THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES.
We have now gone, first through that great mass of European lands
which formed part either of the Eastern or of the Western Empire, and
then through those more distant, and mainly peninsular, lands which
so largely escaped the Imperial dominion. ♦The British islands.♦ We
end by leaving the mainland of Europe, by leaving the world of either
Empire, for that great island, or rather group of islands, which for
ages was looked on as forming a world of its own.[87] ♦Late Roman
conquest and early loss of Britain.♦ In Western Europe Britain was the
last land to be won, and the first to be lost, in the days of the elder
Empire. And, after all, Britain itself was only partly won, while the
conquest of Ireland was never tried at all. ♦Independence of Britain
in the later Empire.♦ After the English Conquest, Britain had less
to do with the revived Western Empire than any Western land except
Norway. The momentary dealings of Charles the Great with Scotland and
Northumberland, the doubtful and precarious homage done by Richard the
First to Henry the Sixth, are the only exceptions, even in form, to its
complete independence on the continental Empire. ♦Britain another world
and another Empire.♦ The doctrine was that Britain, the other world,
formed an Empire of its own. That Empire, being an island, was secured
against the constant fluctuations of its external boundary to which
continental states lie open. ♦Changes within Britain.♦ For several
centuries the boundaries, both of the Celtic and Teutonic occupants and
of the Teutonic kingdoms among themselves, were always changing. But
these changes hardly affect European history, which is concerned only
with the broad general results—with the establishment of the Teutonic
settlers in the island—with the union of those settlers in one kingdom
under the West-Saxon house—with the extension of the imperial power of
the West-Saxon kings over the whole island of Britain. ♦Slight change
in the internal divisions of England.♦ And, from the eleventh century
onwards, there has been singularly little change of boundaries within
the island. The boundaries of England towards Scotland and Wales
changed much less than might have been looked for during ages of such
endless warfare. Even the lesser divisions within the English kingdom
have been singularly lasting. The land, as a whole, has never been
mapped out afresh since the tenth century. While a map of France or
Germany in the eleventh century, or even in the eighteenth, is useless
for immediate practical objects, a map of England in the days of
Domesday practically differs not at all from a map of England now. The
only changes of any moment, and they are neither many nor great, are in
the shires on the Welsh and Scottish borders.
Thus the historical geography of the isle of Britain comes to little
more than a record of these border changes, down to the incorporation
of England, Scotland, and Wales into a single kingdom. In the other
great island of Ireland there is little to do except to trace how the
boundary of English conquest advanced and fell back, a matter after
all of no great European concern. The history of the smaller outlying
islands, from Scandinavian Shetland to the insular Normandy, has
really more to do with the general history of Europe. The dominion
of the English kings on the continent is of the highest European
moment, but, from its geographical side, it is Gaul and not Britain
which it affects. ♦English settlements beyond sea.♦ The really great
geographical phænomenon of English history is that which it shares with
Spain and Portugal, and in which it surpasses both. This is the vast
extent of outlying English dominion and settlement, partly in Europe,
but far more largely in the distant lands of Asia, Africa, America, and
Australia. But it is not merely that England has become a great power
in all quarters of the world; England has been, like Portugal, but on a
far greater scale, a planter of nations. ♦English nations.♦ One group
of her settlements has grown into one of the great powers of the world,
into a third England beyond the Ocean, as far surpassing our insular
England in geographical extent as our insular England surpasses the
first England of all in the marchland of Germany and Denmark. The mere
barbaric dominion of England concerns our present survey but little;
but the historical geography of Europe is deeply concerned in the
extension of England and of Europe in lands beyond the Western and the
Southern Ocean.
* * * * *
In tracing out the little that we have to say of the geography of
Britain itself, it will be well to begin with that northern part of the
island where changes have been both more numerous and more important
than they have been in England.
§ 1. _The Kingdom of Scotland._
♦Historical position of Scotland.♦
In Northern Britain, as in some other parts of Europe, we see a land
which has taken its name from a people to which it does not owe its
historic importance. _Scotland_ has won for itself a position in
Britain and in Europe altogether out of proportion to its size and
population. But it has not done this by virtue of its strictly Scottish
element. ♦Greatness of Scotland due to its English element.♦ The Irish
settlers who first brought the Scottish name into Britain[88] could
never have made Scotland what it really became. What founded the
greatness of the Scottish kingdom was the fact that part of England
gradually took the name of Scotland and its inhabitants took the
name of Scots. The case is as when the Duke of Savoy and Genoa and
Prince of Piedmont took his highest title from that Sardinian kingdom
which was the least valuable part of his dominions. It is as when
the ruler of a mighty German realm calls himself king of the small
duchy of Prussia and its extinct people. ♦Two English kingdoms in
Britain.♦ The truth is that, for more than five hundred years, there
were two English kingdoms in Britain, each of which had a troublesome
Celtic background which formed its chief difficulty. One English king
reigned at Winchester or London, and had his difficulties in Wales and
afterwards in Ireland. Another English king reigned at Dunfermline or
Stirling, and had his difficulties in the true Scotland. ♦Extension
of the Scottish name.♦ But the southern kingdom, ruled by kings of
native English or of foreign descent, but never by kings of British or
Irish descent,[89] always kept the English name, while the northern
kingdom, ruled by kings of Scottish descent, adopted the Scottish name.
The English subjects of the King of Scots gradually took the Scottish
name to themselves. ♦Analogy of Switzerland. | Threefold elements in
the later Scotland.♦ As the present Swiss nation is made up of parts
of the German, Burgundian, and Italian nations which have detached
themselves from their several main bodies, so the present Scottish
nation is made up of parts of the English, Irish, and British nations
which have detached themselves from their several main bodies. But in
both cases it is the Teutonic element which forms the life and strength
of the nation, the kernel to which the other elements have attached
themselves. ♦True position of the Kings of Scots.♦ We cannot read the
mediæval history of Britain aright, unless we remember that the King of
Scots was in truth the English king of Teutonic Lothian and Teutonized
Fife. ♦Enmity of the true Scots.♦ The people from whom he took his
title were at most his unwilling subjects; they were often his open
enemies, the allies of his southern rival.
* * * * *
♦Lothian, Strathclyde, and Scotland.♦
The modern kingdom of Scotland was made up of English _Lothian_,
British _Strathclyde_, and Irish _Scotland_. The oldest Scotland is
Ireland, whence the Scottish name, long since forgotten in Ireland
itself, came into Britain and there spread itself. These three elements
stand out plainly. ♦The Picts.♦ But the Scottish or Irish element
swallowed up another, that of the _Picts_, of whom there can be no
doubt that they were Celts, like the Scots and Britons, but about whom
it may be doubted whether their kindred was nearer to the Scots or to
the Britons. For our purpose the question is of little moment. The
Picts, as far as geography is concerned, either vanished or became
Scots.
♦Position of the Picts and Scots in the ninth century.♦
Early in the ninth century the land north of the firths of Clyde and
Forth was still mainly Pictish. The second Scotland (the first Scotland
in Britain) had not spread far beyond the original Irish settlement in
the south-west. ♦Union of Picts and Scots, 843. | The Celtic Scotland.♦
The union of Picts and Scots under a Scottish dynasty created the
larger Scotland, the true Celtic Scotland, taking in all the land north
of the firths, except where Scandinavian settlers occupied the extreme
north. ♦Bernicia.♦ South of the firths, English _Bernicia_, sometimes a
separate kingdom, sometimes part of _Northumberland_, stretched to the
firth of Forth, with _Edinburgh_ as a border fortress. ♦Strathclyde or
Cumberland.♦ To the west of Bernicia, south and east of the firth of
Clyde, lay the British kingdom of _Cumberland_ or _Strathclyde_, with
_Alcluyd_ or _Dumbarton_ as its border fortress. ♦Galloway.♦ To the
south-west again lay the outlying Pictish land of _Galloway_, which
long kept up a separate being. Parts of Bernicia, parts of Strathclyde,
were one day to join with the true Scotland to make up the later
Scottish kingdom. As yet the true Scotland was a foreign and hostile
land alike to Bernicia and to Strathclyde.
♦Settlements of the Northmen.♦
In the next century we see the Scottish power cut short to the north
and west, but advancing towards the south and east. ♦Caithness.♦ The
Northmen have settled in the northern and western islands, in those
parts of the mainland to which they gave the names of _Caithness_
and _Sutherland_, and even in the first Scottish land in the west.
♦Scotland acknowledges the English supremacy, 924.♦ Scotland itself
has also admitted the external supremacy of the English overlord.
♦Taking of Edinburgh, c. 954.♦ On the other hand, the Scots have
pressed within the English border, and have occupied Edinburgh, the
border fortress of England. ♦Cession of Lothian, 966 or 1018.♦ Later
in the same century or early in the next, the Kings of Scots received
Northern Bernicia, the land of _Lothian_, as an English earldom. On
the other side, _Strathclyde_ or _Cumberland_—its southern boundary is
very uncertain—had become in a manner united to England and Scotland at
once. ♦Grant of Cumberland, 945.♦ An English conquest, it was granted
in fief to the King of Scots, and was commonly held as an appanage by
Scottish princes.[90] ♦Different tenures of the dominion of the King of
Scots.♦ Thus the King of Scots held three dominions on three different
tenures. Scotland was a kingdom under a merely external English
supremacy; Cumberland was a territorial fief of England; Lothian was
an earldom within the English kingdom. ♦The distinctions forgotten in
later controversies.♦ In after times these distinctions were forgotten,
and the question now was whether the dominions of the King of Scots,
as a whole, were or were not a fief of England. When the question took
this shape, the English king claimed more than his ancient rights over
Scotland, less than his ancient rights over Lothian.
♦Effects of the grant of Lothian.♦
The acquisition of Lothian made the Scottish kingdom English. Lothian
remained English; Cumberland and the eastern side of Scotland itself,
the Lowlands north of the firth of Forth, became practically English
also. The Scottish kings became English princes, whose strength lay in
the English part of their dominions. ♦Fate of southern Cumberland.♦
But late in the eleventh century it would seem that the southern part
of Cumberland had become a separate principality ruled by a refugee
Northumbrian prince under Scottish supremacy. ♦Carlisle and its
district added to England by William Rufus, 1092.♦ This territory,
the city of _Carlisle_ and its immediate district, the old diocese
of Carlisle, was added to England by William Rufus. ♦Cumberland and
Northumberland granted to David, 1136.♦ On the other hand, in the
troubles of Stephen’s reign, the king of Scots received as English
earldoms, Cumberland—in a somewhat wider sense—and _Northumberland_
in the modern sense, the land from the Tweed to the Tyne. Had these
earldoms been kept by the Scottish kings, they would doubtless have
become Scottish lands in the same sense in which Lothian did; that
is, they would have become parts of the northern English kingdom.
♦Recovered by England, 1157. | The boundary permanent, except as to
Berwick.♦ But these lands were won back by Henry the Second; and the
boundary has since remained as it was then fixed, save that the town
of _Berwick_ fluctuated according to the accidents of war between one
kingdom and the other.
♦Relations between England and Scotland.♦
But though the boundaries of the kingdoms were fixed, their relations
were not. ♦1292.♦ Scotland in the modern sense—that is, Scotland in the
older sense, Lothian, and Strathclyde—was for a moment held strictly as
a fief of England. ♦1296.♦ It was then for another moment incorporated
with England. ♦1327.♦ It was then acknowledged as an independent
kingdom. ♦1333.♦ It again fell under vassalage for a moment, and again
won its independence. ♦1603.♦ Then, at the beginning of the seventeenth
century, England and Scotland, as distinct, independent, and equal
kingdoms, passed under a common king. ♦1649.♦ They were separated
again for a moment when Scotland acknowledged a king whom England
rejected. ♦1652.♦ For another moment Scotland was incorporated with an
English commonwealth. ♦1660. | 1707.♦ Again Scotland and England became
independent kingdoms under a common king, till the two kingdoms were,
by common consent, joined in the one kingdom of _Great Britain_.
