FEUDAL SOCIETY
_Feudalism a Transition of Social Order_.--Feudalism represents a
change from the ancient form of imperialism to the newer forms of
European government. It arose out of the ruins of the Roman system as
an essential form of social order. It appears to be the only system
fitted to bring order out of the chaotic conditions of society, but by
the very nature of affairs it could not long continue as an established
system. It is rather surprising, indeed, that it became so universal,
for every territory in Europe was subjected to its control in a greater
or less degree. Frequently those who were forced to adopt its form
condemned its principle, and those who sought to maintain the doctrine
of Roman imperialism were subjected to its sway. The church itself,
seeking to maintain its autocracy, came into direct contact with feudal
theory and opposed it bitterly. The people who submitted to the yoke
of personal bondage which it entailed hated the system. Yet the whole
European world passed under feudalism. But notwithstanding its
universality, feudalism could offer nothing permanent, for in the
development of social order it was forced to yield to monarchy,
although it made a lasting influence on social life and political and
economic usage.
_There Are Two Elementary Sources of Feudalism_.--The spirit of
feudalism arises out of the early form of Teutonic social life. It
sprang from the personal obligation of the comitatus, which was
composed of a military leader and his followers or companions. The
self-constituted assembly elected the leader who was most noted for
courage and prowess in battle. To him was consigned the task of
leading in battle the host, which was composed of all the freemen in
arms. Usually {295} these chiefs were chosen for a single campaign,
but it not infrequently happened that their leadership was continuous,
with all the force of hereditary selection.
Another phase of the comitatus is represented by the leader's setting
forth in time of peace with his companions to engage in fighting,
exploiting, and plunder on his own account. The courageous young men
of the tribe, thirsting for adventure in arms, gathered about their
leader, whom they sought to excel in valor. He who was bravest and
strongest in battle was considered most honorable. The principal
feature to be noted is the personal allegiance of the companions to
their leader, for they were bound to him with the closest ties. For
the service which they rendered, the leader gave them sustenance and
also reward for personal valor. They sat at his table and became his
companions, and thus continually increased his power in the community.
This custom represents the germ of the feudal system. The leader
became the lord, the companions his vassals. When the lord became a
tribal chief or king, the royal vassals became the king's thegns, or
represented the nobility of the realm. The whole system was based upon
service and personal allegiance. As conquest of territory was made,
the land was parcelled out among the followers, who received it from
the leader as allodial grants and, later, as feudal grants. The
allodial grant resembled the title in fee simple, the feudal grant was
made on condition of future service.
The Roman element of feudalism finds its representation in clientage.
This was a well-known institution at the time of the contact of the
Romans with their invaders. The client was attached to the lord, on
whom he depended for support and for representation in the community.
Two of the well-known feudal aids, namely, the ransom of the lord from
captivity and the gift of dowry money on the marriage of his eldest
daughter, are similar to the services rendered by the Roman client to
his lord.
The personal tie of clientage resembled the personal {296} allegiance
in the comitatus, with the difference that the client stood at a great
distance from the patron, while in the comitatus the companions were
nearly equal to their chief. The Roman influence tended finally to
make the wide difference which existed between the lord and vassal in
feudal relations. Other forms of Roman usage, such as the institution
of the _coloni_, or half-slaves of the soil, and the custom of granting
land for use without actual ownership, seem to have influenced the
development of feudalism. Without doubt the Roman institutions here
gave form and system to feudalism, as they did in other forms of
government.
_The Feudal System in Its Developed State Based on Land-Holding_.--In
the early period in France, where feudalism received its most perfect
development, several methods of granting land were in vogue. First,
the lands in the immediate possession of the conquered were retained by
them on condition that they pay tribute to the conquerors; the wealthy
Romans were allowed to hold all or part of their large estates.
