following examples that we extend the application of the term _objective
complement_ beyond its primary, or factitive, sense. In "I struck the man
_dead_," the condition expressed by _dead_ is the result of the act
expressed by _struck_. In "I found the man _dead_," the condition is not
the result of the act, and so grammarians say that in this second example
_dead_ should be treated simply as an "appositive" adjective modifying
_man_. While _dead_ does not belong to _man_ as expressing the result of
the act, it is made to belong to _man_ through the asserting force of the
verb, and therefore is not a mere modifier of _man_. _Dead_ helps _found_
to express the act. Not _found_, but _found-dead_ tells what was done to
the man.
If we put the sentence in the passive form, "The man was found _dead_," it
will be seen that _dead_ is more than a mere modifier; it belongs to _man_
through the assertive force of _was found_. If _dead_ is here merely an
"appositive" adjective, "I found the man dead" must equal "I found the man,
who was dead" (or, "and he was dead"). The two sentences obviously are not
equal. "I caught him asleep" does not mean, "I caught him, and he was
asleep."
If, in the construction discussed above, _dead_ is an objective complement,
_quiet_, _stirring_, and (to) _stir_ in the
following sentences are objective complements:--
I saw the leaves quiet.
I saw the leaves stirring.
I saw the leaves stir.
The adjective, the participle, and the infinitive do not here seem to
differ essentially in office. See Lesson 31 and page 78.]
\grow
\ wing \ dull
\---------------
|
I | found / / \ | book
=====|==============================
| \my
+Explanation+.--The diagram representing the phrase complement is drawn
above the complement line, on which it is made to rest by means of a
support. All that stands on the complement line is regarded as the
complement. Notice that the little mark before the phrase points toward the
object complement. The adjective _dull_ completes _growing_ and belongs to
_book_, the assumed subject of _growing_.
13. He owned himself defeated.
14. No one ever saw fat men heading a riot or herding together in turbulent
mobs.
15. I felt my heart beating faster.
16. You may imagine me sitting there.
17. Saul, seeking his father's asses, found himself suddenly turned into a
king.
* * * * *
LESSON 38.
PARTICIPLES--CONTINUED.
Analysis and Parsing.
The +participle+ may be used as +principal word+ in a +prepositional
phrase+.
1. We receive good by doing good.
We | receive | good
=====|====================
| \by
\-----,doing | good
--------------
+Explanation+.--The line representing the participle here is broken; the
first part represents the participle as a noun, and the other as a verb.
+Oral Analysis+.--The phrase _by doing good_ is a modifier of the
predicate; _by_ introduces the phrase; the principal word is _doing_, which
is completed by the noun _good_.
+Passing+.--_Doing_ is a participle; like a noun, it follows the
preposition _by_, and, like a verb, it takes an object complement.
2. Portions of the brain may be cut off without producing any pain.
3. The Coliseum was once capable of seating ninety thousand persons.
4. Success generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously.
5. You cannot fully sympathize with suffering without having suffered.
(_Suffering_ is here a noun.)
The +participle+ may be the +principal word+ in a phrase used as a
+subject+ or as an +object complement+.
6. Your writing that letter so neatly secured the position.
---, writing | letter
'------------------------
\Your | \neatly \that
| \so
|
/ \ | secured | position
=========|========='===========
| \the
+Explanation+.--The diagram of the subject phrase is drawn above the
subject line. All that rests on the subject line is regarded as the
subject.
+Oral Analysis+.--The phrase _your writing that letter so neatly_ is the
subject; the principal word of it is _writing_, which is completed by
_letter; writing_, as a noun, is modified by _your_, and, as a verb, by the
adverb phrase _so neatly_.
7. We should avoid injuring the feelings of others.
8. My going there will depend upon my father's giving his consent.
9. Good reading aloud is a rare accomplishment.
The +participial form+ may be used as a +mere noun+ or a +mere adjective+.
10. The cackling of geese saved Rome.
11. Such was the exciting campaign, celebrated in many a long-forgotten
song. [Footnote: "_Manig man_ in Anglo-Saxon was used like German
_mancher mann_, Latin _multus vir_, and the like, until the thirteenth
century; when the article was inserted to emphasize the distribution
before indicated by the singular number."--_Prof. F. A. March._]
+Explanation+.--_Many_ modifies _song_ after _song_ has been limited by _a_
and _long-forgotten_.
12. All silencing of discussion is an assumption of infallibility.
13. He was a squeezing, grasping, hardened old sinner.
The +participle+ may be used in +independent+ or +absolute phrases+.
