being to separate and keep 5 or 6 miles ahead of the main body. These
scouts or discoverers are footmen and use the same precautions as
before stated. The main body moves slowly forward after reconnoitering
has commenced, without any order, and only passing whatever ground has
been rendered secure by the reconnoiterers. During the time before
arriving in their enemies’ country, or at least before any signs of
enemies have been perceived, they run buffalo with horses, kill enough
meat for present use and dry and pound more to be used when hunting
is not advisable. When signs of the camp are perceived, sentinels are
posted every night, who lie down around the camp within 200 or 300
yards of the main body, and 50 or 60 steps from each other. All the
horses belonging to the expedition are picketed within this circle and
near the place where their several owners sleep. These sentinels are
changed every night.
When by means of scouts and other observations they have discovered
the camp it is approached in the night and the several advantageous
positions which the ground affords around it are occupied by different
detachments of the party, who are to attack from various quarters as
nearly as possible at the same time. About daybreak a rush is made by
the mounted men, shouting the war whoop and firing into the lodges as
they pass through. The attention of the horsemen is directed toward
driving off every horse found in camp. These, although picketed, take
fright at the noise, snap their cords and are driven away. This rush
only passes through the camp, and the enemy being raised and armed
turn out and pursue and a battle now takes place near the camp. Indian
fighting is individual fighting, each one for himself, without any
military order, line, or file. Orders are given by any of the chiefs
or soldiers in a loud voice when some advantage presents itself. Both
parties endeavor to cover their bodies by any objects which are in the
way. A thicket is much desired, small trees, stones, bunches of grass,
or hollows made by the rain are all occupied, and those who cannot find
any shelter jump from side to side, never standing still a moment to
avoid any certain aim for their enemy’s fire.
The whole is accompanied with a terrible yelling on both sides. When
one falls on either side the war whoop is sent forth by the party who
killed and a simultaneous rush is made by the enemy to obtain the scalp
and the friends of the fallen man to rescue the body. In these mêlées
of small parties take place the terrible savage struggles for which
they are remarkable. It is hand-to-hand fighting by a few on each side
over the body of the fallen man.[26] Knives, lances, and war clubs are
the arms then used and frequently several fall on each side before
one party recoils. These scenes are going on over several parts of
the field at the same time. The war whoop is sounded from either side
whenever any success is visible, and when any disproportionate loss
takes place the flight of that party is the consequence. This is the
great aim of either party, as a massacre of the scattered fugitives
then takes place. It should be remembered that when the contending
parties are nearly equal very little damage is done.
[26] Such fierce struggles over fallen heroes recall similar combats
engaged in by the stalwart figures in Homer’s Iliad.
The firing is at such a distance that only a random shot takes
effect, and after abusing each other and firing hundreds of shots all
day, perhaps only three or four are killed. There must be a great
superiority of numbers and position on one side where there is any
great destruction. The greatest loss of life happens when some 200 to
400 warriors surprise a camp of 20 or 30 lodges, or when the war party
is too large to effect concealment for stealing horses, and too small
for defense. In this case when pursued by the whole camp they are
brought to a stand. If on the prairie they take up a position on the
top of some hill covered with stones with which they make a barricade
or seek a gully or cluster of bushes. Here they fight as long as one of
them is living, but being surrounded by a superior force are all killed
in the end. Three years since 52 Assiniboin who were discovered in an
attempt to steal horses from the Blackfeet were pursued and brought to
bay in a sink hole, or gully, where they were surrounded by about 800
men of the latter nation and fired upon until all were killed.
Their enemies, however, lost 34 men before they succeeded. A retreat
is ordered in words to that effect and the movement being perceived
is followed by all, which generally ends in downright flight. A very
common exhibition of individual bravery is, when the parties are
equally divided, and slow skirmishing going forward, each party having
good positions, a single warrior rides forth near the place where the
other party is stationed, and riding slowly within reach of their
fire along their front, sings his war song and calls out his name,
presenting a mark for the whole of his enemies to fire at. Either he
or his horse is generally killed, or if he escapes he is considered a
brave man ever afterwards. In either case he is followed by one of the
opposite side in the same manner, and in this way often three or four
are killed. They eat no root supposed to have the power of deadening
pain or inspiring courage.
