What the Arabians have
given to the European world was formulated rapidly and given quickly,
and the results were left to be used by a more slowly developing
people, who rested their civilization upon a permanent basis. Much
stress has been laid by Mr. Draper and others upon the great
civilization of the Arabians, comparing it favorably with the
civilization of Christian Europe. But it must be remembered that the
Arab-Moors, especially in Spain, had come so directly in contact with
Oriental nations that they were enabled to borrow and utilize for a
time the elements of civilization advanced by these more mature
peoples. However, built as it was upon borrowed materials, the
structure once completed, {317} there was no opportunity for growth or
original development. It reached its culmination, and would have
progressed no further in Spain, even had not the Christians under
Ferdinand and Isabella conquered the Arab-Moors and eventually overcome
and destroyed their civilization. In this conquest, in which the two
leading faiths of the Western world were fighting for supremacy,
doubtless the Christian world could not fully appreciate what the
Arab-Moors accomplished, nor estimate their value to the economic
system of Spain.
Subsequent facts of history show that, the Christian religion once
having a dominant power in Spain, the church became less liberal in its
views and its rule than that exhibited by the government of the
Arab-Moors. Admitting that the spirit of liberty had burst forth in
old Asturias, a seat of Nordic culture, it soon became obscure in the
arbitrary domination of monarchy, and of the church through the
instrumentality of Torquemada and the Inquisition. Nevertheless, the
civilization of the Arab-Moors cannot be pictured as an ideal one,
because it was lacking in the fundamentals of continuous progress.
Knowledge had not yet become widely disseminated, nor truth free enough
to arouse vigorous qualities of life which make for permanency in
civilization. With all of its borrowed art and learning and its
adaptation to new conditions, still the civilization was sufficiently
non-progressive to be unsuited to carry the burden of the development
of the human race. Nevertheless, in the contemplation of human
progress, the Arab-Moors of Spain are deserving of attention because of
their universities and their studies, which influenced other parts of
mediaeval Europe at a time when they were breaking away from scholastic
philosophy and assuming a scientific attitude of mind.
SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. What contributions to art and architecture did the Arab-Moors make
in Spain?
2. The nature of their government.
{318}
3. How did their religion differ from the Christian religion in
principle and in practice?
4. The educational contribution of the universities of the Arab-Moors.
5. What contributions to science and learning came from the Arabian
civilization?
6. Why and by whom were the Arab-Moors driven from Spain? What were
the economic and political results?
7. What was the influence of the Arabs on European civilization?
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