complete the predicate and at the same time belongs to the object
complement, differs from an attribute complement by belonging not to the
subject but to the object complement, and so is called an +Objective
Complement+.
As the objective complement generally denotes what the receiver of the act
is made to be, in fact or in thought, it is sometimes called the _factitive
complement_ or the _factitive object_ (Lat. _facere_, to make). [Footnote:
See Lesson 37, last foot-note.]
Some of the other verbs which are thus completed are _call_, _think_,
_choose_, and _name_.
+DEFINITION.--The _Objective Complement_ completes the predicate and
belongs to the object complement.+
Analysis.
1. They made Victoria queen.
They | made / queen | Victoria
======|=========================
|
+Explanation+.--The line that separates _made_ from _queen_ slants toward
the object complement to show that _queen_ belongs to the object.
+Oral Analysis+.--_Queen_ is an objective complement completing _made_ and
belonging to _Victoria_; _made Victoria queen_ is the complete predicate.
2. Some one has called the eye the window of the soul.
3. Destiny had made Mr. Churchill a schoolmaster.
4. President Hayes chose the Hon. Wm. M. Evarts Secretary of State.
5. After a break of sixty years in the ducal line of the English nobility,
James I. created the worthless Villiers Duke of Buckingham.
6. We should consider time as a sacred trust.
+Explanation+.--_As_ may be used simply to introduce an objective
complement.
7. Ophelia and Polonius thought Hamlet really insane.
8. The President and the Senate appoint certain men ministers to foreign
courts.
9. Shylock would have struck Jessica dead beside him.
10. Custom renders the feelings blunt and callous.
11. Socrates styled beauty a short-lived tyranny.
12. Madame de Stael calls beautiful architecture frozen music.
13. They named the state New York from the Duke of York.
14. Henry the Great consecrated the Edict of Nantes as the very ark of the
constitution.
* * * * *
LESSON 32.
COMPOSITION--COMPLEMENTS.
+Caution.+--Be careful to distinguish an adjective complement from an
adverb modifier.
+Explanation.+--Mary arrived _safe_. We here wish to tell the condition of
Mary on her arrival, and not the manner of her arriving. My head feels
_bad_ (is in a bad condition, as perceived by the sense of feeling). The
sun shines _bright_ (is bright, as perceived by its shining).
When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples above,
you see that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows.
+Direction.+--_Justify the use of these adjectives and adverbs_:--
1. The boy is running wild.
2. The boy is running wildly about.
3. They all arrived safe and sound.
4. The day opened bright.
5. He felt awkward in the presence of ladies.
6. He felt around awkwardly for his chair.
7. The sun shines bright.
8. The sun shines brightly on the tree-tops.
9. He appeared prompt and willing.
10. He appeared promptly and willingly.
+Direction+.--_Correct these errors and give your reasons_:--
1. My head pains me very bad.
2. My friend has acted very strange in the matter.
3. Don't speak harsh.
4. It can be bought very cheaply.
5. I feel tolerable well.
6. She looks beautifully.
+Direction+.--_Join to each of the nouns below three appropriate adjectives
expressing the qualities as assumed, and then make complete sentences by
asserting these qualities_:--
+Model.+
Hard |
brittle + glass.
transparent |
Glass is hard, brittle, and transparent.
Coal, iron, Niagara Falls, flowers, war, ships.
+Direction+.--_Compose sentences containing these nouns as attribute
complements_:--
Emperor, mathematician, Longfellow, Richmond.
+Direction+.--_Compose sentences, using these verbs as predicates, and
these pronouns as attribute complements_:--
Is, was, might have been; I, we, he, she, they.
+Remark+.--Notice that these forms of the pronouns--_I, we, thou, he, she,
ye, they_, and _who_--are never used as object complements or as principal
words in prepositional phrases; and that _me, us, thee, him, her, them_,
and _whom_ are never used as subjects or as attribute complements of
sentences.
+Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which each of the following verbs shall
have two complements--the one an object complement, the other an objective
complement:_--
Let some object complements be pronouns, and let some objective complements
be introduced by _as_.
+Model+.--They call _me chief_. We regard composition _as_ very
_important_.
Make, appoint, consider, choose, call.
* * * * *
LESSON 33.
NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS.
+Introductory Hints+.--_Solomon's temple was destroyed. Solomon's_ limits
_temple_ by telling what or whose temple is spoken of, and is therefore a
modifier of _temple_.