The divining men are consulted as to the nature of their dreams before
they set out, and on the march, but not in regard to their operations
in battle.
Battles are planned as soon as they can determine the position of the
enemy, which plans are changed according to circumstances afterwards,
but the fighting is done at random, each loading and firing when he
chooses, and using any measures of concealment of his person.
No general orders are conveyed or aids employed, although whenever a
cluster of men occupy a position some soldier or chief being there
gives orders to the others, individually or collectively, as the danger
is apparent. The chiefs and soldiers retreating would be a signal for
all to run. The leader gives advice occasionally as to dislodging the
enemy, etc., but all his orders partake of the nature of requests.
They rally often during a retreat if the party be large, and keep up a
running fight for 10 or 15 miles.
A favorite device to decoy enemies is to send but few to make an attack
on their camp and drive off the horses. The camp, following, are led to
where the main body lies in ambush.
The war whoop is the signal of advance and also of encouragement
during the fight. It is also a cry of joy when any of the enemy fall,
and at all times a defiance, but never used in retreat or under any
humiliating circumstances. They speak to and abuse each other during
the fight, adding their former deeds to exasperate the enemy and induce
some one of them to step forth that he may be killed.
They never quit a masked wood and take the level plain unless their
party is greatly superior in numbers and no danger of pursuit is
apprehended; but if they are few they remain in the wood until burnt
out, which is done by setting fire to the grass on the prairie, which
in a wind will communicate with the undergrowth of the woods. If this
can not be done by the surrounding party the besieged party defend
their position until night and then make their escape under cover of
the darkness.
The Gros Ventres and Crows are the only nations who take women and
children prisoners and spare their lives, though they kill all males
able to bear arms.
All the wounded left on the field are tortured to death in every
possible way, mostly by mutilation, are seldom burned, perhaps for
the reason that death would be too soon produced by that manner of
proceeding. The Assiniboin burn children prisoners.
The Crow Indians a few years since, after killing all the men and large
boys of 50 lodges of the Blackfeet, took prisoners upward of 200 women
and children. One of our gentlemen now in charge of that nation was
with the Crow camp when the battle took place, and for two or three
months afterwards, during which time he sought occasions to liberate
about 50 women and send them home to their people. Most of these
prisoners, it appears, are treated well, particularly the children, who
are adopted into families who have lost their own. When a child is thus
adopted it is painted and dressed very gaily, a horse given to it to
ride, and to all appearances treated as affectionately as their own.
A grown woman, however, is not adopted. They are retained to work, or
if young and handsome are kept as one of the wives of their owners,
though not abused or made to bear any unusual hardships. It is singular
that when these women prisoners have remained a few years with the Crow
Indians they will not return to their own people, even if liberty be
given them. Indeed, after the first few months they are not watched
and have it in their power to leave at any time, and many do during
the first year of their captivity, but after having learned to speak
the language, mostly remain, which proves that nation to be much more
lenient toward their women than the Blackfeet and others. The children
prisoners become identified with them and never desire to leave when
grown.
Every male fit to bear arms is put to death by the tribes. The
Assiniboin, Blackfeet, Sioux, Cree, and Arikara also kill women and
children and sing and dance as much for their scalps as for those of
men. The horrid manner in which they put the small children to death
exceeds description. Some are stuck through with wooden skewers, like a
rabbit, while alive, and roasted before the fire.
There is but little subordination in all large war parties of Indians.