Second, many lands were granted in fee simple to the followers of the
chiefs. Third was the beneficiary grant, most common to feudal tenure
in its developed state. By this method land was granted as a reward
for services past or prospective. The last method to be named is that
of commendation, by which the small holder of land needing protection
gave his land to a powerful lord, who in turn regranted it to the
original owner on condition that the latter became his vassal. Thus
the lands conquered by a chief or lord were parcelled out to his
principal supporters, who in turn regranted them to those under them,
so that all society was formed in a gradation of classes based on the
ownership of land. Each lord had his vassal, every vassal his lord.
Each man swore allegiance to the one next above him, and this one to
his superior, until the king was reached, who himself was but a
powerful feudal lord.
As the other forms and functions of state life developed, feudalism
became the ruling principle, from which many strove in vain to free
themselves. There were in France, in the time {297} of Hugh Capet,
according to Kitchen, "about a million of souls living on and taking
their names from about 70,000 separate fiefs or properties; of these
about 3,000 carried titles with them. Of these again, no less than a
hundred were sovereign states, greater or smaller, whose lords could
coin money, levy taxes, make laws, and administer their own
justice."[1] Thus the effect of feudal tenure was to arrange society
into these small, compact social groups, each of which must really
retain its power by force of arms. The method gave color to monarchy,
which later became universal.
_Other Elements of Feudalism_.--Prominent among the characteristics of
feudalism was the existence of a close personal bond between the
grantor and the receiver of an estate. The receiver did homage to the
grantor in the form of oath, and also took the oath of fealty. In the
former he knelt before the lord and promised to become his man on
account of the land which he held, and to be faithful to him in defense
of life and limb against all people. The oath of fealty was only a
stronger oath of the same tenor, in which the vassal, standing before
the lord, appealed to God as a witness. These two oaths, at first
entirely separate, became merged into one, which passed by the name of
the oath of fealty. When the lord desired to raise an army he had only
to call his leading vassals, and they in turn called those under them.
When he needed help to harvest his grain the vassals were called upon
for service.
Besides the service rendered, there were feudal aids to be paid on
certain occasions. The chief of these were the ransom of the lord when
captured, the amount paid when the eldest son was knighted, and the
dowry on the marriage of the eldest daughter. There were lesser feudal
taxes called reliefs. Of these the more important were the payment of
a tax by the heir of a deceased vassal upon succession to property,
one-half year's profit paid when a ward became of age, and the right to
escheated lands of the vassal. The lord also had the right to land
forfeited on account of certain heinous crimes. {298} Wardship
entitled the lord to the use of lands during the minority of the ward.
The lord also had a right to choose a husband for the female ward at
the age of fourteen; if she refused to accept the one chosen, the lord
had the use of her services and property until she was twenty-one.
Then he could dispose of her lands as he chose and refuse consent for
her to marry. These aids and reliefs made a system of slavery for
serfs and vassals.
_The Rights of Sovereignty_.--The feudal lord had the right of
sovereignty over all of his own vassal domain. Not only did he have
military sovereignty on account of allegiance of vassals, but political
sovereignty also, as he ruled the assemblies in his own way. He had
legal jurisdiction, for all the courts were conducted by him or else
under his jurisdiction, and this brought his own territory completely
under his control as proprietor, and subordinated everything to his
will. In this is found the spirit of modern absolute monarchy.
_The Classification of Feudal Society_.--In France, according to Duruy,
under the perfection of feudalism, the people were grouped in the
following classes: First, there was a group of Gallic or Frankish
freemen, who were obliged to give military service to the king and give
aids when called upon. Second, the vassals, who rendered service to
those from whom they held their lands. Third, the royal vassals, from
whom the king usually chose his dukes and counts to lead the army or to
rule over provinces and cities. Fourth, the _liti_, who, like the
Roman _coloni_, were bound to the soil, which they cultivated as
farmers, and for which they paid a small rent. Finally, there were the
ordinary slaves. The character of the _liti_, or _glebe_, serfs varied
according to the degree of liberty with which they were privileged.
