2. (You) may have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) may have been ----,
(Thou) mayst have been ----,
3. (He) may have been ----; 3. (They) may have been ----.
PAST PERFECT TENSE,
1. (I) might have been ----, 1. (We) might have been ----,
2. (You) might have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) might have been ----,
(Thou) mightst have been ----,
3. (He) might have been ----; 3. (They) might have been ----.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
PBESENT TENSE.
_Singular. Plural._
1. (If I) may have been ----, 1. (If we) may have been ----,
2. (If you) may have been ---- _or_ 2. (If you) may have been ----,
(If thou) mayst have been ----,
3. (If he) may have been ----; 3. (If they) may have been ----.
PAST TENSE.
_Singular._
1. (If I) were -----,
2. (If you) were ----, _or_
(If thou) wert ----,
3. (If he) were ----;
IMPERATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
_Singular. Plural._
2. Be (you or thou) ----; 2. Be (you or ye) ----.
INFINITIVES.
PRESENT TENSE. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
(To) be ----. (To) have been ----.
PARTICIPLES.
PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT.
Being ----. Been. Having been ----.
* * * * *
LESSON 136.
FORMS OF THE VERB--CONTINUED.
CONJUGATION--PROGRESSIVE AND PASSIVE FORMS.
A verb is conjugated in the +progressive form+ by joining its present
participle to the different forms of the verb _be_.
A transitive verb is conjugated in the +passive voice+ by joining its past
participle to the different forms of the verb _be_.
+Remark+.--The progressive form denotes a continuance of the action or
being; as, The birds _are singing_.
Verbs that in their simple form denote continuance--such as _love_,
_respect_, _know_--should not be conjugated in the progressive form. We
say, I _love_ the child--not I _am loving_ the child.
+Remarks+.--The progressive form is sometimes used with a passive meaning;
as, The house _is building_. In such cases the word in _ing_ was once a
verbal noun preceded by the preposition _a_, a contraction from _on_ or
_in_; as, While the ark _was a preparing_; While the flesh _was in
seething_. In modern language the preposition is dropped, and the word in
_ing_ is treated adjectively.
Another passive progressive form, consisting of the verb _be_ completed by
the present passive participle, has recently appeared in our language--The
house _is being built_, or _was being built_. Although condemned by many
linguists as awkward and otherwise objectionable, it has grown rapidly into
good use, especially in England, Such a form seems to be needed when the
simpler form would be ambiguous, _i.e._, when its subject might be taken to
name either the actor or the receiver; as, The child _is whipping_; The
prisoner _is trying_. Introduced only to prevent ambiguity, the so-called
neologism has pushed its way, and is found where the old form would not be
ambiguous. As now used, the new form stands to the old in about the ratio
of three to one.
+Direction+.--_Conjugate the verb choose in the progressive form by filling
all the blanks left after the different forms of the verb be, in the
preceding Lesson, with the present participle choosing; and then in the
passive form by filling these blanks with the past participle chosen_.
Notice that after the past participle of the verb _be_ no blank is left.
The past participle of the passive is not formed by the aid of _be_; it is
never compound. The past participle of a transitive verb is always passive
except in such forms as _have chosen, had chosen_. (See _have written_,
Lesson 138.) In the progressive, the past participle is wanting. All the
participles of the verb _choose_ are arranged in order
below.
_Present. Past. Past Perfect_.
_Simplest form_. Choosing, chosen, having chosen.
_Progressive form_. Being choosing,* ------, having been choosing.
_Passive form_. Being chosen, chosen, having been chosen.
[Footnote *: This form is not commonly used.]
+Direction+.--_Write and arrange as above all the participles of the verbs
break, drive, read, lift_.
TO THE TEACHER.--Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugate
them in the progressive and in the passive form. Require them to give
synopses of all the forms. Require them in some of their synopses to use
_it_ or some noun for the subject in the third person.
* * * * *
LESSON 137.
CONJUGATION--CONTINUED.
INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE FORMS.
A verb may be conjugated +interrogatively+ in the indicative and potential
modes by placing the subject after the first auxiliary; as, _Does he sing?_
A verb may be conjugated +negatively+ by placing _not_ after the first
auxiliary; as, He _does not sing_. _Not_ is placed before the infinitive
and the participles; as, _not to sing, not singing_.