There appear to be jealousies on every side between soldiers and chiefs
or between the warriors and soldiers. No penalties being attached to
disobedience, it has no limit, and they are often in as much danger
from each other as from their enemies. Once in a century a chief arises
who can lead large parties to war, but it is only when his success
and capacity as a warrior is accompanied by his art as a prophet and
he has gained entire ascendancy over all his people. Small parties
succeed better—say from 80 to 100 men. These an ordinary chief can
command tolerably well, because they are for the most part chosen from
his own band and composed of his own relations. This kind of party
always proves most successful, as the leader only attacks when success
is certain from the numbers on each side. All Indians carry off their
wounded if possible, and the dead also if not scalped, interring the
latter in some secure place not likely to be discovered by their
enemies.
As stated, no grown male prisoners are retained alive by any of these
tribes, and only two preserve the lives of the women and children.
These, of course, are obliged to work, though not exactly in the
character of slaves. All the women work and these pursue the same
labors, though no doubt a greater share falls upon them than upon
others. No description of labor, such as carrying burdens, drying
hides, cooking, or procuring fuel, etc., is considered disgraceful or
menial. They all do it, even the wives of the chiefs, and the prisoners
would be compelled to employ their time to the advantage of their
owners; or if young and handsome would be kept as wives, yet still be
made to work as the rest. They are not beaten nor brutally treated,
but forfeit their lives by an attempt to run away. Female chastity is
always violated on prisoners[27] if they are even tolerably young and
good looking, and often in such a degree as exceeds the possibility
of description or belief, but we are not aware that any superstitious
opinions are connected with the act.
[27] It appears that the violation of the chastity of female prisoners
was unusual among other tribes who were highly organized socially. It
was repugnant to the Iroquois.
COSTUME OF A WARRIOR.—The ordinary costume of a mounted warrior of
known bravery has already been described. The headdress, however,
differs in form according to the fancy and standing of the individual.
The tail feathers of the war eagle are the only mark of rank. These are
attached to scarlet cloth or otter skin in many ways, sometimes merely
encircling the head, at others extending in a ridge along the back,
reaching below the horse’s belly when mounted. The shirt and leggings
are made of clean white dressed deerskin, antelope, or bighorn skin,
with black stripes painted around the arms and legs and fringed with
the hair of the scalps taken by him, occasionally also with ermine
skins, or horsehair. The horse’s head and tail are adorned with the
same kind of feathers, as also his lance and shield. The latter is a
piece of dried raw bull’s hide, very thick, round, and about 18 inches
in diameter. The feathers are sewed or tied on around near the edge,
and two or three in the center. Frequently this is painted with the
figure of some animal, either real or imaginary, and is impervious to
arrows, though a ball will perforate within the distance of 100 yards
if it be held steadily.
The manner in which it is slung on the left arm and being bowed in the
middle the ball is apt to glance off to one side and often in this way
his life is saved. Arrows will stick in but not go through, and he can
with it cover most of the vital parts, at the same time using his arms
with ease. A good many of the renowned warriors wear necklaces made of
the claws of the grizzly bear, worked or tied on a strip of otter skin,
and chiefs wear their medals if they have any. These fine dresses are
not worn on the march, but packed on their horses in bundles, and put
on when the attack is about to be made.
The faces of most of them on starting or in battle are painted with
vermilion, the entire face being a bright red, though no orders are
given to this effect. Indians generally paint on all public occasions,
but no other parts of the body are painted at this time.
The costume of those on foot does not differ from that of a hunter,
except he has both gun and bow, if possible, sometimes adding a shield,
and a bundle of moccasins on his back, which, with a blanket, or skin
capot, leggings of the same and breech flap, completes the dress.