14. The bridge at Ashtabula giving way, the train fell into the river.
+Explanation+.--The diagram of the absolute phrase, which consists of a
noun used independently with a participle, stands by itself. See lesson 44.
15. Talking of exercise, you have heard, of course, of Dickens's
"constitutionals."
* * * * *
LESSON 39.
COMPOSITION--PARTICIPLES.
+COMMA--RULE.--The Participle used as an adjective modifier, with the words
belonging to it, is set off+ [Footnote: An expression in the body of a
sentence is set off by two commas; at the beginning or at the end, by one
comma.] +by the comma unless restrictive+.
+Explanation+.--_A bird, lighting near my window, greeted me with a song.
The bird sitting on the wall is a wren. Lighting_ describes without
restricting; _sitting_ restricts--limits the application of _bird_ to a
particular bird.
+Direction+.--_Justify the punctuation of the participle phrases in Lesson_
37.
+Caution+.--In using a participle, be careful to leave no doubt as to what
you intend it to modify.
+Direction+.--_Correct these errors in arrangement, and punctuate, giving
your reasons:--_
1. A gentleman will let his house going abroad for the summer to a small
family containing all the improvements.
2. The town contains fifty houses and one hundred inhabitants built of
brick.
3. Suits ready made of material cut by an experienced tailor handsomely
trimmed and bought at a bargain are offered cheap.
4. Seated on the topmost branch of a tall tree busily engaged in gnawing an
acorn we espied a squirrel.
5. A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent
gentleman suffering from cold and hunger.
+Direction+.--_Recast these sentences, making the reference of the
participle clear, and punctuating correctly_:--
+Model+.--_Climbing to the top of the hill the Atlantic ocean was seen._
Incorrect because it appears that the ocean did the climbing.
_Climbing to the top of the hill, we saw the Atlantic ocean_.
1. Entering the next room was seen a marble statue of Apollo.
2. By giving him a few hints he was prepared to do the work well.
3. Desiring an early start the horse was saddled by five o'clock.
+Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which each of these three participles
shall be used as an adjective modifier, as the principal word in a
prepositional phrase, as the principal word in a phrase used as a subject
or as an object complement, as a mere adjective, as a mere noun, and in an
absolute phrase_:--
Buzzing, leaping, waving.
* * * * *
LESSON 40.
VERBS AS NOUNS--INFINITIVES.
+Introductory Hints+.--_I came to see you_. Here the verb _see_, like the
participle, lacks asserting power--_I to see_ asserts nothing. _See_,
following the preposition _to_, [Footnote: For the discussion of _to_ with
the infinitive, see Lesson 134.] names the act and is completed by _you_,
and so does duty as a noun and as a verb. In office it is like the second
kind of participles, described in Lesson 37, and from many grammarians has
received the same name--some calling both _gerunds_, and others calling
both _infinitives_. It differs from this participle in form, and in
following only the preposition _to_. Came _to see_=came _for seeing_.
This form of the verb is frequently the principal word of a phrase used as
a subject or as an object, complement; as, _To read good books_ is
profitable; I like _to read good books_. Here also the form with _to_ is
equivalent to the participle form _reading_. _Reading good books_ is
profitable.
As this form of the verb names the action in an indefinite way, without
limiting it to a subject, we call it the +Infinitive+ (Lat. _infinitus_,
without limit). For definition, see Lesson 131. The infinitive, like the
participle, may have what is called an _assumed subject_. The _assumed
subject_ denotes that to which the action or being expressed by the
participle or the infinitive belongs.
Frequently the infinitive phrase expresses purpose, as in the first example
given above, and in such cases _to_ expresses relation, and performs its
full function as a preposition; but, when the infinitive phrase is used as
subject or as object complement, the _to_ expresses no relation. It serves
only to introduce the phrase, and in no way affects the meaning of the
verb.
The infinitive, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by the
different complements.
Analysis and Parsing.
The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as an +adjective modifier+ or an
+adverb modifier+.
1. The hot-house is a trap to catch sunbeams.
hot-house | is \ trap
============|================
\The | \a \to
\ catch | sunbeams
\-------'----------
+Oral Analysis+.--_To_ introduces the phrase; _catch_ is the principal
word, and _sunbeams_ completes it.
+Parsing+.--_To_ is a preposition, introducing the phrase and showing the
relation, in sense, of the principal word to _trap; catch_ is a form of the
verb called _infinitive_; like a noun, it follows the preposition _to_ and
names the action, and, like a verb, it is completed by _sunbeams_.