A question with negation is expressed in the indicative and potential
modes by placing the subject and _not_ after the first auxiliary; as, _Does
he not sing?_
+Remark+.--Formerly, it was common to use the simple form of the present
and past tenses interrogatively and negatively thus: _Loves he? I know
not_. Such forms are still common in poetry, but in prose they are now
scarcely used. We say, _Does he love?_ _I do not know_. The verbs _be_ and
_have_ are exceptions, as they do not take the auxiliary _do_. We say, _Is
it right? Have you another?_
+Direction+.--_Write a synopsis in the third person, singular, of the verb
walk conjugated_ (1) _interrogatively_, (2) _negatively, and _(3) _so as to
express a question with negation. Remember that the indicative and the
potential are the only modes that can be used interrogatively._
To THE TEACHER.--Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugate
them negatively and interrogatively in the progressive and in the passive
form. Require the pupils to give synopses of all the forms.
* * * * *
LESSON 138.
MODE AND TENSE FORMS.
COMPOUND FORMS--ANALYSIS.
The +compound+, or +periphrastic, forms+ of the verb consisting of two
words may each be resolved into an +asserting word and a participle+ or an
+infinitive+.
If we look at the original meaning of the forms +I do write, I shall write,
I will write+, we shall find that the so-called auxiliary is the real verb,
and that _write_ is an infinitive used as object complement. +I do write =
I do+ or +perform+ the action (_to_) write. +I shall write = I owe+ (_to_)
+write. I will write = I determine+ (_to_) +write+.
+May write, can write, must write, might write, could write, would write+,
and +should write+ may each be resolved into an asserting word and an
infinitive.
The forms +is writing, was written+, etc. consist each of an asserting word
(the verb _be_), and a participle used as attribute complement.
The forms +have written+ and +had written+ are so far removed from their
original meaning that their analysis cannot be made to correspond with
their history. They originated from such expressions as _I have a letter
written_, in which _have_ ( = _possess_) is a transitive verb taking
_letter_ for its object complement, and _written_ is a passive participle
modifying _letter_. The idea of possession has faded out of _have_, and the
participle has lost its passive meaning. The use of this form has been
extended to intransitive verbs--Spring _has come_, Birds _have flown_, etc.
being now regularly used instead of the more logical perfect tense forms,
Spring _is come_, Birds _are flown_. (_Is come, are flown_, etc. must not
be mistaken for transitive verbs in the passive voice.) [Footnote: A
peculiar use of _had_ is found in the expressions _had rather go_ and _had
better go_, condemned by many grammarians who suppose _had_ to be here used
incorrectly for _would_ or _should_. Of these expressions the "Standard
Dictionary," an authority worthy of our attention, says:--
"Forms disputed by certain grammatical critics from the days of Samuel
Johnson, the critics insisting upon the substitution of _would_ or
_should_, as the case may demand, for _had_; but _had rather_ and _had
better_ are thoroughly established English, idioms having the almost
universal popular and literary sanction of centuries. 'I _would rather_ not
go' is undoubtedly correct when the purpose is to emphasize the element of
choice, or will, in the matter; but in all ordinary cases 'I _had rather_
not go' has the merit of being idiomatic and easily and universally
understood.
"If for 'You _had better_ stay at home' we substitute 'You _should better_
stay at home,' an entirely different meaning is expressed, the idea of
expediency giving place to that of obligation."
In the analysis of "_I had rather go_," _had_ is the predicate verb, the
infinitive _go_ is the object complement, and the adjective _rather_
completes _had_ and belongs to _go_, i.e., is objective complement. _Had_
(= _should hold_ or _regard_) is treated as a past subjunctive. _Rather_ is
the comparative of the old adjective _rathe_ = _early_, from which comes
the idea of preference. The expression means, "I should hold going
preferable."
The expressions "You _had better_ stay," "I _had as lief_ not be," are
similar in construction to "I _had rather_ go." "I _had sooner_ go" is
condemned by grammarians because _sooner_ is never an adjective. If
_sooner_ is here allowed as an idiom, it is a modifier of _had_. The
expression equals, "I should more willingly have going."]
Compounds of more than two words may be analyzed thus: +May have been
written+ is composed of the compound auxiliary +may have been+ and the
participle +written; may have been+ is composed of the compound auxiliary
+may have+ and the participle +been+; and +may have+ is composed of the
auxiliary +may+ and the infinitive +have+. _May_ is the asserting word--the
first auxiliary is always the asserting word.
+Direction+.--_Study what has been said above and analyze the following
verbal forms, distinguishing carefully between participles that may be
considered as part of the verb and words that must be treated as attribute
complements_:--
1. I may be mistaken.
2. The farm was sold.
3. I shall be contented.
4. Has it been decided?
5. You should have been working.
6. The danger might have been avoided.
7. He may have been tired and sleepy.
8. She is singing.
9. I shall be satisfied.
10. The rule has not been observed.
11. Stars have disappeared.
12. Times will surely change.
TENSE FORMS--MEANING.
