not always successful, and only resorted to by those who are adepts
in the art of mimicry, as in the rutting season. This is the reason
why he who leads the buffalo into the parks is supposed by the mass to
be possessed with some supernatural power which forces the buffalo to
follow him, when in fact it is nothing more than a correct imitation of
the bleating of a calf or a noise as though a calf was being devoured
by a wolf and crying for help. The buffalo never get near enough to the
man to make him out, as he is covered with his robe, the hair turned
outward, and he always keeps the wind in his favor. It is, however, a
rare talent.
[Illustration: FIGURE 33.—Tool for fleshing the hide]
The hide of the buffalo, to make a robe, is taken off in two halves,
by slitting the animal down the middle of the back and the middle of
the belly. The first process it undergoes afterwards is taking off the
portions of meat and membrane adhering to it, so that it will present
the smooth clear skin. This is done with a tool made from the shin bone
of an elk. (Fig. 33.) The lower end is cut to an edge and small teeth
made therein. The skin is hung up at one corner to a pole and the meat
is dug off by hoeing down with the instrument, which is held firmly at
the upper end. A woman will finish this operation on two whole skins
or four halves in one day. Next the skin is stretched to dry. Holes
are cut through it near the edge. In summer it is pinned to the ground
by wooden pegs, or in winter when the ground is frozen, stretched on a
frame of four poles tied together, and a small fire built to dry it.
When dry the next thing to be done is to scrape it, that is, to hoe
off about one-third of the thickness of the hide. This is done with
an iron tool about 3½ inches long, 1½ inches wide, and ⅛-inch
thick. Formerly a flint stone was used for this purpose, but the iron
tool answering better, is now substituted. This piece of iron being
sharpened at one edge is tied on a handle made of elk’s horn (fig. 34),
cut off at one of the forks, so as to afford a projection to fasten it,
being held in both hands. The hide is laid on the ground, the woman
stands upon it, and, stooping, digs off the hide in shavings, until of
the proper thickness.
This occupies about half a day to each whole hide and is a very
fatiguing employment. Grease is then melted, sprinkled sparingly over
the skin, and it is suspended over a small fire for a few hours
that the grease may penetrate; then taken down and smeared over with
the brains or livers of some animals boiled in water, being soaked
thoroughly and left all night in this state. In the morning it is again
stretched on the frame, the liver scraped off, clean water thrown on
and scraped off until the hide becomes white. A fire is then made near
and the skin slowly heated and rubbed with pumice stone or porous bone
until it is about half dry, then taken out of the frame and drawn
backward and forward round a strong cord of sinew which is tied at each
end to the lodge pole. Every few minutes the skin is held a short time
to the fire, then rubbed, and this operation continued until it becomes
perfectly dry and soft. This is also hard work. A good hand will rub
two whole skins or four halves in a day. The skin is now dressed. The
holes made for stretching it around the edges are cut off and it is
sewed up along the back with an awl and sinew, which takes about half
an hour to each two halves of the buffalo.
[Illustration: FIGURE 34.—Tool for scraping hides or shaving the skin]
The robe is now fit for sale and is packed away. Deer and elk skins
undergo the same operations, and in addition the hair is scraped off
with the same tool that the hide is shaved with, though they are
skinned whole and not in halves like the buffalo hides. It will thus
be seen that at least three days are required to prepare one buffalo
robe for market, but by their division of time in attending to several
skins in different stages of advancement the labor would be about equal
to two days for each buffalo skin. Twenty-five to thirty-five robes is
considered an excellent winter’s work for one woman. The average is
about 18 to 20 each. Wolf, bear, fox, rabbit, beaver, hare, ermine,
lynx, otter, rat, mink, etc., are not dressed for market, and all these
are skinned, stretched and dried by the men and boys. A wolf or fox
skin is now and then dressed for the use of a woman or hunter to wear
round his head, and undergoes the preceding operations, though the skin
being small and light not much labor is required. Robes and skins are
packed up in small bundles, the hair side out, each bundle weighing 30
or 35 pounds, and when a sufficient number are collected for supplies,
one of these bundles is tied on each dog travaille and they go to the
trading house to dispose of them.