The relation of Solomon to the temple is expressed by the apostrophe and
_s_ ('_s_) added to the noun _Solomon_. When _s_ has been added to the noun
to denote more than one, this relation of possession is expressed by the
apostrophe alone ('); as, _boys'_ hats. This same relation of possession
may be expressed by the preposition _of_; _Solomon's_ temple = the temple
_of Solomon_.
_Dom Pedro, the emperor, was welcomed by the Americans_. The noun _emperor_
modifies _Dom Pedro_ by telling what Dom Pedro is meant. Both words name
the same person.
_Solomon's_ and _emperor_, like adjectives, modify nouns; but they are
names of things, and are modified by adjectives and not by adverbs; as,
_the wise_ Solomon's temple; Dom Pedro, _the Brazilian_ emperor. These are
conclusive reasons for calling such words nouns.
They represent two kinds of +Noun Modifiers+--the +Possessive+ and the
+Explanatory+.
The Explanatory Modifier is often called an +Appositive+. It identifies or
explains by adding another name of the same thing.
Analysis.
1. Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded by James I.
favorite (Raleigh) | was beheaded
====================|==============
\Elizabeth's | \by
\ James I
\-----------
+Oral Analysts+.--_Elizabeth's_ and _Raleigh_ are modifiers of the subject;
the first word telling whose favorite is meant, the second what favorite.
_Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh_ is the modified subject.
2. The best features of King James's translation of the Bible are derived
from Tyndale's version.
3. St. Paul, the apostle, was beheaded in the reign of Nero.
4. A fool's bolt is soon shot.
5. The tadpole, or polliwog, becomes a frog.
6. An idle brain is the devil's workshop.
7. Mahomet, or Mohammed, was born in the year 569 and died in 632.
8. They scaled Mount Blanc--a daring feat.
They | scaled | Mount Blanc ( feat )
======|===================== =======
| \a \daring
+Explanation+.--_Feat_ is explanatory of the sentence, _They scaled Mount
Blanc_, and in the diagram it stands, enclosed in curves, on a short line
placed after the sentence line.
9. Bees communicate to each other the death of the queen, by a rapid
interlacing of the antennae. [Footnote: For uses of _each other_ and
_one another_, see Lesson 124.]
+Explanation+.--_Each other_ may be treated as one term, or _each_ may be
made explanatory of _bees_.
10. The lamp of a man's life has three wicks--brain, blood, and breath.
+Explanation.+--Several words may together be explanatory of one.
11. The turtle's back-bone and breast-bone--its shell and coat of
armor--are on the outside of its body.
back-bone shell
=============\ ========\
'\ /' \ | are
and' \==========(======/ 'and \=)=|=======
' / \turtle's \its \ ' / |
breast-bone '/ \The \' coat /
=============/ ========/
12. Cromwell's rule as Protector began in the year 1653 and ended in 1658.
+Explanation+.--_As, namely, to wit, viz., i.e., e.g.,_ and _that is_ may
introduce explanatory modifiers, but they do not seem to connect them to
the words modified. In the diagram they stand like _as_ in Lesson 30.
_Protector_ is explanatory of _Cromwell's_.
13. In the latter half of the eighteenth century, three powerful nations,
namely, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, united for the dismemberment of
Poland.
14. John, the beloved disciple, lay on his Master's breast.
15. The petals of the daisy, _day's-eye_, close at night and in rainy
weather.
* * * * *
LESSON 34.
COMPOSITION--NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS.
+COMMA--RULE.--An _Explanatory Modifier_, when it does not restrict the
modified term or combine closely with it, is set off by the comma.+
[Footnote: See foot-note, Lesson 18]
+Explanation+.--_The words I and O should be written in capital_ _letters_.
The phrase _I and O_ restricts _words_, that is, limits its application,
and no comma is needed.
_Jacob's favorite sons, Joseph and Benjamin, were Rachel's children_. The
phrase _Joseph and Benjamin_ explains sons without restricting, and
therefore should be set off by the comma.
In each of these expressions, _I myself, we boys, William the Conqueror_,
the explanatory term combines closely with the word explained, and no comma
is needed.
+Direction+.--_Give the reasons for the insertion or the omission of commas
in these sentences_:--
1. My brother Henry and my brother George belong to a boat-club.
2. The author of Pilgrim's Progress, John Bunyan, was the son of a tinker.
3. Shakespeare, the great dramatist, was careless of his literary
reputation.