The +Present Tense+ is used to express (1) what is actually present, (2)
what is true at all times, (3) what frequently or habitually takes place,
(4) what is to take place in the future, and it is used (5) in describing
past or future events as if occurring at the time of the speaking.
+Examples+.--I _hear_ a voice (action as present). The sun _gives_ light
(true at all times). He _writes_ for the newspapers (habitual). Phillips
_speaks_ in Boston to-morrow night (future). He _mounts_ the scaffold; the
executioners _approach_ to bind him; he _struggles, resists_, etc. (past
events pictured to the imagination as present). The clans of Culloden _are_
scattered in fight; they _rally_, they _bleed_, etc. (future events now
seen in vision).
The +Past Tense+ may express (1) simply past action or being, (2) a past
habit or custom, (3) a future event, and (4) it may refer to present time.
+Examples+.--The birds _sang_ (simply past action). He _wrote_ for the
newspapers (past habit). If I _should go_, you _would miss_ me (future
events). If he _were_ here, he _would enjoy_ this (refers to present time).
The +Future Tense+ may express (1) simply future action or being, (2) a
habit or custom as future or as indefinite in time.
+Examples+.--I _shall write_ soon (simply future action). He _will sit_
there by the hour (indefinite in time).
The +Present Perfect Tense+ expresses (1) action or being as completed in
present time (_i.e._, a period of time--an hour, a year, an age--of which
the present forms a part), and (2) action or being to be completed in a
future period.
+Examples+.--Homer _has written_ poems (the period of time affected by this
completed action embraces the present). When I _have finished_ this, you
_shall have_ it (action to be completed in a future period).
The +Past Perfect Tense+ expresses (1) action or being as completed at some
specified past time, and (2) in a conditional or hypothetical clause it may
express past time.
+Examples+.--I _had seen_ him when I met you (action completed at a
specified past time). If I _had had_ time, I _should have written_ (I _had_
not time--I _did_ not _write_.)
The +Future Perfect Tense+ expresses action to be completed at some
specified future time.
+Example+.--I _shall have seen_ him by to-morrow noon.
+Direction+.--_Study what has been said above about the meaning of the
tense forms, and describe carefully the time expressed by each of the
following verbs_:--
1. I go to the city to-morrow.
2. The village master taught his little school.
3. Plato reasons well.
4. A triangle has three sides.
5. To-morrow is the day appointed.
6. Moses has told many important facts.
7. The ship sails next week.
8. She sings well.
9. Cicero has written orations.
10. He would sit for hours and watch the smoke curl from his pipe.
11. You may hear when the next mail arrives,
12. Had I known this before, I could have saved you much trouble.
13. He will occasionally lose his temper.
14. At the end of this week I shall have been in school four years.
15. If I were you, I would try that.
16. He will become discouraged before he has thoroughly tried it.
17. She starts, she moves, she seems to feel the thrill of life along her
keel.
+Model for Written Parsing adapted to all Parts of Speech+. _Oh! it has a
voice for those who on their sick beds lie and waste away._
[Transcriber's Note: The following two tables have been split to fit within
Project Gutenberg line-width requirements. The first column of each table
has been repeated for easier reference.]
|CLASSIFICATION. | MODIFICATIONS.
---------|-----------------|---------------------------------------------|
Sentence.|Class. |Sub-C. |Voice.|Mode.|Tense.|Num. |Per.| Gen. |Case.|
| | | | | | | | | |
Oh! |Int. | | | | | | | | |
it |Pro. |Per. | | | |Sing.| ad.| Neut. |Nom. |
has |Vb. |Ir., Tr. | Act. | Ind.|Pres. | " | " | | |
a |Adj. |Def. | | | | | | | |
voice |N. |Com. | | | | " | " | " |Obj. |
for |Prep. | | | | | | | | |
those |Pro. |Adj. | | | |Plu. | " |M. or F.| " |
who |Pro. |Rel. | | | | " | " | " |Nom. |
on |Prep. | | | | | | | | |
their |Pro. |Per. | | | | " | " | " |Pos. |
sick |Adj. |Des. | | | | | | | |
beds |N. |Com. | | | | " | " | Neut. |Obj. |
lie |Vb. |Ir.,Int. | -- | Ind.|Pres. | " | " | | |
and |Conj. |Co-or. | | | | | | | |
waste |Vb. |Reg.,Int.| -- | " | " | " | " | | |
away. |Adv. |Place. | | | | | | | |
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
| | SYNTAX.