They might have emancipation by charter or by the grant of the king or
the church, but they were never free. The feudal custom was binding on
all, and no one escaped from its control. Even the clergy became
feudal, there being lords and vassals within the church. Yet the
ministry, in their preaching, recognized the opportunity of {299}
advancement, for they claimed that even a serf might become a bishop,
although there was no great probability of this.
_Progress of Feudalism_.--The development of feudalism was slow in all
countries, and it varied in character in accordance with the condition
of the country. In England the Normans in the eleventh century found
feudalism in an elementary state, and gave formality to the system. In
Germany feudalism was less homogeneous than in France. It lacked the
symmetrical finish of the Roman institutions, although it was
introduced from French soil through overlordship and proceeded from the
sovereign to the serf, rather than springing from the serf to the
sovereign. It varied somewhat in characteristics from French
feudalism, although the essentials of the system were not wanting. In
the Scandinavian provinces the Teutonic element was too strong, and in
Spain and Italy the Romanic, to develop in these countries perfect
feudalism. But in France there was a regular, progressive development.
The formative period began in Caesar's time and ended with the ninth
century.
This was followed by the period of complete domination and full power,
extending to the end of the thirteenth century, at the close of which
offices and benefices were in the hands of the great vassals of Charles
the Bald. Then followed a period of transformation of feudalism, which
extended to the close of the sixteenth century. Finally came the
period of the decay of feudalism, beginning with the seventeenth
century and extending to the present time. There are found now, both
in Europe and America, laws and usages which are vestiges of the
ancient forms of feudalism, which the formal organization of the state
has failed to eradicate.
The autocratic practice of the feudal lord survived in the new monarch,
and, except in the few cases of constitutional limitation, became
imperialistic. The Prussian state, built upon a military basis,
exercised the rights of feudal conquest over neighboring states. After
the war with Austria, Prussia exercised an overlordship over part of
the smaller German {300} states, with a show of constitutional liberty.
After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, the German Empire was formed,
still with a show of constitutional liberty, but with the feudal idea
of overlordship dominant. Having feudalized the other states of
Germany, Prussia sought to extend the feudal idea to the whole world,
but was checked by the World War of 1914.
_State of Society Under Feudalism_.--In searching for the effects of
feudalism on human progress, the family deserves our first
consideration. The wife of the feudal lord and her equal associates
were placed on a higher plane. The family in no wise represented the
ancient patriarchal family nor the modern family. The head of the
family stood alone, independent of every form of government. He was
absolute proprietor of himself and of all positions under him. He was
neither magistrate, priest, nor king, nor subordinate to any system
except as he permitted. His position developed arbitrary power and
made him proud and aristocratic. With a few members of his family, he
lived in his castle, far removed from serfs and vassals. He spent his
life alternately in feats of arms or in systematic idleness. Away from
home much of the time, fighting to defend his castle or obtain new
territory, or engaging in hunting, while the wife and mother cared for
the home, he developed strength and power.
It was in the feudal family that woman obtained her position of honor
and power in the home. It was this position that developed the
chivalry of the Middle Ages. The improvement of domestic manners and
the preponderance of home society among the few produced the moral
qualities of the home. Coupled with this was the idea of nobility on
one side, and the idea of inheritance on the other, which had a
tendency to unify the family under one defender and to perpetuate the
right and title to property of future generations. It was that benign
spirit which comes from the household in more modern life, giving
strength and permanence to character.
While there was a relation of common interest between the {301}
villagers clustered around the feudal castle, the union was not
sufficient to make a compact organization. Their rights were not
common, as there was a recognized superiority on one hand and a
recognized inferiority on the other. This grew into a common hatred of
the lower classes for the upper, which has been a thousand times
detrimental to human progress. The little group of people had their
own church, their own society. Those who had a fellow-feeling for them
had much influence directly, but not in bridging over the chasm between
them and the feudal lord. Feudalism gave every man a place, but
developed the inequalities of humanity to such an extent that it could
not be lasting as a system. Society became irregular, in which extreme
aristocracy was divorced from extreme democracy. Relief came slowly,
through the development of monarchy and the citizenship of the modern
state. It was a rude attempt to find the secret of social
organization. The spirit of revolt of the oppressed lived on
suppressed by a galling tyranny.