* * * * *
♦Struggle with the Northerners.♦
Meanwhile the Scottish kings had, like those of England somewhat
earlier, to struggle against Scandinavian invaders. ♦Scandinavian
advance, 1014-1064.♦ The settlements of the Northmen advanced, and
for some years in the eleventh century they took in _Moray_ at one
end and _Galloway_ at the other. But it was only in the extreme north
and in the northern islands that the land really became Scandinavian.
♦The Sudereys, and Man.♦ In the _Sudereys_ or _Hebrides_—the southern
islands as distinguished from Orkney and Shetland—and in _Man_, the
Celtic speech has survived. ♦Caithness submits, 1203.♦ _Caithness_
was brought under Scottish supremacy early in the thirteenth century.
♦Galloway incorporated, 1235.♦ _Galloway_ was incorporated. ♦Sudereys
and Man submit, 1263-1266.♦ Later again, after the battle of Largs, the
Sudereys and Man passed under Scottish supremacy. But the authority of
the Scottish crown in the islands was for a long time very precarious.
♦History of Man.♦ Man, the most central of the British isles, lying at
a nearly equal distance from England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales,
remained a separate kingdom, sometimes under Scottish, sometimes under
English, superiority. Granted to English subjects, the kingdom sank
to a lordship. ♦1764-1826.♦ The lordship was united to the crown of
Great Britain, and Man, like the Norman islands, remains a distinct
possession, forming no part of the United Kingdom. ♦Orkney. 1469.♦ The
earldom of Orkney meanwhile remained a Norwegian dependency till it was
pledged to the Scottish crown. Since then it has silently become part,
first of the kingdom of Scotland, and then of the kingdom of Great
Britain.
§ 2. _The Kingdom of England._
♦Harold’s conquests from Wales, 1063.♦
The changes of boundary between England and _Wales_ begin, as far as
we are concerned with them, with the great Welsh campaign of Harold.
♦Enlargement of the border shires.♦ All the border shires, Cheshire,
Shropshire, Herefordshire, Gloucestershire, seem now to have been
enlarged; the English border stretched to the _Conway_ in the north,
and to the _Usk_ in the south. ♦The Marches.♦ But part of this
territory seems to have been recovered by the Welsh princes, while part
passed into the great _march_ district of England and Wales, ruled by
the Lords Marchers. ♦Conquest of South Wales, 1070-1121.♦ The gradual
conquest of South Wales began under the Conqueror and went on under his
sons; but it was more largely the work of private adventurers than of
the kings themselves. The lands of _Morganwg_, _Dyfed_, _Ceredigion_,
and _Breheiniog_, answering nearly to the modern South Wales, were
gradually subdued. ♦Flemish settlement in Pembrokeshire, 1111.♦
In some districts, especially in the southern part of the present
Pembrokeshire, the Britons were actually driven out, and the land was
settled by Flemish colonists, the latest of the Teutonic settlements in
Britain. ♦Character of the conquest of South Wales.♦ Elsewhere Norman
lords, with a Norman, English, and Flemish following, held the towns
and the more level country, while the Welsh kept on a half independence
in the mountains. ♦Princes of North Wales.♦ Meanwhile in North Wales
native princes—_Princes of Aberffraw_ and _Lords of Snowdon_—still
ruled, as vassals of the English king, till the conquest by Edward
the First. ♦Cessions to England, 1277.♦ In the first stage the vassal
prince was compelled again to cede to his overlord the territory
east of the Conway. ♦Conquest of North Wales, 1282.♦ Six years later
followed the complete conquest. But complete incorporation with England
did not at once follow. ♦The Principality of Wales.♦ Wales, North and
South, remained a separate dominion, giving the princely title to the
eldest son of the English king.[91] Some shires were formed; some new
towns were founded; the border districts remained under the anomalous
jurisdiction of the Marchers. ♦Full incorporation. 1535.♦ The full
incorporation of the principality and its marches dates from Henry the
Eighth. Thirteen new counties were formed, and some districts were
added or restored to the border shires of England. One of the new
counties, _Monmouthshire_, was, under Charles the Second, added to an
English circuit, and it has since been reckoned as an English county.
♦The Domesday shires.♦
Setting aside these new creations, all the existing shires of
England were in being at the time of the Norman Conquest, save those
of _Lancaster_, _Cumberland_, _Westmoreland_, and _Rutland_. The
boundaries were not always exactly the same as at present; but the
differences are commonly slight and of mere local interest. ♦Two
classes of shires.♦ The shires, as they stood at the Conquest, were
of two classes. ♦Ancient kingdoms and principalities.♦ Some were old
kingdoms or principalities, which still kept their names and boundaries
as shires. Such were the kingdoms of _Kent_, _Sussex_, and _Essex_,
and the East-Anglian, West-Saxon, and Northumbrian shires. Most of
these keep old local or tribal names; a few only are called from a
town. ♦Mercian shires mapped out in the tenth century.♦ In Mercia on
the other hand, the shires seem to have been mapped out afresh when
the land was won back from the Danes. They are called after towns, and
the town which gives the name commonly lies central to the district,
and remains the chief town of the shire, except when it has been
outstripped by some other in modern times.[92] Both classes of shires
survived the Conquest, and both have gone on till now with very slight
changes.
On the Welsh border, all the shires, for reasons already given,
stretch further west in Domesday than they do now. ♦Cumberland and
Westmoreland.♦ On the Scottish border _Cumberland_ and _Westmoreland_
were made out of the Cumbrian conquest of William Rufus, enlarged by
districts which in Domesday appear as part of Yorkshire. ♦Lancashire.♦
_Lancashire_ was made up of lands taken from Yorkshire and Cheshire,
the Ribble forming the older boundary of those shires. The older
divisions are marked by the boundaries of the dioceses of _York_,
_Carlisle_, and _Lichfield_ or _Chester_, as they stood down to the
changes under Henry the Eighth. ♦Rutland.♦ In central England the
only change is the formation of the small shire of _Rutland_ out of
the Domesday district of Rutland (which, oddly enough, appears as an
appendage to _Nottinghamshire_), enlarged by a small part of what was
then _Northamptonshire_.
§ 3. _Ireland._
♦Ireland the first Scotland.♦
The second great island of the British group, _Ireland_, the original
_Scotia_, has had less to do with the general history of the world
than any other part of Western Europe. Its ancient divisions have
lived on from the earliest times. ♦The five provinces.♦ The names of
its five great provinces, _Ulster_, _Meath_, _Leinster_, _Munster_,
and _Connaught_, are all in familiar use, though _Meath_ has sunk from
its old rank alongside of the other four. The Celtic inhabitants of
the island remained independent of foreign powers till the days of
Scandinavian settlement. Just like the English kingdoms in Britain,
the great divisions of Ireland were sometimes independent, sometimes
united under the supremacy of a head king. ♦Settlement of the Ostmen.♦
Gradually the Northmen, called in Ireland _Ostmen_, settled on the
eastern coast, and held the chief ports, as _Dublin_, _Waterford_,
_Wexford_, two of which names bear witness to Teutonic occupation.
♦Irish victory at Clontarf. 1012.♦ The great Irish victory at Clontarf
weakened, but did not destroy, the Scandinavian power. ♦Increasing
connexion with England.♦ And, from the latter half of the tenth
century onward, the eastern coast of Ireland shows a growing connexion
with England. Any actual English supremacy seems doubtful; but both
commercial and ecclesiastical ties became closer during the eleventh
and twelfth centuries. ♦The English conquest, 1169-1652.♦ This led to
the actual English conquest of Ireland, begun under Henry the Second,
but really finished only by Cromwell. ♦1171. | Fluctuations of the
Pale.♦ All Ireland admitted for a moment the supremacy of Henry; but,
till the sixteenth century, the actual English dominion, called the
_Pale_, with Dublin for its centre, was always fluctuating, and for a
while it fell back rather than advanced.
♦Kingdom and Lordship of Ireland.♦
In the early days of the conquest Ireland is spoken of as a kingdom;
but the title soon went out of use. The original plan seems to have
been that Ireland, like Wales afterwards, should form an appanage for a
son of the English King. It became instead, so far as it was an English
possession at all, a simple dependency of England, from which the King
took the title of _Lord of Ireland_. ♦1542. | Relations of Ireland to
England.♦ Henry the Eighth took the title of _King of Ireland_; but the
kingdom remained a mere dependency, attached to the crown, first of
England and then of Great Britain. ♦1652. | 1689.♦ This state of things
was diversified by a short time of complete incorporation under the
Commonwealth, and a short time of independence under James the Second.
♦1782-1800.♦ But for the last eighteen years of the last century,
Ireland was formally acknowledged as an independent kingdom, connected
with Great Britain only by the tie of a common king. ♦1801.♦ Since that
time it has formed an integral part of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland.
§ 4. _Outlying European Possessions of England._
Ireland, the sister island of Britain, has thus been united with
Britain into a single kingdom. Man, lying between the two, remains a
distinct dependency. ♦The Norman Islands. 1205.♦ This last is also
still the position of that part of the Norman duchy which clave to
its own dukes, which never became French, but always remained Norman.
It might be a question what was the exact position of _Guernsey_,
_Jersey_, _Alderney_, _Sark_, and their smaller neighbours, when the
English kings took the titles of the French kingdom and actually held
the Norman duchy. Practically the islands have, during all changes,
remained attached to the English crown; but they have never been
incorporated with the kingdom. ♦Other European dependencies, Aquitaine,
&c.♦ Other more distant European lands have been, some still are, in
the same position. Such were _Aquitaine_, _Ponthieu_, and _Calais_, as
fixed by the Peace of Bretigny. Since the loss of Aquitaine, England
has had no considerable continental dominion in Europe, but she has
from time to time held several islands and detached points. ♦Outposts
and islands.♦ Such are _Calais_, _Boulogne_, _Dunkirk_, _Gibraltar_,
_Minorca_, _Malta_, _Heligoland_, all of which have been spoken of in
their natural geographical places. To these we may add _Tangier_, which
has more in common with the possession of Gibraltar and Minorca than
with the English settlements in the further parts of Africa. Of these
points, Gibraltar, Heligoland, and Malta, are still held by England.
♦Greek possessions, Ionian Islands, 1814-1864.♦ The virtual English
possession of the _Ionian Islands_ made England for a while a sharer in
the fragments of the Eastern Roman Empire. ♦Cyprus, 1878.♦ And later
still she has again put on the same character by the occupation, on
whatever terms, of another Greek and Imperial land, the island of
_Cyprus_.
§ 5. _The American Colonies of England._
♦Colonies of England.♦
England, like France and Holland, became a colonizing power by choice.
Extension over barbarian lands was not a necessity, as in the case
of Russia, nor did it spring naturally out of earlier circumstances,
as in the case of Portugal. But the colonizing enterprise of England
has done a greater work than the colonizing enterprise of any other
European power. The greatest colony of England—for in a worthier
use of language the word _colony_ would imply independence rather
than dependence[93]—is that great Confederation which is to us what
Syracuse was to Corinth, what Milêtos was to Athens, what Gades and
Carthage were to the cities of the older Canaan. ♦The United States.♦
The _United States of America_, a vaster England beyond the Ocean, an
European power, on a level with the greatest European powers, planted
beyond the bounds of Europe, form the great work of English and
European enterprise in non-European lands.