2. Richelieu's title to command rested on sublime force of will and
decision of character.
3. Many of the attempts to assassinate William the Silent were defeated.
4. We will strive to please you.
+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify
the predicate.
5. Ingenious Art steps forth to fashion and refine the race.
6. These harmless delusions tend to make us happy.
+Explanation+.--_Happy_ completes _make_ and relates to _us_.
7. Wounds made by words are hard to heal.
+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify
the adjective _hard_. _To heal = to be healed_.
8. The representative Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to seek new
lands, to clear new cornfields, to build another shingle palace, and
again to sell off and wander.
9. These apples are not ripe enough to eat.
+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify
the adverb _enough_. _To eat = to be eaten_.
The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as +subject+ or +complement.+
10. To be good is to be great.
\To \to
\ be \good \ be \ great
\-----------------------
| |
/ \ | is \ / \
========|==================
|
Explanation.--_To_, in each of these phrases, shows no relation--it serves
merely to introduce. The complements _good_ and _great_ are adjectives used
abstractly, having no noun to relate to.
11. To bear our fate is to conquer it.
12. To be entirely just in our estimate of others is impossible.
13. The noblest vengeance is to forgive.
14. He seemed to be innocent.
+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase here performs the office of an
adjective. _To be innocent = innocent_.
15. The blind men's dogs appeared to know him.
16. We should learn to govern ourselves.
+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used as an object complement.
17. Each hill attempts to ape her voice.
* * * * *
LESSON 41.
INFINITIVES--CONTINUED.
Analysis.
The +infinitive phrase+ may be used +after a preposition+ as the +principal
term+ of another phrase.
1. My friend is about to leave me.
\to
\ leave | me
\-------'----
\ about |
\ / \
\-----------------
|
friend | is \ / \
========|=====================
\My |
+Explanation+.--The preposition _about_ introduces the phrase used as
attribute complement; the principal part is the infinitive phrase _to leave
me_.
2. Paul was now about to open his mouth.
3. No way remains but to go on.
+Explanation+.--_But_ is here a preposition.
The +infinitive+ and its +assumed subject+ may form the +principal term+ in
a phrase introduced by the preposition +for+.
4. For us to know our faults is profitable.
us
-------
| \to
\ | \ know | faults
\For | \------'--------
\ / \ \our
\-------
|
/ \ | is \ profitable
=============|======================
|
+Explanation+.--_For_ introduces the subject phrase; the principal part of
the entire phrase is _us to know our faults;_ the principal word is _us_,
which is modified by the phrase _to know our faults_.
5. God never made his work for man to mend.
+Explanation+.---The principal term of the phrase _for man to mend_ is not
_man_, but _man to mend_.
6. For a man to be proud of his learning is the greatest ignorance.
The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as an +explanatory modifier.+
7. It is easy to find fault.
\to
\ find | fault
\-----'------
|
It (/ \) | is \ easy
=========|===========
|
+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase _to find fault_ explains the subject
_it_. Read the sentence without _it_, and you will see the real nature of
the phrase. This use of _it_ as a substitute for the real subject is a very
common idiom of our language. It allows the real subject to follow the
verb, and thus gives the sentence balance of parts.
8. It is not the way to argue down a vice to tell lies about it.
9. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope.
10. It is not all of life to live.
11. This task, to teach the young, may become delightful.
The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as +objective complement.+
12. He made me wait.
+Explanation+.--The infinitive _wait_ (here used without _to_) completes
_made_ and relates to _me_. _He made-wait me = He detained me_.
See "Introductory Hints," Lesson 31, and participles used as objective
complements, Lesson 37. Compare _I saw him do it_ with _I saw him doing
it_. Compare also _He made the stick bend_--equaling _He made-bend _(=
bent) _the stick_--with _He made the stick straight_--equaling _He
made-straight _(= straightened) _the stick_.
The relation of these objective complements to _me, him_, and _stick_ may
be more clearly seen by changing the form of the verb, thus: I was made _to
wait_; He was seen _to do it_, He was seen _doing it_; The stick was made
_to bend_; The stick was made _straight_.
13.We found the report to be true. [Footnote: Some prefer to treat _the
report to be true_ as an object clause because it is equivalent to the
clause _that the report is true_. But many expressions logically
equivalent are entirely different in grammatical construction; as, I
desire _his promotion_; I desire _him to be promoted_; I desire _that he
should be promoted_. Besides, to teach that _him_ is the subject, and
_to be promoted_ the predicate, of a
clause would certainly be confusing.]