To maintain his position as proprietor of the soil and ruler over a
class of people treated as serfs required careful diplomacy on the part
of the lord, or else intolerant despotism. He usually chose the
latter, and sought to secure his power by force of arms. He cared
little for the wants or needs of his people. He did not associate with
them on terms of equality, and only came in contact with them as a
master meets a servant. Consulting his own selfish interest, he made
his rule despotic, and all opposition was suppressed with a high hand.
The only check upon this despotism was the warlike attitude of other
similar despotic lords, who always sought to advance their own
interests by the force of arms. Feudalism in form of government was
the antithesis of imperialism, yet in effect something the same. It
substituted a horde of petty despots for one and it developed a petty
local tyranny in the place of a general despotism.
_Lack of Central Authority in Feudal Society_.--So many feudal lords,
each master of his own domain, contending with one {302} another for
the mastery, each resting his course on the hereditary gift of his
ancestors, or, more probably, on his force of armed men and the
strength of his castle, made it impossible that there should be any
recognized authority in government, or any legal determination of the
rights of the ruler and his subjects. Feudal law was the law of force;
feudal justice the right of might. Among all of these feudal lords
there was not one to force by will all others into submission, and thus
create a central authority. There was no permanent legislative body,
no permanent judicial machinery, no standing army, no uniform and
regular system of taxation. There could be no guaranty to permanent
political power under such circumstances.
There was little progress in social order under the rule of feudalism.
Although we recognize that it was an essential form of government
necessary to control the excesses of individualism; although we realize
that a monarchy was impossible until it was created by an evolutionary
process, that a republic could not exist under the irregularity of
political forces, yet it must be maintained that social progress did
not exist under the feudal regime. There was no unity of social
action, no co-operation of classes in government. The line between the
governed and the governing, though clearly marked at times, was an
irregular, wavering line. Outside of the family life--which was
limited in scope--and of the power of the church--which failed to unify
society--there was no vital social growth.
_Individual Development in the Dominant Group_.--Feudalism established
a strong individualism among leaders, a strong personality based on
sterling intellectual qualities. It is evident that this excessive
individual development became very prominent in the later evolution of
social order, and is recognized as a gain in social advancement.
Individual culture is essential to social advancement. To develop
strong, independent, self-reliant individuals might tend to produce
anarchy rather than social order, yet it must eventually lead to the
latter; and so it proved in the case of feudalism, for its very {303}
chaotic state brought about, as a necessity, social order. But it came
about through survival of the fittest, in conquest and defense. Nor
did the most worthy always succeed, but rather those who had the
greatest power in ruthless conquest. Unity came about through the
unbridled exercise of the predatory spirit, accompanied by power to
take and to hold.
This chaotic state of individualistic people was the means of bringing
about an improvement in intellectual development. The strong
individual character with position and leisure becomes strong
intellectually in planning defense and in meditating upon the
philosophy of life. The notes of song and of literature came from the
feudal times. The determination of the mind to intellectual pursuits
appeared in the feudal regime, and individual culture and independent
intellectual life, though of the few and at the expense of the
majority, were among the important contributions to civilization.
SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. What was the basis of feudal society?
2. What elements of feudalism were Roman and what Teutonic?
3. What service did feudalism render civilization?
4. Show that feudalism was transition from empire to modern
nationality.
5. How did feudal lords obtain titles to their land? Give examples.
6. What survivals of feudalism may be observed in modern governments?
7. When King John of England wrote after his signature "King of
_England_," what was its significance?
8. How did feudalism determine the character of monarchy in modern
nations?
[1] _History of France_.
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