♦First English settlements in North America, 1497.♦
The settlements which grew into the United States were not the first
English possessions in North America, but they were the first which
really deserved to be called colonies. The first discoveries of all led
only to the establishment of the _Newfoundland_ fisheries. ♦Attempts
of Raleigh, 1585-1587.♦ Raleigh’s attempts at real colonization ninety
years later only pointed the way to something more lasting. ♦The
Thirteen Colonies.♦ In the seventeenth century began the planting of
the thirteen settlements which won their independence. Of these the
earliest and the latest, the most southern and the most northern,
began through English colonization in the strictest sense. ♦Virginia,
1607.♦ First came _Virginia_. ♦The New England States, 1620-1638.♦
Then followed the Puritan colonization much further to the north
which founded the _New England_ states. The shiftings among these
settlements, from _Plymouth_ to _Maine_, the unions, the divisions, the
colonies of colonies—the Epidamnos and the Sinôpê of the New World—the
various and varying relations between the different settlements, read
like a piece of old Greek or of Swiss history.[94] ♦1629-1692.♦ By the
end of the seventeenth century they had arranged themselves into four
separate colonies. ♦1820.♦ These were _Massachusetts_, formed by the
union of _Massachusetts_ and _Plymouth_, with its northern dependency
of _Maine_, which became a separate State long after the Revolution;
_New Hampshire_, annexed by Massachusetts and after a while separated
from it; _Connecticut_, formed by the union of _Connecticut_ and
_Newhaven_; _Rhode Island_, formed by the union of _Rhode Island_ and
_Providence_. These New England States form a distinct geographical
group, with a marked political and religious character of their own.
♦The Southern Colonies.♦ Meanwhile, at some distance to the south,
around Virginia as their centre, grew up another group of colonies,
with a history and character in many ways unlike those of New England.
♦Maryland. 1646. | Carolina. 1650-1663. | Divided, 1720.♦ To the north
of Virginia arose the proprietary colony of _Maryland_; to the south
arose _Carolina_, afterwards divided into _North and South_. South
Carolina for a long while marked the end of English settlement to the
south, as Maine did to the north.
♦Intermediate space occupied by the United Provinces and Sweden. |
English Conquest of New Netherlands, 1664.♦
But between these two groups of English colonies in the strictest
sense lay a region in which English settlement had to take the form
of conquest from another European power. Earlier than any English
settlement except Virginia, the great colony of the United Provinces
had arisen on Long Island and the neighbouring mainland. ♦New
Netherlands, 1614.♦ It bore the name of _New Netherlands_, with its
capital of _New Amsterdam_. ♦New Sweden, 1658.♦ To the south, on the
shores of Delaware Bay, the other great power of the seventeenth
century founded the colony of _New Sweden_. Three European nations,
closely allied in race, speech, and creed, were thus for a while
established side by side on the eastern coasts of America. ♦Union of
New Sweden with New Netherlands, 1655.♦ But the three settlements were
fated to merge together, and that by force of arms. A local war added
New Sweden to New Netherlands; a war between England and the United
Provinces gave New Netherlands to England. ♦New York.♦ New Amsterdam
became _New York_, and gave its name to the colony which was to become
the greatest State of the Union. ♦1674.♦ Ten years later, in the next
war between the two colonizing powers, the new English possession was
lost and won again.
Meanwhile the gap which was still left began to be filled up by other
English settlements. ♦The Jerseys. 1665. | 1702.♦ _East_ and _West
Jersey_ began as two distinct colonies, which were afterwards united
into one. ♦Pennsylvania, 1682. | Delaware, 1703.♦ The great colony of
_Pennsylvania_ next arose, from which the small one of _Delaware_ was
parted off twenty years later. Pennsylvania was thus the last of the
original settlements of the seventeenth century, which in the space of
nearly eighty years had been formed fast after one another. ♦Georgia,
1733.♦ Fifty years after the work of the benevolent Penn came the work
of the no less benevolent Oglethorpe; _Georgia_, to the south of all,
now filled up the tale of the famous Thirteen, the fitting number, it
would seem, for a Federal power, whether in the Old World or in the New.
♦Independence of the United States, 1783.♦
By the Peace of Paris the Thirteen Colonies were acknowledged as
independent States. The great work of English settlement on foreign
soil was brought to perfection. The new and free English land beyond
the Ocean took in the whole temperate region of the North American
coast, all between the peninsula of _Acadia_ to the north and the other
peninsula of _Florida_ to the south. Both of these last lands were
English possessions at the time of the War of Independence, but neither
of them had any share in the work. ♦Nova Scotia, 1713.♦ Acadia, under
the name of _Nova Scotia_, had been ceded by France in the interval
between the settlement of Pennsylvania and the settlement of Georgia.
♦Conquest of Canada, 1759-1763.♦ Next came the conquest of _Canada_, in
which the men of the colonies played their part. ♦The French barrier at
Alleghany.♦ Hitherto the English colonies had been shut in to the West
by the French claim to the line of the Alleghany mountains. The Treaty
of Paris took away this bugbear, and left the whole land as far as the
Mississippi open to the enterprise of the English colonists. Thus, when
the Thirteen States started on their independent career, the whole land
between the great lakes, the Ocean, and the Mississippi, was open to
them. ♦Florida again Spanish, 1781-1821.♦ Florida indeed, first as an
English, then again as a Spanish possession, cut them off from the Gulf
of Mexico. The city of _New Orleans_ remained, first a Spanish, then a
French, outpost east of the Mississippi, and the possessions still held
by England kept them from the mouth of the Saint Lawrence. ♦Extension
to the West.♦ But within these limits, such of the old States as were
allowed by their geographical position might extend themselves to the
west, and new States might be formed. Both processes went on, and two
of the barriers formed by European powers were removed. ♦Louisiana,
1803. | Florida, 1821.♦ The purchase of _Louisiana_ from France, the
acquisition of _Florida_ from Spain, gave the States the sea-board of
the Gulf of Mexico, and allowed their extension to the Pacific. The
details of that extension, partly by natural growth, partly at the
expense of the Spanish element in North America, it is hardly needful
to go through here. ♦A new English nation.♦ But, out of the English
settlements on the North-American coast, a new English nation has
arisen, none the less English, in a true view of history, because it
no longer owes allegiance to the crown of Great Britain. But the power
thus formed, exactly like earlier confederations in Europe, lacks
a name. ♦Lack of a name.♦ The _United States of America_ is hardly
a geographical or a national name, any more than the names of the
_Confederates_ and the _United Provinces_. In the two European cases
common usage gave the name of a single member of the Union to the
whole, and in the case of Switzerland the popular name at last became
the formal name. In the American case, on the other hand, popular usage
speaks of the Confederation by the name of the whole continent of which
its territory forms part. ♦Use of the word _America_.♦ For several
purposes, the words _America_ and _American_ are always understood
as shutting out Canada and Mexico, to say nothing of the southern
American continent. For some other purposes, those names still take
in the whole American continent, north and south. But it is easier
to see the awkwardness of the usual nomenclature than to suggest any
improvement on it.
* * * * *
♦Second English nation in North America.♦
While one set of events in the eighteenth century created an
independent English nation on North American soil, another set of
events in the same century, earlier in date but later in their results,
has led to the formation in its immediate neighbourhood of another
English nation which still keeps its allegiance to the English crown.
♦Dependent confederacy.♦ A confederation of states, practically
independent in their internal affairs, but remaining subjects of a
distant sovereign, is a novelty in political science. ♦British North
America.♦ Such is the _Confederation of British North America_. But
this dependent Confederation did not arise out of colonization in the
same sense as the independent Confederation to the south of it. The
central land which gives it its character is the conquered land of
_Canada_. ♦New Brunswick, &c.♦ Along with Canada came the possession
of the smaller districts which received the names of _New Brunswick_
and _Prince Edward’s Island_, districts which were at first joined
to Nova Scotia, but which afterwards became distinct colonies. ♦The
Dominion, 1867.♦ Now they are joined with the _Dominion of Canada_,
which, like the United States, grows by the incorporation of new states
and territories. ♦British Columbia, 1871. | Rupertsland.♦ The addition
of _British Columbia_ has carried the Confederation to the Pacific;
that of _Rupertsland_ carries it indefinitely northward towards the
pole. This second English-speaking power in North America, stretches,
like the elder one, from Ocean to Ocean. ♦Newfoundland, 1713.♦
_Newfoundland_ alone, a possession secured to England after many
debates at the same time as Nova Scotia, remains distinct.
* * * * *
♦The West Indies. Barbadoes, 1605.♦
Of the British possessions in the _West Indies_ a few only, among them
_Barbadoes_, the earliest of all, were colonies in the same sense
as Virginia and Massachusetts. ♦Jamaica, 1655.♦ The greater number,
_Jamaica_ at their head, were won by conquest from other European
powers. No new English nation, like the American and the Canadian,
has grown up in them. ♦Smaller settlements.♦ Still less is there
any need to dwell on the _Bahamas_, the _Falkland Islands_, or the
South-American possession of _British Guiana_.
§ 6. _Other Colonies and Possessions of England._
♦Colonies in the southern hemisphere.♦
The story of the North-American colonies may be both compared and
contrasted with the story of two great groups of colonies in the
southern hemisphere. ♦Australia.♦ In Australia and the other great
southern islands, a body of English colonies have arisen, the germs at
least of yet another English nation, but which have not as yet reached
either independence or confederation. ♦South Africa.♦ In South Africa,
another group of possessions and colonies, beginning, like Canada,
in conquest from another European power, seems to be feeling its way
towards confederation, while one part has in a manner stumbled into
independence.
The beginning of English settlement in the greatest of islands began
in the years which immediately followed the establishment of American
independence. ♦New South Wales, 1787.♦ First came _New South Wales_, on
the eastern coast, designed originally as a penal settlement. ♦Western
Australia, 1829.♦ It outgrew this stage, and another penal settlement
was founded in _Western Australia_. ♦South Australia, 1836. |
Victoria, 1837. | Queensland, 1859.♦ Then colonization spread into the
intermediate region of _Southern Australia_ (which however stretches
right through the island to its northern coast) into the district
called _Victoria_, south-west of the original settlement, and lastly,
into _Queensland_ to the north-east. ♦Colonies Act, 1850.♦ Since
the middle of the present century all these colonies have gradually
established constitutions which give them full internal independence.
♦Tasmania, 1804. | 1839.♦ South of the great island lies one smaller,
but still vast, that of _Van Diemen’s_ Land, now _Tasmania_, which was
settled earlier than any Australian settlement except New South Wales.
♦Six colonies, 1852. | United, 1875.♦ And to the east lie the two
great islands of _New Zealand_, where six English colonies founded at
different times have been united into one.
♦South Africa.♦
While the Australian settlements were colonies in the strictest sense,
the English possessions in South Africa began, like New York, in a
settlement first planted by the United Provinces. ♦Conquest of the
Cape, 1806. | 1815.♦ The _Cape Colony_, after some shiftings during
the French revolutionary wars, was conquered by England, and its
possession by England was confirmed at the general peace. ♦Eastern
Colony and Natal, 1820-1836.♦ Migration northward, both of the English
and Dutch inhabitants, has produced new settlements, as the _Eastern
Colony_ and _Natal_. ♦Orange River State, 1847-1856. | Transvaal,
1861-1877.♦ Meanwhile independent Dutch states have arisen, as the
_Orange River Republic_, annexed by England, then set free, and lastly
dismembered, and the _Transvaal_, more lately annexed after sixteen
years of independence. Lastly a scheme of confederation for all these
settlements awaits some more peaceful time to be carried into effect.
* * * * *
♦Europe extended by colonization.♦
In all these cases of real colonization, of real extension of the
English or any other European nation, it is hardly a figure to say
that the bounds of Europe have been enlarged. All that makes Europe
Europe, all that parts off Europe from Africa and Asia, has been
carried into America and Australia and Africa itself. The growth of
this new Europe, no less than the changes of the old, is an essential
part of European geography. ♦Barbarian dominion.♦ It is otherwise
with territories, great or small, which have been occupied by England
and other European powers merely for military or commercial purposes.