---------|-------|-----------------------------------
Sentence.|Deg. of|
| Comp.|
Oh! | |Independent.
it | |Subject of _has_.
has | |Predicate of _it_.
a | -- |Modifier of _voice_.
voice | |Object comp of _has_.
for | |Shows Rel. of _has_ to _those_.
those | |Prin. word in Prep. phrase.
who | |Subject of _lie_ and _waste_.
on | |Shows Rel. of _lie_ to _beds_.
their | |Possessive Mod. of _beds_.
sick | Pos. |Modifier of _beds_.
beds | |Prin. word in Prep. phrase.
lie | |Predicate of _who_.
and | |Connects _lie_ and _waste_.
waste | |Predicate of _who_.
away. | -- |Modifier of _waste_.
-----------------------------------------------------
TO THE TEACHER.--For further exercises in parsing the verb and for
exercises in general parsing, select from the preceding Lessons on
Analysis.
* * * * *
LESSON 139
PARSING.
+Direction+.--_Select and parse, according to the Model below, the verbs in
the sentences of Lesson_ 42. _For the agreement of verbs, see Lesson_ 142.
+Model for Written Parsing--_Verbs_+.--_The Yankee, selling his farm,
wanders away to seek new lands_.
CLASSIFICATION. | MODIFICATIONS.
---------------------------|------------------------------|
Verbs. | Kind. |Voice.|Mode.|Tense.|Num. |Per.|
*selling|Pr. Par., Ir., Tr.| Act. | -- | -- | -- | -- |
wanders |Reg., Int. | -- |Ind. |Pres. |Sing.| 3d.|
*seek |Inf., Ir., Tr. | Act. | -- | " | -- | |
| | | | | | |
| SYNTAX
--------|---------
Verbs. |
selling |Mod. of _Yankee_.
wanders |Pred. of _Yankee_.
seek |Prin. word in phrase
| Mod. of _wanders_.
[Footnote: Participles and infinitives have neither person nor number.]
(See Model for Written Parsing on opposite page.)
* * * * *
LESSON 140.
CONSTRUCTION OF MODE AND TENSE FORMS.
+Caution+.--Be careful to give every verb its proper form and meaning.
+Direction+.--_Correct the following errors, and give your reasons_:--
1. I done it myself.
2. He throwed it into the river, for I seen him when he done it.
3. She sets by the open window enjoying the scene that lays before her.
+Explanation+.--_Lay_ (to place) is transitive, _lie_ (to rest) is
intransitive; _set_ (to place) is transitive, _sit_ (to rest) is
intransitive. _Set_ in some of its meanings is intransitive.
4. The tide sits in.
5. Go and lay down.
6. The sun sits in the west.
7. I remember when the corner stone was lain.
8. Sit the plates on the table.
9. He sat out for London yesterday.
10. Your dress sets well.
11. The bird is setting on its eggs.
12. I laid there an hour.
13. Set down and talk a little while.
14. He has laid there an hour.
15. I am setting by the river.
16. He has went and done it without my permission.
17. He flew from justice.
18. Some valuable land was overflown.
19. She come just after you left.
20. They sung a new tune which they had not sang before.
21. The water I drunk there was better than any that I had drank before.
22. The leaves had fell.
23. I had rode a short distance when the storm begun to gather.
24. I found the water froze.
25. He raised up.
26. He run till he became so weary that he was forced to lay down.
27. I knowed that it was so, for I seen him when he done it.
28. I had began to think that you had forsook us.
29. I am afraid that I cannot learn him to do it.
30. I guess that I will stop.
31. I expect that he has gone to Boston.
32. There ain't any use of trying.
33. I have got no mother.
34. Can I speak to you?
35. He had ought to see him.
+Explanation+.--As _ought_ is never a participle, it cannot be used after
_had_ to form a compound tense.
+Caution+.--A conditional or a concessive clause takes a verb in the
indicative mode when the action or being is assumed as a fact, or when the
uncertainty lies merely in the speaker's knowledge of the fact. But when
the action or being in such a clause is merely thought of as a contingency,
or in such a clause the speaker prefers to put hypothetically something of
whose truth or untruth he has no doubt, the subjunctive is used. The
subjunctive is frequently used in indirect questions, in expressing a wish
for that which it is impossible to attain at once or at all, and instead of
the potential mode in independent clauses.