4. The conqueror of Mexico, Cortez, was cruel in his treatment of
Montezuma.
5. Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, was a Spaniard.
6. The Emperors Napoleon and Alexander met and became fast friends on a
raft at Tilsit.
+Direction+.--_Insert commas below, where they are needed, and give your
reasons_:--
1. The Franks a warlike people of Germany gave their name to France.
2. My son Joseph has entered college.
3. You blocks! You stones! 0 you hard hearts!
4. Mecca a city in Arabia is sacred in the eyes of Mohammedans.
5. He himself could not go.
6. The poet Spenser lived in the reign of Elizabeth.
7. Elizabeth Queen of England ruled from 1558 to 1603.
+Direction.+--_Compose sentences containing these expressions as
explanatory modifiers_:--
The most useful metal; the capital of Turkey; the Imperial City; the great
English poets; the hermit; a distinguished American statesman.
+Direction.+--_Punctuate these expressions, and employ each of them in a
sentence_:--
See Remark, Lesson 21. Omit _or_, and note the effect.
1. Palestine or the Holy Land ----.
2. New York or the Empire State ----.
3. New Orleans or the Crescent City ----.
4. The five Books of Moses or the Pentateuch ----.
+Remember+ that (_'s_) and (_'_) are the possessive signs--(_'_) being used
when _s_ has been added to denote more than one, and (_'s_) in other cases.
+Direction.+--_Copy the following, and note the use of the possessive
sign_:--
The lady's fan; the girl's bonnet; a dollar's worth; Burns's poems; Brown &
Co.'s business; a day's work; men's clothing; children's toys; those girls'
dresses; ladies' calls; three years' interest; five dollars' worth.
+Direction.+--_Make possessive modifiers of the following words, and join
them to appropriate nouns_:--
Woman, women; mouse, mice; buffalo, buffaloes; fairy, fairies; hero,
heroes; baby, babies; calf, calves.
+Caution.+--Do not use (_'s_) or (_'_) with the pronouns _its, his, ours,
yours, hers, theirs_.
* * * * *
LESSON 35.
NOUNS AS ADVERB MODIFIERS.
+Introductory Hints.+--_He gave me a book_. Here we have what many
grammarians call a _double object_. _Book_, naming the thing acted upon,
they call the _direct_ object; and _me_, naming the person toward whom the
act is directed, they call the +indirect+, or _dative_, +object+.
You see that _me_ and _book_ do not, like _Cornwallis_ and _army_, in
_Washington captured Cornwallis and his army_, form a compound object
complement; they cannot be connected by a conjunction, for they do not
stand in the same relation to the verb _gave_. The meaning is not, He gave
me _and_ the book.
We treat these indirect objects, which generally denote the person to or
for whom something is done, as equivalent to phrase modifiers. If we change
the order of the words, a preposition must be supplied; as, He gave a book
_to me_. He bought _me_ a _book_; He bought a book _for me_. He asked _me_
a _question_; He asked a _question of me_. When the indirect object
precedes the direct, no preposition is expressed or understood.
_Teach, tell, send, promise, permit_, and _lend_ are other examples of
verbs that take indirect objects.
Besides these indirect objects, +nouns denoting measure+, quantity, weight,
time, value, distance, or direction are often used adverbially, being
equivalent to phrase modifiers. We walked four _miles_ an _hour_; It weighs
one _pound_; It is worth a _dollar_ a _yard_; I went _home_ that _way_; The
wall is ten _feet_ six _inches_ high.
The idiom of the language does not often admit a preposition before nouns
denoting measure, direction, etc. In your analysis you need not supply one.
+Analysis.+
1. They offered Caesar the crown three times.
They | offered | crown
========|==========================
| \ \ times \the
\ -------
\ \three
\
\ Caesar
-----------
+Oral Analysis.+--_Caesar_ and _times_ are nouns used adverbially, being
equivalent to adverb phrases modifying the predicate _offered_.
2. We pay the President of the United States $50,000 a year.
3. He sent his daughter home that way.
4. I gave him a dollar a bushel for his wheat, and ten cents a pound for
his sugar.
5. Shakespeare was fifty-two years old the very day of his death.
6. Serpents cast their skin once a year.
7. The famous Charter Oak of Hartford, Conn., fell Aug. 21, 1856.
8. Good land should yield its owner seventy-five bushels of corn an acre.
9. On the fatal field of Zutphen, Sept. 22, 1586, his attendants brought
the wounded Sir Philip Sidney a cup of cold water.