Forts, factories, or empires, on barbarian soil, where no new European
nation is likely ever to grow up, are not cases of true colonization;
they are no extension of the bounds of Europe. ♦English dominion in
India.♦ The climax of this kind of barbarian dominion is found in those
vast Indian possessions in which England has supplanted Portugal,
France, and the heirs of Timour. ♦Empire of India. 1876.♦ Of that
dominion the scientific frontier has yet to be traced; yet it has
come to give an Imperial title to the sovereign of Great Britain and
Ireland, while those two European islands, as perhaps befits their
inferiority in physical size, remain content with the lowlier style of
the United Kingdom. Whether the loftier pretensions of Asia do, or do
not, imply any vassalage on the part of Europe, it is certain that the
Asiatic Empire of the sovereign of the British kingdom is no extension
of England, no extension of Europe, no creation of a new English or
European nation. The Empire of India stands outside the European world,
outside the political system which has gathered round the Old and the
New Rome. But a place amongst the foremost members of that system
belongs to the great European nation on American soil, where the tongue
of England is kept, and the constitution of old Achaia is born again,
in a confederation stretching from the Western to the Eastern Ocean.
* * * * *
♦Summary.♦
We have thus traced the geography, and in tracing the geography we have
in a slighter way traced the history, of the various states and powers
of Europe, and of the lands beyond the Ocean which have been planted
from Europe. We have throughout kept steadily before our eyes the
centre, afterwards the two centres, of European life. We have seen how
the older states of Europe gradually lose themselves in the dominion
of Rome, how the younger states gradually spring out of the dominion
of Rome. We have followed, as our central subjects, the fates of those
powers in the East and West which continued the Roman name and Roman
traditions. We have traced out the states which were directly formed
by splitting off from those powers, and the states which arose beyond
the range of Roman power, but not beyond the range of Roman influence.
We have seen the Western Empire first pass to a German prince, then
gradually shrink into a German kingdom, to be finally dissolved into
a German confederation. We have watched the states which split off at
various dates from its body, the power of France on one side, the power
of Austria on another, the powers of Italy on a third, the free states
of Switzerland at one end, the free states of the Netherlands at the
other. We have beheld the long tragedy of the Eastern Rome; we have
told the tale of the states which split off from it and arose around
it. We have seen its territorial position pass to a barbarian invader,
and something like its position in men’s minds pass to the mightiest of
its spiritual disciples. And we have seen, painted on the map of our
own century, the beginning of the great work which is giving back the
lands of the Eastern Rome to their own people. We have then traced the
shiftings of the powers which lay wholly or partly beyond the bounds
of either Empire, the great Slavonic mainland, the Scandinavian and
the Iberian peninsulas, ending with that which is geographically the
most isolated land of all, the other world of Britain. We have seen too
how Europe may be said to have spread herself beyond her geographical
limits in the foundation of new European states beyond the Ocean. We
have contrasted the different positions and destinies of the colonizing
European powers—where, as in the days of Old Rome, a continuous
territory has been extended over neighbouring barbarian lands—where
growth beyond the sea was the natural outcome of growth at home—where
European powers have colonized and conquered simply of their own free
will. In thus tracing the historical geography of Europe, we have made
the round of the world. But we have never lost sight of Europe; we
have never lost sight of Rome. Wherever we have gone, we have carried
Europe with us; wherever we have gone, we have never got beyond the
power of the two influences which, mingling into one, have made Europe
all that it has been. The whole of European history is embodied in the
formula which couples together the ‘rule of Christ and Cæsar;’ and that
joint rule still goes on, in the shape of moral influence, wherever the
tongues and the culture of Europe win new realms for themselves in the
continents of the western or in the islands of the southern Ocean.
FOOTNOTES:
[87] See Norman Conquest, vol. i. p. 564.
[88] See above, p. 98.
[89] The Tudor kings were doubtless of British descent; but they did
not reign by virtue of that descent, and they did not come in till ages
after the English kingdom was completely formed.
[90] See Norman Conquest, vol. i. p. 580.
[91] It should be remembered that the principality became the appanage
of the eldest son only by accident. The first English prince,
afterwards Edward the Second, was not his father’s eldest son at the
time of his creation. The title moreover is newly created each time.
[92] See Norman Conquest, vol. i. p. 48; and Macmillan’s Magazine,
April, 1880.
[93] The Latin _colonia_ certainly does not imply independence; but,
the word _colony_, in our use of it, rather answers to the Greek
ἀποικία which does.
[94] It may be well to give the dates in order:—
Plymouth 1620
Massachusetts 1628
New Hampshire 1629
Connecticut 1635
Newhaven 1638
Providence 1644
Rhode Island 1634
Maine 1638
New Hampshire annexed by Massachusetts 1641
Rhode Island and Providence united 1644
Connecticut and Newhaven united 1664
New Hampshire separated from Massachusetts 1671
Maine purchased by Massachusetts 1677
Plymouth and Massachusetts united 1691
INDEX.
Aachen, crowning-place of the German kings, 189.
annexed to France, 220.
Aargau, 271.
Åbo, bishopric of, 184.
peace of, 512.
Abruzzi, the, annexed to Sicily, 396.
Abyssinian Church, 169.
Acadia; _see_ NOVA SCOTIA.
Acciauoli, Dukes of Athens, 417.
Achaia, League of, 40.
dependent on Rome, 41.
province of, 78.
principality of, 416, 417.
Angevin overlordship of, 418.
its dismemberment, _ib._
Savoyard counts of, 283, 418.
Achaians, use of the name in the Homeric catalogue, 26.
Acre, lost and won in the Crusades, 398, 400.
fall of, 400.
Ægæan Sea, Greek colonies on its coasts, 21, 22, 32.
theme of, 150.
Ælfred, his treaty with Guthrum, 161.
Æmilia, province of, 79.
Æquians, 46.
their wars with Rome, 50.
Africa, Greek colonies in, 35.
Roman province of, 59.
New, province of, _ib._
diocese of, 78, 79.
Vandal kingdom, 90.
recovered to the Empire, 104.
Saracen conquest of, 111.
Norman conquests in, 396.
Portuguese conquests in, 541.
French conquests in, 360.
South, English possessions in, 565, 566.
Agram (Zagrab), 439.
Agri Decumates, 84.
Agricola, his conquest of Britain, 69.
Agrigentum (Akragas), 48.
conquered by the Saracens, 370.
Aigina, held by Venice, 410.
Aiolian colonies in Asia, 32.
Aire, 349.
Aitolia, geographical position of, 21.
League of, 40.
its alliance with and dependence on Rome, 40, 41.
Aitolians, their place in the Homeric catalogue, 27.
Aix (Aquæ Sextiæ), Roman colony, 57.
ecclesiastical province of, 173.
Aix-la-Chapelle, Peace of, 249, 349.
Ajaccio, birthplace of Buonaparte, 352.
Akarnania, 21, 30.
league of, 40.
Akarnanians, not in the Homeric catalogue, 26 (_note_).
Akerman, Peace of, 453.
Akragas; _see_ AGRIGENTUM.
Aktê, Argolic, 29.
Alans, origin of, 89.
their settlements in Spain, 90.
Alarcos, battle of, 533.
Alaric, king of the West-Goths, 89.
Alava, 535.
Albania, Asiatic, 99.
Albania, kings of, 420.
Turkish conquest of, 421.
revolt of, under Scanderbeg, _ib._
Albanians, their origin, 24.
their settlements in Greece, 115, 364, 366.
Albanon (Elbassan), 430.
Albigensian War, 335.
Albi, ecclesiastical province of, 174.
under Aragon, 335.
annexed to France, _ib._
Alemanni, 85, 91.
conquered by the Franks, 117.
Alemannia, Duchy of, 140.
Alessandria, 237.
ceded to Savoy, 249.
Alessio, taken by Venice, 410.
Alexander the Great, his conquests, 37.
Alexandria, greatness of, 38, 61, 77.
Patriarchate of, 168, 169.
Alexios Komnênos, his conquests in Asia Minor, 381.
Alexios Komnênos, founds the Empire of Trebizond, 386.
Alfonso VI. of Castile, Emperor, 531.
his conquests, 532.
Algarve, 533, 535.
Algarve-beyond-the-Sea, kingdom of, 541.
Algeria, character of the French conquest of, 360.
Algiers, 447.
Almohades, invade Spain, 533.
decline of, _ib._
Almoravides, invade Spain, 530.
Alps, the, 43.
Alsace; _see_ ELSASS.
Amadeus VI., Count of Savoy, his Eastern expedition, 390.
Amadeus VIII., first Duke of Savoy, 281.
his title of Prince of Piedmont, 284.
Amalfi, 369.
Amastris, held by Genoa, 414.
Ambrakia, Corinthian colony, 31.
capital of Pyrrhos, 37; _see_ ARTA.
America, Spanish dominion in, 543.
use of the word, 563.
America, North, French settlements in, 352.
English and French rivalry in, 353.
Russian settlements in, 523.
first English settlements in, 559.
formation of the thirteen colonies in, 560-562.
colonies of the United Provinces and Sweden in, 561.
confederation of British North America, 564; _see also_ UNITED STATES.
Amiens, county of, added to France, 331.
to Burgundy, 340.
Amisos, held by Genoa, 414.
Amurath I., Sultan, takes Hadrianople, 445.
Anatolikon, theme of, 151.
Anchialos, 376.
Ancona (Ankôn), 47.
march of, 238.
occupied by Manuel Komnênos, 381.
Andalusia, origin of the name, 90.
Andorra, French protectorate of, 343, 537.
Andraszovo, Peace of, 506.
Angles, their settlements in Britain, 97.
Angora, battle of, 445.
Anhalt, principality of, 226.
Ani, annexed to the Eastern Empire, 379.
taken by the Turks, _ib._
Anjou, county of, 142.
united to Touraine, 330.
to Maine and England, 332.
annexed by Philip Augustus, 333.
Anjou, House of, its growth, 332, 333.
its overlordship in Peloponnêsos, 418.
Ankôn; _see_ ANCONA.
Anne of Britanny, effects of her marriages, 341.
Antilles, French colonies in, 353.
Antioch, greatness of, 61, 77.
taken by Chosroes, 109.
patriarchate of, 168, 169.
restored to the Eastern Empire, 379.
taken by the Turks, 380.
recovered by the Empire, 381.
its later captures, 399.
Antiochos the Great, his war with Rome, 38, 41, 64.
Antivari, Servian, 406.
part of Montenegro, 428.
recovered by Montenegro, 429.
Aosta, bishopric of, 173.
part of the kingdom of Burgundy, 278.
its relations to Savoy, 288.
Apennines, the, 44.
Apollônia, its alliance with Rome, 40.
Appenzell, joins the Confederates, 272.
Apulia, Norman conquest of, 394.
Aquæ Sextiæ; _see_ AIX.
Aquileia, foundation of, 55.
destroyed by Attila, 94.
Patriarchate of, 170, 171, 237, 308.
fluctuates between Germany and Italy, 195.
under Austria, 255, 318.
Aquitaine, south-western division of Transalpine Gaul, 58.
its inhabitants, _ib._
Frankish conquest of, 118, 120.
kingdom of, 128.
united with Neustria, 135, 339.
duchy of, 142.
extent of, 332.
united with Gascony, _ib._
its union with and separation from France, _ib._
united with England and Normandy, 333.
kept by England, 334.
French designs on, 337.
released from homage, 338.
its final union with France, 338, 558.
Arabia, attempted Roman conquest of, 68.
Portuguese conquests in, 541.
Arabia Petræa, Roman conquest of, 70.