INSTRUCTION IN HUNTING.—As stated in a former place, boys commence
with archery as soon as they can run about after birds and rabbits,
enlarging the size of the bow to suit their strength, until they attain
the age of 16 years, when the full-sized bow is used. About this time
they are taught by their father or other relations the use of firearms
and the different modes of approaching game. At this age they may be
considered fit to engage in the active labors of the chase on foot,
but seldom run buffalo on horseback so early. About 18, however, they
can hunt in every way, though before this age they can and do assist
in supporting their parents. Even when much younger they follow to
the hunt and aid in skinning and packing home meat. They are perhaps
of more service in this way when young than at a riper age, when the
pursuit of war and the possession of women occupy the greater part of
their time. Women are never known to practice any part of the hunter’s
art when left alone. They generally find some relative to remain with
them when deserted by their husbands, and their labor always secures
them a home.
When they desert the camp on account of some quarrel they travel alone
for days, subsisting on roots, berries, or fruit, if the season affords
them, shaping their course toward the fort or some other band of their
own people.
The bow and arrow is used altogether by all these tribes when hunting
buffalo on horseback and the Northwest shotgun is the only arm employed
in killing any and all game on foot. A few Sioux, perhaps a dozen in
the whole nation, use rifles in hunting antelope, bighorn, and other
small game. A warrior has if possible both gun and bow. Ammunition is
sold at the rate of 3 pounds of powder and 1 pound of balls for one
buffalo robe, which is enough for a month’s hunting by any Indian.
Traps, metallic instruments, arms, or anything they want, also persons
to repair their guns, kettles, and axes and to make tools to dress
robes, etc., can be furnished them at any tune; but they will not pay
for these things. We have kept in constant employment, mostly for their
benefit, a blacksmith, a gunsmith, and a tinsmith at all the forts for
20 years past and are heartily tired of the business, as no profit
arises from their labor.
It is not designed hereby to produce an impression that these labors
have been performed by us from charitable motives, but thereby to put
the Indians in a position to hunt and collect skins for the trade.
Every Indian without a horse or gun, or only with his bow and arrows
is an idler; his time is a loss to us. We therefore lend him a gun
and furnish him, with ammunition free of charge. He commences hunting
and realizes to us from $60 to $80 in skins that would otherwise have
remained upon the backs of the animals. True he never returns or pays
for the gun, but he has it, or some other has, and it is in our active
service. As long as the buffalo are as numerous as they now are these
tribes will have no difficulty in maintaining themselves by the chase.
Traders are too observant of their own interests to let them suffer
for the means of hunting, but should the buffalo fail the very reverse
would be the case. In that event the trade not being of sufficient
profit would be discontinued, and the Indians thrown upon their own
resources, which are extremely deficient.
They are no deer hunters, and besides only a small portion of their
country along the rivers is stocked with deer and elk and the greatest
famine and distress imaginable would follow, as they are entirely
unacquainted with agricultural pursuits.
There appears to be an anxiety exhibited on this point in many of the
queries, viz., whether the chase is sufficient for the support of the
Indians, and whether they would not be benefited by the introduction of
agriculture. It does not admit of a doubt; neither are any arguments
required to prove this. Having witnessed their eating their own
children during a temporary absence of buffalo in 1845-46 is enough to
satisfy any person on this head. Any railroad or emigration of whites
through their country would ruin it at once as a buffalo country, and
the misery above alluded to would as surely follow as night succeeds
day.
We think, however, that attention on the part of white friends is
not enough directed to pastoral pursuits instead of agricultural and
mechanical. It appears to us that the former occupation would suit
the Indian better to commence with. He would thereby gradually emerge
from his savage state into another which would lead to agriculture in
the end. The tilling necessary for the support of his stock would be
increased in proportion as he saw the advantages arising therefrom.
It would be expecting too much of the Indian to suppose that he would
suddenly change his indolent life for one of hard and constant labor,
but it seems reasonable that the raising of horses, cattle, hogs, and
sheep, for which their country is admirably adapted, would be to them
both interesting and profitable employment, particularly as they could
unite these operations with the chase when game came near. This state
would be but the chrysalis in the present generation, to merge into
agriculture, mechanical arts, and civilization in the next.