No great display of dress can be made on foot and is not often seen
except among the Blackfeet, when it is the same or nearly the same as
the mounted warriors. The hair of the young warriors is dressed out and
adorned in many ways, sometimes enclosing small portions in front with
beads, shell, or wampum, which hangs down on each side of the face. The
Crows have small portions combed up in front and the whole of the rest
tied in a queue behind, which is spread out and stiffened with patches
of gum, spotted with white clay, and looks like turkey feathers. The
elder warriors generally tie up their hair in a knot in front, which
projects out from the forehead like a thick short horn. During the
march not much attention is paid either to painting or ornaments, but
on the eve of battle, if possible, it is done. Nothing uniform appears,
however, in their costume, ornaments, or hair dressing, each one
suiting his fancy in these particulars, except the acknowledged marks
of warriors are not worn by untried and inexperienced recruits.
The back dress, if not a continuance of the headdress, is mostly a wolf
skin thrown over his robe, the tail trailing on the ground and the
snout on his shoulder. Crow-skin headdresses are also worn by young
warriors, and owl feathers are worn by new beginners. No portion of
their war dress is constructed so as to emit jingling sounds, though
such are worn on other occasions. Every Indian has either a blanket,
buffalo robe, or dressed skin of some kind covering the whole person,
and these are painted with their battle scenes or garnished with beads
and porcupine quills in many ways. His robe is his bed by night and his
cloak in the day, under which in the winter is worn a blanket capot,
made with a hood to cover the head. In the large summer war parties,
portions of lodges of two to four skins each are taken along with
which they make cabins to protect themselves from the rain, but in
the winter no shelter is made. When parties are too small to admit of
proceeding without fear of night attacks from their enemies while in
their country, they make small forts every night of dry timber along
some stream, or of rocks when timber is not to be had.
WEAPONS.—Firearms are certainly much valued by warriors. Indeed, they
are the principal arms, but bows and arrows are used fully as much by
mounted men. The difficulty appears to be the loading of the gun on
horseback. If possible they carry both on their war expeditions, also
some are armed with lances, war clubs, and battle axes. The last three
instruments are used only in mêlées at close quarters. Indians are
often so situated in battle that neither gun nor bow can be used, and
in these emergencies the tools last mentioned stand them in great need.
Guns are therefore only additional weapons, aiding and facilitating
their mutual destruction, but have by no means been substituted
altogether for the bow and arrow. The metal arrow point is superior to
the flint one formerly used, and more easily procured. The arrows for
battle are barbed and tied on loosely, so that an attempt to withdraw
the arrow invariably leaves the iron in the wound, which makes many
of their wounds dangerous that would not be so if the metal could be
extracted.
The stone war club is the most efficient weapon in battle of any we
know of. A drawing of one is shown in Plate 65. The weight of the stone
is about 5 pounds. The handle is made of elastic sinew and can not
be broken. Any attempt to ward off the blow must be attended with a
broken arm, and if the stroke is not fended the strongest man must fall
beneath it. Tomahawk and battle axes are not thrown at their enemies,
as generally represented, but are secured to the wrist by a strong
cord, and only used at close quarters; as also the lance and knife.
The scalping knife is of English manufacture, a logwood or Brazil wood
handle, and soft steel blade about 8 inches long and 1½ inches wide,
sharp on one edge, and with the point turned like a butcher knife.
These are the kinds of knives mostly used by all Indians for hunting
and all purposes, though Willson’s butcher, Cartouche, eye dagues, and
other knives can be had. Most Indians at all times carry knives of some
kind and scalps are taken off with whatever knife they happen to be in
possession of at the time.
In loading the gun in battle it is first primed from the horn, then a
charge of powder put in, and a few balls being held in the mouth of
each man, one is dropped in wet on top of the powder, without any wad
between or on top. In this way they load and fire very quickly, four or
five times in a minute, but not with a very certain aim.
When scalps are taken without loss on their side the whole party on
their way back paint their faces a jet black with a mixture of grease
and charcoal. This is the symbol of joy, and on arrival in camp the
scalp song is raised. The whole population turns out to meet them.
Whichever person the warrior touches also blacks himself and commences
singing. If the party has had any one killed, the relatives of the
deceased smear their faces and clothes with white clay, the symbol of
mourning, wear old, ragged skins on their backs, go barefooted, cut
their hair, arms and legs, and cry in loud howlings.