Aragon, county of, 154, 155.
its position in the Mediterranean, 463.
its later history, 527.
its relations towards Navarre, 528.
formation of the kingdom, 530.
Sobrarbe joined to, 531.
united with Barcelona, _ib._
advances beyond the Pyrenees and Rhone, 334, 531.
conquers the Balearic isles and Valencia, 533.
extent of in the thirteenth century, 534, 536.
united with Castile, 537.
its second advance beyond the peninsula, 538.
united with Sicily, _ib._
its conquests in Sardinia, _ib._
its outlying possessions compared with those of Castile, 539.
Arcadius, Emperor of the East, 81.
Archipelago, Duchy of, 413.
Argos, its place in the Homeric catalogue, 27.
its early greatness, 29.
joins the Achaian League, 40.
won from Epeiros by the Latins, 417.
held by Venice, 410, 418.
taken by the Turks, 411.
Ariminum; _see_ RIMINI.
Arkadia, its place in the Homeric catalogue, 30.
Arles, later Roman capital of Gaul, 92.
Saracen conquest of, 112.
kingdom of, 145.
ecclesiastical province of, 173.
crowning-place of the kings of Burgundy, 189.
annexed to France, 265.
Armagh, ecclesiastical province of, 183.
Armenia, conquered by Trajan, 99.
given up by Hadrian, _ib._
division of, 100.
conquered by Basil II., 153, 379.
Russian advance in, 521.
Armenia, Lesser, 379, 399.
acknowledges the Western Emperor, 401.
its connexion with Cyprus, _ib._
end of the kingdom, _ib._
Arminius, his victory over Varus, 67.
Armorica; _see_ BRITANNY.
Arnulf, king of the East Franks and Emperor, 139.
Arras, Treaty of, 297.
ceded to France, 301.
Arta (Ambrakia), won by the Eastern Empire, 388, 420.
Arthur of Britanny, possible effects of the success of his claims, 333.
Artois, added to France, 331.
to the Duchy of Burgundy, 339.
its momentary annexation by Lewis XI., 340.
relieved from homage, _ib._
within the Burgundian circle, 218.
French acquisitions in, 348, 349.
Aryan nations of Europe, order of their settlements, 13-15.
Asia, its geographical character, 6.
Macedonian kingdoms in, 37, 38.
Roman province of, 64.
Asia Minor, historically connected with Europe, 6.
Greek colonies in, 22, 34.
kingdoms in, 38.
Roman conquest of, 64.
Saracen ravages in, 117, 378.
Turkish conquests of, 380, 389.
Aspledôn, its place in the Homeric catalogue, 27.
Astrakhan, khanat of, 501.
conquered by Russia, 511.
Asturia, united to Cantabria, 154, 529.
grows into the kingdom of Leon, _ib._
Asturias, principality of, 534.
Athamania, kingdom of, 37.
Athaulf, king of the West Goths, 89.
Athens, its position in the Homeric catalogue, 27.
nominally independent of Rome, 41.
lordship and duchy of, 416.
Ottoman and Venetian conquests of, 417.
Atropatênê, 99.
Attabegs, their wars with the Crusaders, 400.
Attica, 21, 27.
Attila, effects of his inroads, 94.
Auch, ecclesiastical province of, 173.
Augsburg, bishopric of, 216.
free city, 220.
annexed by Bavaria, 221.
Aurelian, Emperor, gives up Dacia, 70.
Australia, English settlement in, 565.
Austria, Lombard, 234.
Austria, origin and use of the name, 121, 192, 305, 321.
beginning of, 140.
mark of, 196-202, 203, 305, 307.
its position as a marchland, 267.
duchy of, 308.
annexed by Bohemia, 309.
under the Habsburgs, 310.
archduchy of, 313.
its connexion with the Western Empire, 311.
circle of, 217.
its acquisitions and divisions, 312, 315.
its union with Bohemia and Hungary, 314, 317.
its foreign possessions, 318, 319.
its rivalry with Prussia, 204.
Venice surrendered to, 252, 255.
so-called Empire of, 221, 267, 306.
changes of, during the revolutionary wars, 221-224.
its position compared with that of Prussia, 225.
loses and recovers Hungary, 323.
modern extent of, 321-324.
cedes its rights in Sleswick and Holstein, 228.
Bosnia and Herzegovina administered by, 441.
Austro-Hungary, dual system in, 323.
Autun, 93.
Auvergne, counts of, 332.
Avars, a Turanian people, 17, 365.
allied with the Lombards against the Gepidæ, 107, 113.
kingdom of, 113.
overthrown by Charles the Great, 122, 127.
Aversa, county of, 394.
Avignon, archbishopric of, 174.
taken by France, 264.
sold to the Pope, 265.
annexed to France, 265, 355.
Azof, won and lost by Russia, 449, 516.
Azores, conquered by Portugal, 541.
Babylonia, 99.
Badajoz, 533.
Baden, mark, electorate, and duchy of, 216, 220, 226.
Bahamas, the, 565.
Bajazet the Thunderbolt, Sultan, defeated by Timour, 390, 445.
his conquest of Bulgaria, 431.
extent of his dominion, 445.
Balearic Isles, conquered by Aragon, 533.
Balsa, house of, its dominion in Albania, 428.
Baltic Sea, Scandinavian and German influence on, compared, 486.
Baltic lands, general view of, 464-468.
Bamberg, bishopric of, 176, 215, 226.
Bangor, bishopric of, 182.
Bar, duchy of, united to Lorraine, 193.
annexed by France, 348.
restored to Lorraine, _ib._
Barbadoes, 565.
Barcelona, county of, 320.
joined to Aragon, 531.
released from homage to France, 335, 531.
Bardulia, the original Castile, 529.
Bari, archbishopric of, 172.
won from the Saracens, 370.
Barnim, under Poland, 479.
passes to Brandenburg, 492.
Barrier Treaty, 349.
Basel, joins the Confederates, 262, 272.
Basel, bishopric of, annexed by France, 355.
restored by France, 359.
Basil II., Eastern Emperor, his conquests, 153, 379.
incorporates Serbia, 424.
Basques, remnant of non-Aryan people in Europe, 12, 13.
their independence, 90.
Batoum, annexed to Russia, 522.
Bavaria, duchy of, 140.
conquered by the Franks, 117, 118, 120.
modern use of the name, 191, 192.
electorate of, 215.
united with the Palatinate, _ib._
kingdom of, 220.
extent of, 226.
Bayonne, diocese of, 179.
Belgium, kingdom of, 303.
Belgrade, taken by the Magyars, 379.
by the Turk, 438.
Peace of, 440.
Belisarius, ends the Vandal kingdom in Africa, 105.
Benevento, Lombard duchy of, 108, 147, 254.
papal possession of, 250.
Berengar, king of Italy, submits to Otto the Great, 147.
Berlin, its position, 230.
Berlin, Treaty of, 429, 450, 452.
Bern, joins the Confederates, 262, 270.
its Savoyard conquests, 272, 273.
annexes Lausanne, 273.
restores lands north of the lake, _ib._
Bernhard, duke of Saxony, 208.
Bernicia, kingdom of, 97, 161, 550.
Berwick, 552.
Besançon, 93.
ecclesiastical province of, 175.
an Imperial city, 261.
united to France, 261, 349.
Bessarabia, annexed by Russia, 449.
Beziers, annexed by France, 335.
Bialystok, 519.
Bienne, 274.
Billungs, their mark, 198, 476.
Biscay, 535.
Bithynia, kingdom of, 38, 61.
Roman conquest of, 64.
Bleking, 470.
Blois, united to Champagne, 330.
purchased by Saint Lewis, 336.
Bodonitza, principality of, 417.
Bohemia, whether the seat of Samo’s kingdom, 473 (_note_).
kingdom of, 159, 199, 217, 477.
annexes Austria, 309, 315.
its union with Brandenburg, 209, 493.
its permanent union with Austria, 317, 323, 493.
sketch of its history, 477, 492, 493.
Bohuslän, ceded to Sweden, 508.
Boiôtia, 21.
legendary Thessalian settlement of, 30.
league of, 40.
dissolved, 41.
Bokhara, 522.
Boleslaf I., of Poland, his conquests, 479.
whether the first king, 479 (_note_).
Bologna, archbishopric of, 171.
Bona, 396.
Boniface, king of Thessalonikê, extent of his kingdom, 385, 417.
Bormio, won by Graubünden, 273.
Bornholm, 508.
Bosnia, Hungarian conquest of, 424.
won back by Stephen Dushan, 425.
origin of the kingdom, 426.
its greatest extent, 427.
Turkish conquest of, _ib._
administered by Austro-Hungary, 324, 441.
Bosporos, kingdom of, 39, 64.
Boukellariôn, theme of, 151.
Boulogne, lost and won by France, 342, 347, 558.
Bourbon, Isle of, occupied by the French, 354.
taken by England but restored, 360.
Bourdeaux, ecclesiastical province of, 173.
Bourges, ecclesiastical province of, 173.
viscounty of, added to France, 331.
Brabant, duchy of, 294.
united to Burgundy, 297.
Braga, 179.
Brandenburg, mark of, 199, 209, 476.
grows into modern Prussia, 202, 203, 210.
New Mark of, pledged to the Teutonic knights, 496.
its union with Bohemia, 209, 493.
united to Prussia, 204, 209, 504, 513.
Branibor, takings of, 475.
Brazil, discovery of, 542.
Empire of, _ib._
Breisach, annexed by France, 347.
restored, 350.
Bremen, archbishopric of, 176, 214.
held and lost by Sweden, 509, 513.
annexed to Hannover, 208.
Bremen, city, one of the Hanse towns, 214, 220.
its independence of the Bishop, 214.
Brescia, 237.
Breslau, bishopric of, 185.
Bresse, annexed to Savoy, 263.
ceded to France, 287, 347.
Bretigny, Peace of, 337.
Brindisi, lost by Venice, 248.
Britain, use of the name, 3, 4.
early position of, 10.
Celtic settlements in, 14.
Roman conquest of, 69, 545.
diocese of, 80.
Roman troops withdrawn from, 95.
Teutonic settlements in, 15, 96.
English kingdoms in, 129.
Celtic states in, 130.
Empire of, 462, 545.
its independence of the Western Empire, 545.
two English kingdoms in, 548.
Britanny, origin of the name, 93.
duchy of, 142.
its relations to Normandy, 328, 333.
incorporated with France, 341.
Brixen, bishopric of, 217, 308.
united to Bavaria, 221.
recovered by Austria, 224.
Brunswick, duchy of, 208, 227.
Brusa, Turkish conquest of, 389, 444.
Bucharest, Treaty of, 450.
Bugey, annexed to Savoy, 263.
to France, 287, 347.
Bukovina, annexed by Austria, 441.
Bulgaria, White and Black, 374, 481.
extent of, in the eighth century, 375.
under Simeon, 376.
conquered by Sviatoslaf, 377.
by John Tzimiskês, _ib._
extent of, under Samuel, _ib._
recovered by Basil II., 153, 378.
third kingdom of, 382, 429.
advance of, under John Asan, 430.
its decline, _ib._
Cuman dynasty in, 431.
break up of, _ib._
Turkish conquest of, _ib._
triple partition of, by the Treaty of Berlin, 454.
Bulgarians, a Turanian people, 17, 365.
their settlements, 116, 156, 365.
compared with the Magyars and Ottomans, 365.
Buonaparte, Napoleon, his kingdom of Italy, 253, 254.
his feeling towards Switzerland, 355.
character of his conquests, 356.
his treatment of Germany and Italy, 357.
his scheme for the division of Europe, _ib._
extent of France under, 358.
Buonaparte, Louis Napoleon, his annexations, 359.
Buondelmonte, house of, in Northern Epeiros, 420.