10. He magnanimously gave a dying soldier the water.
11. The frog lives several weeks as a fish, and breathes by means of gills.
12. Queen Esther asked King Ahasuerus a favor.
13. Aristotle taught Alexander the Great philosophy.
14. The pure attar of roses is worth twenty or thirty dollars an ounce.
15. Puff-balls have grown six inches in diameter in a single night.
* * * * *
LESSON 36.
REVIEW.
TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, Lesson 16.
+Direction.+--_Review from Lesson 28 to Lesson 35, inclusive_.
Give the substance of the "Introductory Hints" (for example, show clearly
what two things are essential to a complete predicate; explain what is
meant by a complement; distinguish clearly the three kinds of complements;
show what parts of speech may be employed for each, and tell what general
idea--action, quality, class, or identity--is expressed by each attribute
complement or objective complement in your illustrations, etc.). Repeat and
illustrate definitions and rules; explain and illustrate fully the
distinction between an adjective complement and an adverb modifier;
illustrate what is taught of the forms _I, we,_ etc., _me, us,_ etc.;
explain and illustrate the use of the possessive sign.
Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.
(SEE PAGES 156-159.)
TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30, 150.
* * * * *
LESSON 37.
VERBS AS ADJECTIVES AND AS NOUNS--PARTICIPLES.
+Introductory Hints.+--_Corn grows; Corn growing._ Here _growing_ differs
from _grows_ in lacking the power to assert. _Growing_ is a form of the
verb that cannot, like _grows_, make a complete predicate because it only
assumes or implies that the corn does the act. _Corn_ may be called the
assumed subject of _growing_.
_Birds, singing, delight us._ Here _singing_ does duty (1) as an adjective,
describing birds by assuming or implying an act, and (2) as a verb by
expressing the act of singing as going on at the time birds delight us.
_By singing their songs birds delight us._ Here _singing_ has the nature of
a verb and that of a noun. As a verb it has an object complement, _songs_;
and as a noun it names the act, and stands as the principal word in a
prepositional phrase.
_Their singing so sweetly delights us_. Here, also, _singing_ has the
nature of a verb and that of a noun. As a verb it has an adverb modifier,
_sweetly_, and as a noun it names an act and takes a possessive modifier.
This form of the verb is called the +Participle+ (Lat. _pars_, a part, and
_capere_, to take) because it partakes of two natures and performs two
offices--those of a verb and an adjective, or those of a verb and a noun.
(For definition see Lesson 131.)
_Singing birds delight us_. Here _singing_ has lost its verbal nature, and
expresses a permanent quality of birds--telling what kind of birds,--and
consequently is a mere adjective. _The singing of the birds delights us_.
Here _singing_ is simply a noun, naming the act and taking adjective
modifiers.
There are two kinds of participles; [Footnote: Grammarians are not agreed
as to what these words that have the nature of the verb and that of the
noun should be called. Some would call the simple forms _doing_, _writing_,
and _injuring_, in sentences (1), (6), and (7), Lesson 38, _Infinitives_.
They would also call by the same name such compound forms as _being
accepted_, _having been shown_, and _having said_ in these expressions:
"for the purpose of being accepted;" "is the having been shown over a
place;" "I recollect his having said that." But does it not tax even
credulity to believe that a simple Anglo-Saxon infinitive in _-an_, only
one form of which followed a preposition, and that always _to_, could have
developed into many compound forms, used in both voices, following almost
any preposition, and modified by _the_ and by nouns and pronouns in the
possessive? No wonder the grammarian Mason says, "An infinitive in _-ing_,
set down by some as a modification of the simple infinitive in _-an_ or
_-en_, is a perfectly unwarranted invention."
Others call these words modernized forms of the Anglo-Saxon _Verbal Nouns_
in _-ung_, _-ing_. But this derivation of them encounters the stubborn fact
that those verbal nouns never were compound, and never were or could be
followed by objects. These words, on the contrary, are compound, as we have
seen, and have objects. That they are from nouns in _-ung_ is otherwise,
and almost for the same reasons, as incredible as that they are from
infinitives in _-an_.