\to
\ be \ true
\--------------
|
We | found / / \ | report
===|==========================
|
14. He commanded the bridge to be lowered. [Footnote: Notice the difference
in construction between this sentence and the sentence _He commanded
him to lower the bridge_. _Him_ represents the one to whom the command
is given, and _to lower the bridge_ is the object complement. This last
sentence = He commanded _him that he should lower the bridge_. Compare
_He told me to go_ with _He told (to) me a story_; also _He taught me
to read_ with _He taught (to) me reading._ In such sentences as (13)
and (14) it may not always be expedient to demand that the pupil shall
trace the exact relations of the infinitive phrase to the preceding
noun and to the predicate verb. If preferred, in such cases, the
infinitive and its assumed subject may be treated as a kind of phrase
object, equivalent to a clause. This construction is similar to the
Latin "accusative with the infinitive."]
15. I saw the leaves stir. [Footnote: See pages 68 and 69, foot-note.]
+Explanation+.--_Stir_ is an infinitive without the _to_.
16. Being persuaded by Poppaesa, Hero caused his mother, Agrippina, to be
assassinated.
* * * * *
LESSON 42.
INFINITIVES--CONTINUED.
Analysis.
The +infinitive phrase+ may be used +independently+. [Footnote: These
infinitive phrases can be expanded into dependent clauses. See Lesson 79.
For the infinitive after _as, than_, etc., see Lesson 63. Participles and
infinitives unite with other verbs to make compound forms; as, have
_walked_, shall _walk_.]
+Explanation+.--In the diagram the independent element must stand by
itself.
1. England's debt, to put it in round numbers, is $4,000,000,000.
2. Every object has several faces, so to speak.
3. To make a long story short, Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette were
executed.
Infinitives and Participles.
MISCELLANEOUS.
4. It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord.
5. We require clothing in the summer to protect the body from the heat of
the sun.
6. Rip Van Winkle could not account for everything's having changed so.
7. This sentence is not too difficult for me to analyze.
8. The fog came pouring in at every chink and keyhole,
9. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies.
10. To be, or not to be,--that is the question.
11. I supposed him to be a gentleman.
12. Food, keeping the body in health by making it warm and repairing its
waste, is a necessity.
13. I will teach you the trick to prevent your being cheated another time.
14. She threatened to go beyond the sea, to throw herself out of the
window, to drown herself.
15. Busied with public affairs, the council would sit for hours smoking and
watching the smoke curl from their pipes to the ceiling.
* * * * *
LESSON 43.
COMPOSITION--THE INFINITIVE.
+Direction+.--_Change the infinitives in these sentences into participles,
and the participles into infinitives_:--
Notice that _to_, the only preposition used with the infinitive, is changed
to _toward, for, of, at, in,_ or _on_, when the infinitive is changed to a
participle.
1. I am inclined to believe it.
2. I am ashamed to be seen there.
3. She will be grieved to hear it.
4. They trembled to hear such words.
5. It will serve for amusing the children.
6. There is a time to laugh.
7. I rejoice to hear it.
8. You are prompt to obey.
9. They delight to do it.
10. I am surprised at seeing you.
11. Stones are used in ballasting vessels.
+Direction+.--_Improve these sentences by changing the participles into
infinitives, and the infinitives into participles_:--
1. We began ascending the mountain.
2. He did not recollect to have paid it.
3. I commenced to write a letter.
4. It is inconvenient being poor.
5. It is not wise complaining.
+Direction+.--_Vary these sentences as in the model_:--
+Model+.--_Rising early_ is healthful; _To rise_ early is healthful; _It_
is healthful _to rise_ early; _For one to rise_ early is healthful.
(Notice that the explanatory phrase after _it_ is not set off by the
comma.)
1. Reading good books is profitable.
2. Equivocating is disgraceful.
3. Slandering is base.
4. Indorsing another's paper is dangerous.
5. Swearing is sinful.
+Direction.+--_Write nine sentences, in three of which the infinitive
phrase shall be used as an adjective, in three as an adverb, and in three
as a noun_.
+Direction.+--_Write eight sentences in which these verbs shall be followed
by an infinitive without the to_:--
+Model.+--We _saw_ the sun _sink_ behind the mountain.
Bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, and see.
* * * * *
LESSON 44.