In this event the camp presents a scene of mingled rejoicings and
lamentations, which are kept up for many days and nights in succession.
If the loss on the part of the warriors is greater than the gain—that
is, if they have lost two or three men and taken but one scalp—no
faces are blackened, no dancing is done, and the scalp song is sung
throughout the camp, at the end of which all set up a howling cry.
It often happens that the party have all, except a few, been killed,
and should the partisan in that case have escaped he does not return
immediately to his own camp but remains in another for some time, until
the grief for the dead has in a manner passed, for should he come home
with the report of a general massacre of his party he would run great
risk of being put to death by the relatives of the persons who fell
while under his charge.
DANCING AND AMUSEMENTS
Dancing must be considered as a characteristic mode of expressing
popular opinion on most, if not on all, occasions and is generally done
with the view of swaying the multitude, and conforming their actions to
certain measures. It is also one of their principal means of publishing
and handing down to posterity the remembrance of their gallant actions,
of inspiring the young with a desire for distinction, and of awarding
the praise due all brave warriors. Dances are usually performed by
the different kins, such as the Wolf-pups, Braves, Bulls, Foxes,
Mice, Comrades, Ducks, and Crows. All these are societies, formed by
different young men, some of which we have had occasion to mention in
a former answer, and all have for their object combination in love or
war. There is also the Soldier’s Dance in which none but these officers
act, and several dances in which all promiscuously take part, or in
which the distinction of the different clubs named is not recognized.
Of this nature are the scalp dance, dance in the diviners’ lodge, and
others got up for begging purposes.
Most Indians after having passed the degree of soldier and emerged into
that of chief or councillor seldom perform in any dances, though they
encourage it by their presence. There are but two dances in which the
women join the men, which are that in the diviners’ lodge and on the
occasion of taking a scalp. There is also another in which women alone
perform, aided by a few young men, say, five or six. The principles of
all these are imbibed by the youths, from their being always publicly
exhibited, and from their natural talent of imitation, but they do not
join in the circle until at the age of maturity, except a few girls
in the scalp dance. Each one of these performances has some motive
independent of amusement, as will perhaps appear from the different
descriptions of them which follow, and are to them often matters of
deep interest and importance.
SCALP DANCE (WAH-KITTAI WACHE).—When a scalp is taken it is during the
return stretched on a small hoop, and left in this manner; the hoop is
attached to the end of a rod about 5 feet long. These are handed by
the warriors on arrival to those in camp who have recently had some of
their relatives killed by enemies and is an intimation that revenge for
the dead having been taken, their mourning must be laid aside, their
faces blackened, and they to rejoice with the others in the dance,
which is always done. Moreover, this mark of politeness on the part of
the warrior to those in mourning is always remunerated by a suitable
present—a gun, a blanket, or some other piece of property. Often a
horse is bestowed in the excitement of the moment. The dance is then
called by an old man going round the camp singing the song and beating
a drum, calling on all who feel disposed to join in celebrating their
triumph by a dance, and each one makes the necessary preparations. (Pl.
71.)
Both men and women paint their faces entirely black, except the tip end
of the nose, which is not touched, dress in the gaudiest and best style
they can afford, and at a signal by the yelling and drumming of the
music assemble in the area or public square with which most villages
are furnished, being an open space in the center of the camp, near
the soldiers’ lodge. In this dance the men carry no arms of any kind.
Some of them have in their hands a rattle with which they keep time,
but most of the women hold in their right hand some weapon, such as a
tomahawk, bow, pakamāgan, lance, or stick. The scalps also are held by
the females. Being attached to the rod, they are shaken up and down
to the taps of the drums. When ready they form nearly a circle. Old
men with drums come first, next all the rest of the male dancers, and
afterwards the women, the whole ring standing so close as to press a
little against each other, and the scalp rods, and other things held in
the hand, are extended out a little in front.