Others call these words _Gerunds_. A gerund in Latin is a simple form of
the verb in the active voice, never found in the nominative, and never in
the accusative (objective) after a verb. A gerund in Anglo-Saxon is a
simple form of the verb in the active voice--the dative case of the
infinitive merely--used mainly to indicate purpose, and always preceded by
the preposition _to_. To call these words in question gerunds is to stretch
the term _gerund_ immensely beyond its meaning in Anglo-Saxon, and make it
cover words which sometimes (1) are highly compounded; sometimes (2) are
used in the passive voice; sometimes (3) follow other prepositions than
_to_; sometimes (4) do not follow any preposition; sometimes (5) are
objects of verbs; sometimes (6) are subjects of verbs; sometimes (7) are
modified by _the_; sometimes (8) are modified by a noun or pronoun in the
possessive; and generally (9) do not indicate purpose. We submit that the
extension of a class term so as to include words having these relations
that the Anglo-Saxon gerund never had, is not warranted by any precedent
except that furnished above in the extension of the term _infinitive_ or of
the term _verbal noun_!
Still others call some of these words _Infinitives_; some of them _Verbal
Nouns_; and some of them _Gerunds_.
The forms in question--_seeing, having seen, being seen, having been seen_,
and _having been seeing_, for instance--are now made from the verb in
precisely the same way when partaking the nature of the noun as when
partaking the nature of the adjective. What can they possibly be but the
forms that all grammarians call _participles_ extended to new uses? If the
uses of the original participles have been extended, why may we not carry
over the name? The name _participle_ is as true to its etymology when
applied to the nounal use of the verb as when applied to the adjectival
use. For convenience of classification we call these disputed forms
_participles_, as good grammarians long ago called them and still call
them, though some of them may be traced back to the Saxon verbal noun or to
the infinitive, and though the Saxon participle was adjectival. The name
_participle_ neither confounds terms nor misleads the student. The nounal
and the adjectival uses of participial forms we distinguish very sharply.]
one sharing the nature of the verb and that of the adjective; the other,
the nature of the verb and that of the noun. Participles commonly end in
_ing_, _ed_, or _en_.
The participle, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by an object
complement or an attribute complement.
Analysis and Parsing.
The +participle+ may be used as an +adjective modifier+.
1. Hearing a step, I turned.
I | turned
===|=========
\ |
\ hea
\ ring | step
--------|------
\a
+Explanation+.--The line standing for the participle is broken; one part
slants to represent the adjective nature of the participle, and the other
is horizontal to represent its verbal nature.
+Oral Analysis+.--The phrase _hearing a step_ is a modifier of the subject;
[Footnote: Logically, or in sense, _hearing a step_ modifies the predicate
also. I _turned when_ or _because_ I heard a step. See Lesson 79.] the
principal word is _hearing_, which is completed by the noun _step_; _step_
is modified by _a_.
+Parsing+.--_Hearing_ is a form of the verb called participle because the
act expressed by it is merely assumed, and it shares the nature of an
adjective and that of a verb.
2. The fat of the body is fuel laid away for use.
+Explanation+.--The complement is here modified by a participle phrase.
3. The spinal marrow, proceeding from the brain, extends down-ward through
the back-bone.
4. Van Twiller sat in a huge chair of solid oak, hewn in the celebrated
forest of the Hague.
+Explanation+.--The principal word of a prepositional phrase is here
modified by a participle phrase.
5. Lentulus, returning with victorious legions, had amused the populace
with the sports of the amphitheater.
The +participle+ may be used as an +attribute complement+.
6. The natives came crowding around.
+Explanation+.--_Crowding_ here completes the predicate _came_, and belongs
to the subject _natives_. The natives are represented as performing the act
of coming and the accompanying act of crowding. The assertive force of the
predicate _came_ seems to extend over both verbs. [Footnote: Some
grammarians prefer to treat the participle in such constructions as
adverbial. But is _crowding_ any more adverbial here than are _pale_ and
_trembling_ in "The natives came _pale_ and _trembling_"?]
7. The city lies sleeping.
8. They stood terrified.
9. The philosopher sat buried in thought.
\and \and \
\....\....\
\ \ \star
\ \ \ ving
\ \sav \-------
\ \ ing
\gru \----------
\ bbing
\-------------
|
miser | kept \ / \
======|======================
|
10. The old miser kept grubbing and saving and starving.
The +participle+ may be used as an +objective complement+.
11. He kept me waiting.
+Explanation+.--_Waiting_ completes _kept_ and relates to the object
complement _me_. _Kept-waiting_ expresses the complete act performed upon
me. _He kept-waiting me_=_He detained me_. The relation of _waiting_ to
_me_ may be seen by changing the form of the verb; as, I _was kept
waiting_. See Lesson 31.