WORDS AND PHRASES USED INDEPENDENTLY.
+Introductory Hints.+--In this Lesson we wish to notice words and phrases
that in certain uses have no grammatical connection with the rest of the
sentence.
_The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars. Dear Brutus_ serves only to
arrest attention, and is independent by address.
_Poor man! he never came back again. Poor man_ is independent by
exclamation.
_Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me_. _Rod_ and _staff_ simply call
attention to the objects before anything is said of them, and are
independent by pleonasm--a construction used sometimes for rhetorical
effect, but out of place in ordinary speech.
_His master being absent, the business was neglected. His master being
absent_ logically modifies the verb _was neglected_ by assigning the cause,
but the phrase has no connective expressed or understood, and is therefore
grammatically independent. This is called the _absolute phrase_. An
_absolute phrase_ consists of a noun or a pronoun used independently with a
modifying participle.
_His conduct, generally speaking, was honorable. Speaking_ is a participle
without connection, and with the adverb _generally_ forms an independent
phrase.
_To confess the truth, I was wrong._ The infinitive phrase is independent.
The adverbs _well, now, why, there_ are sometimes independent; as, _Well_,
life is an enigma; _Now_, that is strange; _Why_, it is already noon;
_There_ are pitch-pine Yankees and white-pine Yankees.
Interjections are without grammatical connection, as you have learned, and
hence are independent.
Whatever is enclosed within marks of parenthesis is also independent of the
rest of the sentence; as, I stake my fame (_and I had fame_), my heart, my
hope, my soul, upon this cast.
+Analysis+.
1. The loveliest things in life, Tom, are but shadows.
+Explanation.+--_Tom_ is independent by address. _But_ is an adjective
modifying _shadows_.
2. There are one-story intellects, two-story intellects, and three-story
intellects with skylights.
+Explanation+.--Often, as in this sentence, _there_ is used idiomatically,
merely to throw the subject after the verb, the idea of place having faded
out of the word. To express place, another _there_ may follow the
predicate; as, _There_ is gold _there_.
3. Ah! then and there was hurrying to and fro.
4. Hope lost, all is lost.
5. The smith, a mighty man is he.
6. Why, this is not revenge.
7. Well, this is the forest of Arden.
8. Now, there is at Jerusalem, by the sheep-market, a pool.
9. To speak plainly, your habits are your worst enemies.
10. No accident occurring, we shall arrive to-morrow.
11. The teacher being sick, there was no school Friday.
12. Mr. President, I shall enter on no encomium upon Massachusetts.
13. Properly speaking, there can be no chance in our affairs.
14. But the enemies of tyranny--their path leads to the scaffold.
15. She (oh, the artfulness of the woman!) managed the matter extremely
well.
retreat | began
=========|=======
\later
\---\
\ day
\-------
\A
16. A day later (Oct. 19, 1812) began the fatal retreat of the Grand Army,
from Moscow.
See Lesson 35.
* * * * *
LESSON 45.
COMPOSITION--INDEPENDENT WORDS AND PHRASES.
+COMMA--RULE.--Words and phrases independent or nearly so are set off by
the comma.+
+Remark+.--Interjections, as you have seen, are usually followed by the
exclamation point; and _there_, used merely to introduce, is never set off
by the comma. When the break after pleonastic expressions is slight, as in
(5), Lesson 44, the comma is used; but, if it is more abrupt, as in (14),
the dash is required. If the independent expression can be omitted without
affecting the sense, it may be enclosed within marks of parenthesis, as in
(15) and (16). (For the uses of the dash and the marks of parenthesis, see
Lesson 148.)
Words and phrases nearly independent are those which, like _however, of
course, indeed, in short, by the bye, for instance_, and _accordingly_, do
not modify a word or a phrase alone, but rather the sentence as a whole;
as, Lee did not, _however_, follow Washington's orders.
+Direction.+--_Write sentences illustrating the several kinds of
independent expressions, and punctuate according to the Rule as explained_.
+Direction.+--_Write short sentences in which these words and phrases, used
in a manner nearly independent, shall occur, and punctuate them
properly_:--
In short, indeed, now and then, for instance, accordingly, moreover,
however, at least, in general, no doubt, by the bye, by the way, then, too,
of course, in fine, namely, above all, therefore.
+Direction.+--_Write short sentences in which these words shall modify same
particular word or phrase so closely as not to be set off by the comma_:--
Indeed, surely, too, then, now, further, why, again, still.
+Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.+