Burgos, ecclesiastical province of, 179.
Burgundians, 87.
their settlement in Gaul, 93.
Burgundy, Frankish conquest of, 118.
use of the name, 93, 192.
Burgundy, Kingdom of, 137, 144.
Trans- and Cis-jurane, 145.
chiefly annexed by France, 146, 264.
represented by Switzerland, 146, 259.
its language, 259.
importance of its acquisition by France, 343, 344.
Burgundy, County of, 218.
revolutions of, 260.
joined with the duchy, 339.
momentary annexation of, by Lewis XI., 340.
an appendage to Castile under Charles V., 539.
finally annexed by France, 261, 344, 349, 539.
Burgundy, Duchy of, 142, 144.
escheat of, 339.
union of Flanders with, 292.
its growth, 339.
annexed by Lewis XI., 340.
Burgundy, Lesser, Duchy of, 260, 261.
Burgundy, circle of, 216, 218.
Butrinto, under the Angevins, 397.
commends itself to Venice, 410.
ceded to the Turk, 411.
won back by Venice, 412.
Byzantium, annexed by Vespasian, 41, 63, 68.
capital of the Eastern Empire, 33, 77.
_see_ CONSTANTINOPLE.
Cæsar, Augustus, his conquests, 56, 66.
his division of Italy, 74.
Cæsar, Caius Julius, his conquests in Gaul, 57, 58.
forms the province of New Africa and restores Carthage, 59.
Cadiz, joined to Castile, 534;
_see_ GADES.
Caithness, 550.
Calabria, change of the name, 369.
Calais, English conquest of, 338, 558.
won back by France, 342, 347.
Calatrava, 533.
California, Upper, ceded by Spain to the United States, 544.
Caliphate, Eastern, extent of, 112.
division of, 113, 122, 125.
Caliphate, Western, beginning of, 113, 122, 125.
broken up, 156.
Calmar, Union of, 487.
Cambray, bishopric of, 175.
becomes an archbishopric, 177.
League of, 242.
annexed to France, 301, 349.
Camerino, march of, 238.
Campo Formio, treaty of, 252.
Canada, colonized by France, 352.
conquered by England, 353, 562.
part of the confederation of British North America, 564.
Canali, district of, originally Servian, 405.
Canaries, conquered by Spain, 543.
Candia, war of, 404.
use of the name, 409 (_note_).
Cantabria, conquered by Augustus, 56.
united with Asturia, 154, 529.
Canterbury, archbishopric of, 181.
Cape Breton, French settlement at, 352.
Cape Colony, conquered by England, 566.
Cape of Good Hope, discovery of, 541.
Cape Verde Islands, conquered by Portugal, 541.
Capua, Archbishopric of, 172.
Principality of, 394.
annexed to Sicily by King Roger, 396.
Carcassonne, 335.
Carelia, conquered by Sweden, 488.
part of, ceded to Russia, 512.
Carinthia (Kärnthen), mark of, 114, 127, 140, 196.
Duchy of, 217, 308.
whether the seat of Samo’s kingdom, 473 (_note_).
Carlisle, bishopric of, 183.
added to England by William Rufus, 551.
Carlowitz, Peace of, 412, 439, 448.
Carniola, (Krain), Duchy of, 217.
mark of, 196.
Carolina, 561.
its division, _ib._
Carthage, Phœnician colony, 35.
greatness of, 79.
its possessions in Sicily, 48.
holds Sardinia and Corsica, 54.
its power in Spain, 56.
destroyed, 59.
restored, _ib._
capital of the Vandal kingdom, 90.
Carthagena (New Carthage), 56.
Cashel, ecclesiastical province of, 183.
Casimir the Great, king of Poland, his conquests, 498.
Caspian, Russian advance on, 521.
Cassubia, 492.
Castile, county of, 154.
origin of the name, _ib._
kingdom of, 155, 530, 535.
its Emperor, 463.
later history of, 527.
its relations towards Navarre, 528.
shiftings of, 531.
its final union with Leon, _ib._
advance of, 533.
conquests of, under Saint Ferdinand, 534.
conquers Granada, 534, 537.
loses and recovers Gibraltar, 534.
its union with Aragon, 537.
its outlying possessions compared
with those of Aragon, 539.
Catalans, conquests of, in Greece, 387, 416.
Catalonia, county of, 536.
Cattaro, won and lost by Montenegro, 322, 428.
Caucasus, Russian advance in, 521.
Cayenne, 353.
Celts, earliest Aryan settlers in western Europe, 13, 14, 56.
effects of their settlements, 14.
Cerdagne, released from homage to France, 531.
recovered by Aragon, 537.
loss of, 539.
Ceuta, under the Empire, 526.
under Spain, 541, 543.
Ceylon, Dutch colony, 300.
Chablais, 273.
Chaldia, theme of, 150.
Chalkidikê, 20.
Greek colonies in, 33.
united to Macedonia, 37.
kept by the Empire, 390.
Châlons, battle of, 94.
Chambéry, Savoyard capital, 282, 288.
Champagne, county of, 142.
character of its vassalage, 329.
joined to France, 336.
Chandernagore, a French settlement, 354.
Channel Islands, kept by the English kings, 334, 558.
Charles the Great, his conquests, 121, 122.
conquers Lombardy, 123.
his title of Patrician, _ib._
conquers Saxony, 126.
overthrows the Avars, 127.
crowned Emperor, 124.
extent of his Empire, 126, 127.
his divisions of the Empire, 128.
his death, _ib._
archbishoprics founded by, 176.
Charles the Fat, Emperor, union of the Frankish kingdoms under, 137.
Charles V., Emperor, dominions of, 249, 298, 539.
his conquest of Tunis, 447, 543.
extension of Castilian dominion under, 539.
Charles VI., Emperor, his Pragmatic Sanction, 320.
Charles XII., of Sweden, his wars with Peter the Great, 512.
Charles of Anjou, his kingdom of Sicily, 250.
his Italian dominion, 283.
his dominion in Epeiros, 397.
occupies Acre, 398.
Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, his schemes for a Burgundian kingdom, 290, 304.
effects of his death, 340.
Charles, Duke of Leukadia, his conquests and title, 421.
Charles the Good, Duke of Savoy, 286.
Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy, 287.
Charolois, under the Dukes of Burgundy, 339.
an appendage to Castile under Charles V., 539.
conquered by Lewis XIV., _ib._
Chartres, county of, united to Champagne, 330.
purchased by Saint Lewis, 336.
Chazars, their settlements, 17, 113, 365.
Russian advance against, 481.
Chersôn (Chersonêsos), city of, 36.
theme of, 152.
annexed to the Eastern Empire, 378.
taken by Vladimir, 153, 378, 482.
not the site of modern Cherson, 516 (_note_).
Chiavenna, 195, 273.
Chichester, bishopric of, 182.
Chios, early greatness of, 32.
under the Zaccaria and the Maona, 414.
under the Turks, _ib._
Chlodwig, King of the Franks, 92, 117.
Chosroes II., his conquests, 109.
Christian I., King of Denmark, unites Denmark, Sleswick, and Holstein, 490, 491.
Chrobatia, Northern and Southern, 433.
_See also_ CROATIA.
Chrobatia, Northern, becomes Little Poland, 479.
passes to Austria, 515.
Chur, bishopric of, 216.
Church, Eastern, its relations to Russia, 468.
Cibin, gives its name to Siebenbürgen, 435 (_note_).
Circassia, Russian advance in, 521.
Cispadane Republic, the, 251.
Clermont, county of, 330.
Cleve, 210.
Clissa, 410.
Clontarf, Irish victory at, 557.
Cnut, his conquest of England, 162.
his northern Empire, 162, 462.
Colony, meaning and use of the word, 559.
Columbia, British, 564.
Como, 237.
Compostella, ecclesiastical province of, 179.
Confederation of the Rhine, 221, 222, 358.
Connaught, 183, 556.
Connecticut, 560.
Conrad of Mazovia, grants Culm to the Teutonic knights, 496.
Constantine, French conquest of, 360.
Constantine the Great, divisions of the Empire under, 74.
his new capital, 33, 77.
Constantine Porphyrogennêtos, his description of the themes of the Empire, 149.
Constantine Palaiologos, his conquests in Peloponnêsos, 418.
Constantinople, foundation of, 33, 77.
its moral influence, 116.
Patriarchate of, 168.
early Russian attempts on, 482.
Latin conquest of, 383.
won back under Michael Palaiologos, 387.
taken by the Turks, 391.
Constanz, bishopric of, 216.
passes to Austria, 274.
Cordova, bishopric, of, 178.
conquered by Ferdinand, 534, 535.
Caliphate of; _see_ CALIPHATE, Western.
Corfu, Norman conquests of, 380, 395, 396.
held by Margarito, 397.
won from Venice by Epeiros, 385.
granted to Manfred, _ib._
under Charles of Anjou, _ib._
under Venice, _ib._
summary of its history, 408.
_see also_ KORKYRA.
Corinth, in the Homeric catalogue, 27.
a Dorian city, 29.
joins the Achaian League, 40.
under Macedonia, _ib._
won from Epeiros by the Latins, 417.
Cornwall, 130.
Coron (Kôrônê), held by Venice, 409.
lost by her, 411.
Corsica, 44.
early inhabitants of, 53.
Roman conquest of, 54.
province of, 79.
held by Genoa, 238, 245.
ceded to France, 249.
effects of its incorporation with France, 351, 356.
Cosmo de’ Medici, Duke of Florence and Grand Duke of Tuscany, 246.
Cottbus, 211, 224.
Courtray, 349.
Cracow, capital of Poland, 479.
annexed by Austria, 514.
joined to the duchy of Warsaw, 82, 520.
republic of, _ib._
second Austrian annexation of, 323, 520.
Crema, 237.
Cremona, 237.
Crete, its geographical position, 22.
in the Homeric catalogue, 28.
keeps its independence, 37.
conquered by Rome, 63.
province of, 78.
lost and recovered by the Eastern Empire, 152, 153, 371, 372.
conquered by Venice, 404.
by the Turks, 404, 448.
re-enslaved by the Treaty of Berlin, 452.
Crim, khanat of, 501.
dependent on the Sultans, _ib._
annexed to Russia, 449, 516.
Croatia, Slavonic settlement in, 114.
its relations to the Eastern and Western Empires, 378, 406, 407.
its relations to Hungary, 323, 407, 434.
part of the Illyrian Provinces, 322.
Croja, won and lost by Venice, 411.
Crotona; _see_ KROTÔN.
Crusade, first, its geographical result, 399.
Crusaders, take Constantinople, 383.
their conquests compared with those of the Normans in Sicily, 398.
Cuba, 544.
Cujavia, 478, 499.
Culm, granted to the Teutonic knights, 496.
restored to Poland, 497.
Cumæ, 47, 48.
Cumania, king of, a Hungarian title, 436.
Cumans, settlements of, 365, 436, 483.
dynasty of in Bulgaria, 431, 436.
crushed by the Mongols, 436, 483.
Cumberland, (Strathclyde), Scandinavian settlements in, 161.
grant of, to Scotland, 162, 551.
southern part united to England, 551, 552.
formation of the shire, 556.
Curland, Swedish conquest of, 472.
tribes of, 484.
dominion of the Sword-brothers in, 496.
duchy of, 504.
Curzola; _see_ KORKYRA, BLACK.
Custrin, under Poland, 479.
passes to Brandenburg, 492.
Cyprus, Greek colonies in, 22.
Phœnician colonies in, 35.
Roman conquest of, 63.
theme of, 151.
lost and won by the Eastern Empire, 372.
conquered by Richard, _ib._
kingdom of, 401.
its connexion with Jerusalem and with Armenia, _ib._
conquered by Venice, 404.
by the Turks, 404, 447.
under English rule, 449, 559.