+Examples+.--
1. If (= _since_) it rains, why do you go?
2. If it _rains_ (now), I cannot go out.
3. If it _rain_, the work will be delayed.
4. Though it _rain_ to-morrow, we must march.
5. If there _be_ mountains, there must be valleys between.
6. Though honey _be_ sweet, one can't make a meal of it.
7. If my friend _were_ here, he would enjoy this.
8. Though immortality _were_ improbable, we should still believe in it.
9. One may doubt whether the best men _be known_.
10. I wish the lad _were_ taller.
11. Oh! that I _were_ a Samson in strength.
12. It _were_ better for him that a millstone were hanged about his neck.
+Explanation+.--In (1) the raining is assumed as a fact. In (2) the speaker
is uncertain of the fact. In the conditional clause of (3) and in the
concessive clause of (4) the raining is thought of as a mere contingency.
The speaker is certain of the truth of what is hypothetically expressed in
the conditional clause of (5) and in the concessive clause of (6), and is
certain of the untruth of what is hypothetically expressed in the
conditional clause of (7) and in the concessive clause of (8). There is an
indirect question in (9), a wish in (10) for something not at once
attainable and in (11) for something forever unattainable, and in (12) the
subjunctive mode is used in place of the potential.
+Remarks+.--When there is doubt as to whether the indicative or the
subjunctive mode is required, use the indicative.
The present subjunctive forms may be treated as infinitives used to
complete omitted auxiliaries; as, If it (_should_) _rain_, the work will be
delayed; Till one greater man (_shall_) _restore_ us, etc. This will often
serve as a guide in distinguishing the indicative from the subjunctive
mode.
_If, though, lest, unless_, etc. are usually spoken of as signs of the
subjunctive mode, but these words are now more frequently followed by the
indicative than by the subjunctive.
+Direction+.--_Justify the mode of the italicized verbs in the following
sentences_:--
1. If this _were_ so, the difficulty would vanish.
2. If he _was_ there, I did not see him.
3. If to-morrow _be_ fine, I will walk with you.
4. Though this _seems_ improbable, it is true.
5. If my friend _is_ in town, he will call this evening.
6. If he ever _comes_, we shall know it.
+Explanation+.--In (6) and (7) the coming is referred to as a fact to be
decided in future time.
7. If he _comes_ by noon, let me know.
8. The ship leaps, as it _were_, from billow to billow.
9. Take heed that thou _speak_ not to Jacob.
10. If a pendulum _is drawn _to one side, it will swing to the other.
+Explanation+.--_Be_ is often employed in making scientific statements like
the preceding, and may therefore be allowed, _If a pendulum is drawn =
Whenever a pendulum is drawn_.
11. I wish that I _were_ a musician.
12. _Were_ I so disposed, I could not gratify you.
13. This sword shall end thee unless thou _yield_.
14. Govern well thy appetite, lest sin _surprise_ thee.
15. I know not whether it _is_ so or not.
16. Would he _were_ fatter!
17. If there _were_ no light, there would be no colors.
18. Oh, that he _were_ a son of mine!
19. Though it _be_ cloudy to-night, it will be cold.
20. Though the whole _exceed_ a part, we sometimes prefer a part to the
whole.
21. Whether he _go_ or not, I must be there.
22. Though an angel from heaven _command_ it, we should not steal.
23. If there _be_ an eye, it was made to see.
24. It _were_ well it _were done_ quickly.
+Direction+.--_Supply in each of the following sentences a verb in the
indicative or the subjunctive mode, and give a reason for your choice_:--
1. I wish it ---- in my power to help you.
2. I tremble lest he ----.
3. If he ---- guilty, the evidence does not show it.
4. He deserves our pity, unless his tale ---- a false one.
5. Though he ---- there, I did not see him.
6. If he ---- but discreet, he will succeed.
7. If I ---- he, I would do differently.
8. If ye ---- men, fight.
* * * * *
LESSON 141.
CONSTRUCTION OF MODE AND TENSE FORMS--CONTINUED.
+Caution+.--Be careful to employ the tense forms of the different modes in
accordance with their meaning, and in such a way as to preserve the proper
order of time.
+Direction+.--_Correct the following errors, and give your reasons_:--
1. That custom has been formerly quite popular.
2. Neither will they be persuaded, though one rose from the dead.
3. He that was dead sat up and began to speak.
4. A man bought a horse for one hundred dollars; and, after keeping it
three months, at an expense of ten dollars a month, he sells it for two
hundred dollars. What per cent does he gain?
5. I should say that it was an hour's ride.
6. If I had have seen him, I should have known him.
7. I wish I was in Dixie.
8. We should be obliged if you will favor us with a song.
9. I intended to have called.
+Explanation+.--This is incorrect; it should be, _I intended to call_. The
act of calling was not completed at the time indicated by _intended_.