Czar; _see_ TZAR.
Czechs, 477.
Czepusz; _see_ ZIPS.
Dacia, wars of, with Rome, 70.
made a province by Trajan, _ib._
given up by Aurelian, _ib._
its later history, 71.
diocese of, 78.
Daghestan, 516, 521.
Dago, under the Sword-brothers, 496.
under Denmark, 491, 504.
under Sweden, 508.
Dalmatia, Greek colonies in, 34.
its wars with Rome, 62.
Roman colonies in, _ib._
province of, 79.
Slavonic settlement in, 115.
kingdom of, 407, 409.
its relations to the Eastern Empire, 376, 406.
history of the coast cities, 406.
Venetian conquest in, 406, 407.
joined to Croatia, _ib._
recovered by Manuel, 381, 407.
fluctuates between Hungary and Venice, 407, 409-412.
annexed by Lewis the Great, 409, 437.
taken, lost, and recovered by Austria, 320, 322, 441.
Danaoi, 26.
Danes, the, 127, 130.
their settlements, 131, 471.
their invasions of England, 160.
Danish Mark, 196, 469.
Danube, Roman conquests on, 68, 70.
boundary of the Empire, 71.
Gothic settlement on, 88.
crossed by the Goths, 89.
Danzig, mark of, 492.
lost and recovered by Poland, 492, 497.
commonwealth of, 223, 519.
restored to Prussia, 520.
Dardanians, 28.
Dauphiny; _see_ VIENNOIS.
Deira, kingdom of, 97, 161.
Delaware, 562.
Delmenhorst, 509, 513.
Denmark, extent of, 131.
its relations to the Western Empire, 127, 196, 467.
formation of the kingdom, 469.
conquests and colonies of, 471.
united with England under Cnut, 163.
bishoprics of, 184.
conquers Sclavinia, 489.
advance of, in Germany, _ib._
titles of its kings, _ib._
keeps Rügen, 490.
effect of its advance on the Slavonic lands, 491.
its settlement in Esthland, 488.
united with Sweden and Norway, 487.
with Norway only, 488.
its wars with Sweden, 508.
gives up the sovereignty of the Gottorp lands, 509.
gets Oldenburg and Delmenhorst, _ib._
recovers the Gottorp lands, 513.
gives up Oldenburg and Delmenhorst, _ib._
incorporation of Holstein with, 518.
Desnica, Zupania of, 424.
δεσπότης, a Byzantine title, 384 (_note_).
Dijon, capital of the duchy of Burgundy, 142, 144.
Diocletian, Emperor, division of the Empire under, 75.
his conquests, 100.
Dioklea, Zupania of, the germ of the Servian kingdom, 424.
Ditmarsh, 489.
joined to Holstein, 490.
freedom of, 491.
Danish conquest of, _ib._
Dobroditius, his dominion, 431.
Dobrutcha, origin of the name, 431.
joined to Wallachia, 431, 436.
restored to Roumania, 454.
Dôdekannêsos; _see_ NAXOS.
Dole, capital of Franche Comté, 261.
Domfront, acquired by William of Normandy, 332.
Dorchester, bishoprics of, 182.
Dorian settlement in Peloponnêsos, 29.
in Asia, 32.
Douay, becomes French, 349.
Dreux, county of, 330.
Drusus, his campaigns in Germany, 67.
Dublin, ecclesiastical province of, 183.
Dulcigno, originally Servian, 406.
won and lost by Montenegro, 429.
Dunkirk, held by England, 301, 558.
bought back by France, 301, 342.
Durazzo (Epidamnos), taken by the Normans, 380, 395, 396.
held by Margarito, 397.
conquered by Venice, 408.
won from Venice by Epeiros, 385.
recovered by the Eastern Empire, 387, 397.
under Charles of Anjou, 397.
won by Servia, 425.
duchy of, 397.
second Venetian conquest of, 410.
won by the Albanians, 420.
by the Turks, 411.
Durham, bishopric of, 183.
Dutch, use of the name, 300.
Dyrrhachion, theme of, 152.
_see_ DURAZZO.
Eadmund, his conquest and grant of Cumberland to Scotland, 162.
Eadward the Elder, extent of England under, 162.
East, the, prefecture of, 75, 77.
dioceses of, 76.
East Angles, kingdom of, 130.
diocese of, 182.
East India Company, French, 354.
Eastern Mark; _see_ AUSTRIA.
Ecgberht, king of the West-Saxons, his supremacy, 130, 160.
Edessa, restored to the Eastern Empire, 153, 379.
taken by the Turks, 400.
Edinburgh, bishopric of, 183.
taken by the Scots, 550.
Egypt under the Ptolemies, 38, 61.
Roman conquest of, 66.
diocese of, 76.
conquered by Selim I., 447.
Eider, boundary of Charles the Great’s empire, 127, 196, 469.
Eleanor of Aquitaine, effects of her marriages, 332, 337.
Elba, annexed to the kingdom of Naples, 44, 246.
Êlis, district of, 29.
city of, 30.
joins the Achaian league, 40.
Elmham, bishopric of, 182.
Elsass, 193.
annexed by France, 194, 347.
recovered by Germany, 229, 359.
Ely, bishoprick of, 182.
Embrun, ecclesiastical province of, 173.
Emmanuel Filibert, Duke of Savoy, 286.
Emperors, Eastern, position of, 362.
Emperors, Western, position of, 362.
Empire, Roman, greatest extent of, 9.
conquests under, 66.
its river boundaries, 71.
division of under Diocletian, 75.
united under Constantine, _ib._
division of, 75, 81.
reunited under Zeno, 94, 103.
continuity of, 95, 103.
loses its eastern provinces, 111.
final division of, 124.
its political tradition unbroken in the East, 363.
Empire, Western, beginning of, 81.
Teutonic invasions and settlements in, 82, 86, 87.
united with the Eastern Empire, 94, 103.
contrasted with the Eastern, 98, 362.
divisions of, 135, 137, 326.
its relations to Germany, 124-126, 128, 189, 190.
restored by Otto the Great, 147.
position of its Emperors, 362.
its relations to Scandinavia, 467.
to the Northern Slaves, 475.
Empire, Eastern, wars of, with Persia, 82.
contrasted with the Western, 98, 362.
extent of, in the eighth century, 116.
its Greek character, 149, 366, 382.
its themes, 149-152.
its dominion in Italy, 152, 371, 393.
position of its Emperors, 362.
falls mainly through foreign invasion, 363, 367.
its partial tendencies to separation, 363.
keeps the political tradition of the Roman Empire, _ib._
distinction of races in, 364.
its power of revival, 369, 377.
its loss and gain in the great islands, 372.
its relations towards the Slavonic powers, 373, 375.
Bulgarian settlement in, 374, 376.
recovers Greece from the Slaves, 375.
its conquests of Bulgaria, 377-378.
its relations to Venice, 378.
its fluctuations in Asia, _ib._
Turkish invasions in, 379.
Norman invasions in, 380, 394.
its geographical aspect in 1085, 380.
under the Komnênoi, 366, 381, 386.
act of partition, 383, 402, 403.
losses and gains, 387-391.
under the Palaiologoi, 387.
effect of Timour’s invasion, 391.
its final fall, _ib._
states formed out of, 391-393.
general survey of its history, 455-460.
compared with the Ottoman dominion, 443.
Empire, Latin, 383.
its end, 387.
Empire of Nikaia, 387.
Empire of Trebizond, 36, 386, 422.
Empire of Thessalonikê, 385.
Empire, Serbian, 420, 425.
Empire of Britain, 162, 462, 545.
Empire of Spain, 463, 531.
Empire of Russia, 512.
Empire, French, 356.
Empire of Austria, 221, 267, 306.
Empire of Hayti, 359.
Empires of Mexico, 544.
Empire of Brazil, 542.
Empire, German, 229, 230.
Empire of India, 567.
England, use of the name, 2, 3.
origin of the name, 97.
formation of the kingdom, 160.
West-Saxon supremacy in, 160, 161.
Danish invasions, _ib._
advance of, 162.
united with Scandinavia under Cnut, _ib._
Norman conquest of, 163.
its ecclesiastical geography, 166.
its wars with France, 337, 338.
its rivalry with France in America and India, 353.
slight change in its internal divisions, 546.
its relations with Scotland, 552.
changes of its boundary towards Wales, 553.
its relations with Ireland, 557.
its settlements beyond sea, 547.
its outlying European possessions, 558.
its American colonies, 559-565.
West Indian possessions, 565.
other colonies and possessions of, 565, 566.
its dominion in India, 567.
English, character of their settlement, 96.
origin of the name, 97.
Epeiros, its ethnical relations to Greece, 24.
use of the name, 26.
kingdom of Pyrrhos, 37.
league of, 40, 41.
Roman province of, 78.
Norman conquests in, 395, 396.
granted in fief to Margarito, 397.
despotat of, 384, 385.
its conquest of and separation from Thessalonikê, 385.
under Manfred and Charles of Anjou, 397.
its first dismemberment, 419.
recovered by the Eastern Empire, 388.
under Servian, Albanian, and Italian rule, 419, 420.
Venetian and Turkish occupation of, 421.
Ephesos, its early greatness, 32.
Epidamnos, 34.
its alliance with Rome, 40.
_see_ DURAZZO.
Epidauros (Dalmatian), Greek colony, 34.
destroyed, 115.
Eric, Saint, king of Sweden, his conquests in Finland, 486.
Erivan, 521.
Ermeland, bishopric of, added to Poland, 497.
Essex, kingdom of, 160, 555.
Este, house of, 237, 243, 249.
Esthland (Esthonia), Fins in, 484.
Danish settlement in, 488.
dominion of the Swordbearers in, 496.
under Sweden, 504.
under Russia, 512.
Etruria, kingdom of, 253.
Etruscans, their doubtful origin and language, 45.
confederation of their cities, _ib._
Euboia, 22.
its position in the Homeric catalogue, 27.
under Macedonian influence, 37, 40.
conquered by Venice, 409.
by the Turks, _ib._
Euphrates, Asiatic boundary of the Roman Empire, 71, 99.
Europa, Roman province of, 77.
Europe, its geographical character, 5, 6, 8.
its three great peninsulas, 6.
its colonizing powers, 10.
Aryan settlements in, 12-15.
non-Aryan races in, 12, 13, 16, 17.
beginning of the modern history of, 85.
Buonaparte’s scheme for the division of, 357.
extended by colonization, 566.
Euxine, Greek colonies on, 35.
Evora, 179.
Exeter, diocese of, 182.
Ezerites, 375.
Falkland Islands, 565.
Famagosta, under Genoa, 401.
Faroe Islands, 471.
Faucigny, annexed to Savoy, 280.
held by the Dauphins of Viennois, 281.
Ferdinand, Saint, king of Castile, his conquests, 534.
Fermo, march of, 238.
Ferrara, duchy of, 243, 244, 249.
Finland, Swedish conquests in, 486, 488.
Russian conquests in, 512, 518.
Fins, remnant of non-Aryan people in Europe, 12, 466.
in Livland and Esthland, 484.
Flaminia, province of, 79.
Flanders, county of, 141, 142.
united to Burgundy, 292, 339.
within the Burgundian circle, 218.
released from homage to France, 218, 298, 340.
French acquisitions in, 348.
Flemings, their settlement in Pembrokeshire, 554.
Florence, archbishopric of, 171.
its greatness, 238.
Pisa submits to, 245.
rule of the Medici in, _ib._
Florida, held by England and Spain, 563.
acquired by the States, _ib._
France, effect of its geographical position, 9.
origin and use of the name, 4, 5, 91, 121, 325-327.
beginning of, 135, 136.
its ecclesiastical divisions, 166.
its annexations, 222, 252, 264, 265, 341-352.
compared with Austria, 325.
a nation in the fullest sense, 327.
great fiefs of, 328.
twelve peers of, _ib._
its incorporation of vassal states, 329-341.
effects of the wars with England, 337-339.
beginning of the modern kingdom, 339.
thorough incorporation of its conquests, 351.
its colonial dominions, 352-354.
its rivalry with England in America and India, 353, 354.
its barrier towns against the Netherlands, 349.
effects of the Peace of 1763 on, 354.
its annexations under the Republic and Empire, 355, 356.
extent of under Buonaparte, 358.
restorations made by, after his fall, _ib._
later annexations and losses, 359, 360.
character of its African conquests, 360.
its war with Prussia, 229.
France, duchy of, 142.
united with the kingdom of the West Franks, 143.
Franche Comté; _see_ BURGUNDY, County of.
Francia, meanings of the name, 91, 121, 128.
extent of, 134.
Francia, Eastern, 92, 121, 205.
Francia, Western, 92.
Francis I., Emperor, exchanges Lorraine for Tuscany, 321.
Francis II., Emperor, his title of ‘Emperor of Austria,’ 221.
Franconia, origin of the name, 91, 121.
extent of the circle, 214.
_see_ FRANCIA, Eastern.
Frankfurt, election and coronation of the German kings at, 189.
a free city, 220, 227.
Grand Duchy of, 222.
annexed by Prussia, 228.
Franks, the, 85.
their settlements, 87, 88.
extent of their kingdom under Chlodwig, 92.
their conquest of the Alemanni, 117.
of Thuringia and Bavaria, _ib._
of Aquitaine and Burgundy, 118.
their position, 119.
their German and Gaulish dependencies, 120.
division of their kingdom, _ib._
kingdom of united under the Karlings, 121.
their relations with the Empire, 123.
their conquest of Lombardy, _ib._
Franks, East, their kingdom grows into Germany, 138.
Franks, West, kingdom of, its extent, 141.
its union with the duchy of France, 143.
grows into modern France, _ib._
Frederick II., Emperor, recovers Jerusalem, 400.
Frederick William I., the Great Elector of Brandenburg, 210.
Frederick I., King of Prussia, 210.
Freiburg, joins the Confederates, 262, 272.
Freiburg-im-Breisgau, conquered by France, 350.
restored, _ib._
French language, becomes the dominant speech of Gaul, 345.
Friderikshamn, Peace of, 518.
Friesland, East, annexed by Prussia, 212.
annexed by France, 222.
part of the kingdom of Hannover, 223.
Friesland, West, county of, 293.
annexed to Burgundy, 298.
Frisians, 91.
Friuli, duchy of, 235.
Fulda, 214.
Furnes, Barrier Town, 349.
Gades, Phœnician colony, 35, 56.
admitted to the Roman franchise, 56.
_see_ CADIZ.
Gaeta, 369.
Galata, colony of Genoa, 414.
Galicia (Halicz), kingdom of, 483.
twice annexed to Hungary, 437, 498.
recovered by Poland, 498.
Austrian possession of, 319, 323, 440, 514.
Galicia, New, 515, 520.
Gallicia, 529.
Galloway, incorporated with Scotland, 553.
Gascony, Duchy of, 142.
its union with Aquitaine, 332.
ceded by the Peace of Bretigny, 337.
Gatinois, county of, 330, 331.
Gattilusio, family of, receives Lesbos in fief, 414.
Gaul, use of the name, 3, 4.
its geographical position, 7.
non-Aryan people in, 13.
Greek colonies in, 35.
prefecture of, 75, 79.
its gradual separation from the Empire, 88.
Teutonic invasions of, 89.
West Gothic kingdom in, 90.
position of the Franks in, 91, 119.
extent of Frankish kingdom in, 93.
Burgundian settlement in, _ib._
Hunnish invasion of, 94.
ecclesiastical divisions of, 172-174.
Gaul, Cisalpine, 46.
Roman conquest of, 54.
Gaul, Transalpine, first Roman province in, 57.
its boundaries, _ib._
its divisions and inhabitants, 58.
Romanization of, _ib._
nomenclature of its northern and southern part, _ib._
Gauls, their settlements, 14, 46, 47.
Gauthiod, 131, 470.
Gauts, Geátas, of Sweden, name confounded with Goths, 470.
Gauverfassung, 202.
Gdansk; _see_ DANZIG.
Gedymin, king of Lithuania, 497.
Geldern, Gelderland, duchy of, 295.
annexed to Burgundy, 298.
division of, 299.
United Province of, 300.
Geneva, annexed by Savoy, 281.
allied to Bern and Freiburg, 273.
annexed by France, 276.
restored by France, 359.
joins the Swiss Confederation, 276.
Genoa, archbishopric of, 171.
holds Smyrna, 389.
holds Corsica, 238, 245.
cedes Corsica to France, 249.
annexed to Piedmont, 256.
compared with Venice, 402.
her settlements, 413.
George Akropolitês, 430 (_note_).
George Kastriota; _see_ SCANDERBEG.
Georgia, kingdom of, 516, 521.
Georgia, state of, 562.
Gepidæ, their kingdom, 107.
conquered by the Lombards, _ib._
Germans, early confederacies of, 84.
serve within the Empire, 86.
Germany, effect of its geographical character, 9.
Roman campaigns in, 67.
Frankish dominion in, 119.
its relations to the Western Empire, 126, 188-190.
beginning of the kingdom, 136, 138.
its extent, 139, 192-195.
ecclesiastical divisions of, 175-177.
its losses, 190, 203.
its changes in geography and nomenclature, 191, 201.
its eastern extension, 200.
the great duchies, 202.
circles of, 203, 206.
later history of, 204.
late beginnings of French annexation from, 343, 346.
Buonaparte’s treatment of, 357.
state of in 1811, 221, 222.
the Confederation, 218, 223-226.
last geographical changes in, 229.
its war with France, _ib._
Empire of, 219, 229, 230.
its influence on the Baltic, 486.
Gex, under Savoy, 273, 281.
annexed by France, 287, 347.
Ghilan, 516.
Gibraltar, lost and won by Castile, 534.
occupied by England, 537, 558.
Glarus, joins the Swiss Confederation, 270.
Glasgow, ecclesiastical province of, 183.
Gnezna (Gniezno, Gnesen), ecclesiastical province of, 184.
beginning of the Polish kingdom at, 479.
passes to Prussia, 514, 520.
Görz (Gorizia), county of, 217, 308.
annexed by Austria, 318.
Gothia; _see_ PERATEIA or SEPTIMANIA.
Gothland, 470.
Goths, their settlements in the Western Empire, 87, 89.
defeated by Claudius, 88.
driven on by the Huns, _ib._
their conquests in Spain, 90, 108, 526.
make no lasting settlement in the Eastern Empire, 364.
Goths, East, their dominion in Italy, 95.
Goths, West, extent of their dominions, 526.
Goths, Tetraxite, their settlement, 98.
Gotland, power of the Hansa in, 494.
held by the military orders, 496.
conquered by Sweden, 508.
Gottorp lands, sovereignty of, resigned by Denmark, 509.
annexed to Denmark, 513.
Gozo, granted to the knights of Saint John, 538.
Granada, ecclesiastical province of, 179.
kingdom of, 534.
final conquest of, 537.
Graubünden, League of, 272, 273.
loses its subject districts, 275.
Gravelines, taken by France, 301.
Greece, one of the three great European peninsulas, 6.
its geographical character, 8, 11, 18.
its history earlier than that of Rome, 8, 42.
use of the name, 19.
its chief divisions, 19-21.
insular and Asiatic, 19-23.
its Homeric geography, 25, 26.
its cities, 27.
leagues in, 40.
Roman conquests in, 41.
Slavonic occupation of, 116, 375, 461.
recovered by the Eastern Empire, 375.
war of independence, 452.
kingdom of formed, _ib._
Ionian Islands ceded to, _ib._
promised extension of, _ib._
Greeks, order of their coming into Europe, 13.
their kindred with Italians and other nations, 23-25.
their rivalry with the Phœnicians, 28.
their colonies, 28, 32-35.
their revival of the name Hellênes, 364.
Greenland, Norwegian and Danish settlements in, 131.
united to Norway, 488.
Greifswald, 494.
Guiana, British, French, Dutch, 300, 353, 565.
Guinea, Dutch settlements in, 300.
Guines, made over to England, 338.
Guipuzcoa, 535.
Guthrum, his treaty with Ælfred, 161.
Habsburg, House of, 270, 309, 310.
scattered territories of, 310.
its connexion with the Western Empire, 311, 315.
Hadrian, surrenders Trajan’s conquests, 99.
Hadrianople, taken by the Bulgarians, 377.
by Michael of Epeiros, 385.
by the Turks, 390, 445.
treaty of, 450, 453.
Hadriatic Sea, Greek colonies in, 34.
Hainault (Hennegau), county of, 294.
united with Holland, _ib._
French acquisitions in, 348.
Halberstadt, 224.
Halicz; _see_ GALICIA.
Halikarnassos, held by the knights of Saint John, 415.
Turkish conquest of, 447.
Halland, 469.
Hamburg, archbishopric of, 176.
one of the Hanse Towns, 214, 220.
Hannover, Electorate, 208.
its union with Great Britain, 204.
kingdom of, 223.
annexed by Prussia, 228.
Hansa, the, 197, 487.
extent and nature of its power, 494.
Hanse Towns, the, 213, 214, 220.
surviving ones annexed by France, 222.
join the German Confederation, 227.
Harold, his Welsh conquests, 553.
Hayti; _see_ SAINT DOMINGO.
Hebrides, Scandinavian settlement in, 553.
submit to Scotland, _ib._
Heligoland, passes to England, 518, 558.
Helladikoi, use of the name, 376.
Hellas, use of the name, 18.
‘continuous,’ 21.
theme of, 151.
later use of the name, 151, 461.
Hellênes, use of the name in the Homeric catalogue, 26.
later history of the name, 375, 376, 461.
its modern revival, 364.
Helsingland, 470.
Helvetic Republic, 275.
Hennegau; _see_ HAINAULT.
Henry II., of England, his dominions, 332.
Henry V., of England, his conquests, 338.
crowned in Paris, _ib._
Henry IV., of France, unites France and Navarre, 342.
Heraclius, Emperor, his Persian campaigns, 109.
Slavonic settlements under, 114.
Hêrakleia, commonwealth of, 37, 39, 64.
Hereford, bishopric of, 182.
Hertjedalen, conquered by Sweden, 508.
Herzegovina, origin of the name, 427.
Turkish conquest of, _ib._
administered by Austro-Hungary, 324, 427.
Hessen-Cassel, Electorate of, 220, 226.
annexed by Prussia, 228.
Hessen-Darmstadt, Grand Duchy of, 226.
Hierôn, king of Syracuse, his alliance with Rome, 52.
Hispaniola; _see_ SAINT DOMINGO.
Hohenzollern, House of, 209.
Holland, county of, 293.
united to Hainault, 294.
to Burgundy, 297.
kingdom of, 302.
annexed by France, _ib._
_see_ UNITED PROVINCES.
Holstein, 198, 488.
first Danish conquest of, 489.
fluctuations of, 490.
made a duchy, _ib._
under Christian I., 491.
effect of the peace of Roskild on, 509.
incorporated with Denmark, 518.
joins the German Confederation, 225, 519.
final cession of to Prussia, 228, 519.
Homeric Catalogue, the, 26-29.
Honorius, Emperor of the West, 81.
Huascar, 534.
Hugh Capet, Duke of the French, chosen king, 143.
Hundred Years’ Peace between Rome and Persia, 100.
Hundred Years’ War, 337.
Hungarians; _see_ MAGYARS.