Another argument in favor of this is that they are accustomed to animal
food entirely, therefore grain of any kind could not replace this;
but domestic animals, fowls, eggs, etc., would—and in the meantime
a relish would be formed for breadstuff and vegetables, the want of
which is not now felt. The course to be pursued (that is if any be in
contemplation) by persons in high stations appears to us to be very
plain, and must be apparent to any one who makes himself acquainted
with their real character as set forth in these pages.
FISHING
These tribes take no fish in quantity by any means whatever.
WAR
The raising of a war party is always a subject of discussion in the
soldiers’ lodge, not to choose the persons, but whether the time is
suitable; if men, arms, and ammunition can be spared from camp, or if
they are required for defense; if it is advisable to keep up the war;
how they are situated with regard to their enemies as to locality,
numbers, and general prospects of success as presented at the time. It
being determined in favor of hostilities, the partisan soldier or chief
who intends leading the expedition proceeds to fast, sacrifice, and
dream in the manner before pointed out in these pages, and having had
favorable visions makes a feast of dog in his own lodge, and invites
thereto the persons he wishes to accompany him, opening to them the
object and plan of the expedition, after the feast has been concluded.
Should he not be able to obtain a sufficient number of recruits in
this way he sends runners with tobacco to other camps conveying an
invitation to join within a given time.
War is made either to steal horses from their enemies or to take
their scalps. For the first object but few people are required, as
concealment and avoiding battle is aimed at, and parties for this
purpose are comprised of from 10 to 30 men, whereas a party starting
expressly for battle often contains two, three, or four hundred
warriors. We will endeavor to follow up the first description of
parties, supposing stealing horses to be the object, which is the most
common kind of war excursions. The partisan or captain, as has been
stated, after dreaming, sacrificing, etc., to Wakoñda, the Sun, and
Thunder, makes his last offering, consisting of some scarlet cloth and
tobacco, to the Wolves, which are considered the war fetishes, and
viewed in the light of the special Gods of War. The day for starting
being appointed, all his followers are assembled the night before,
when the business is again considered, and they consent to follow him
as the leader during the time they are out, obey his instructions,
without, however, acknowledging any right in him to punish in case of
disobedience, also reserving to themselves the privilege of leaving him
at any time and under any circumstances they think proper.
It is a voluntary action and those who will not obey or are
dissatisfied leave and return home at any stage of the march, but do
not separate and remain to thwart the intentions of the others. No harm
being done by their desertion, no punishment follows. At all events he
is obliged to be contented with these precarious terms of enlistment.
The night previous to their departure they assemble (say 20 men) in
the soldiers’ lodge, where a dance called the Crow dance is performed
by them, and the next morning they all start together, singing the Wolf
Song as they leave, their faces usually being painted with vermilion at
all times and particularly at this time. All go on foot; no order or
file of march is taken up; neither is it necessary. Each one has six or
eight pairs of good strong-soled moccasins on his back. Some are armed
with bows and arrows, some with guns, and some with lances and war
clubs. Battle not being sought, a profusion of arms is not desired and
might prove cumbersome. Every man furnishes his own ammunition and war
implements.
Though guns are sometimes borrowed and ammunition begged of their
friends and relatives, yet there is no tax laid on the camp for
supplies nor any public arrangement whatever for providing arms, etc.
No provisions are taken; they hunt it on their way. The partisan takes
his fetish Wolf Skin, which is an entire skin of that animal dressed
with the head, ears, legs, etc., complete, so that by lying down or
standing on his hands and knees and covering himself with the skin,
drawing it over his head, he might easily be passed as a wolf by any
person within a short distance. His other charm or fetish is also
secured about his person. A good many, and sometimes the whole party,
have wolf skins of the above description on their backs.
During their march through their own country but little precaution is
used. They stray along at random and toward evening look around for
some game for supper, kill whatever presents itself, take enough for
the night and the next day and encamp.
They proceed in this way, if no signs of enemies appear, until
entirely out of their usual hunting grounds, the leader in the
meantime consulting his dreams, smoking to his fetish wolf skin. A
bad dream, or any unpropitious omen, such as the howling of a single
wolf in a peculiar manner, breaking his pipe, letting fall his fetish,
very severe thunder and lightning, would suffice to turn back the
expedition. When large parties start we find two or three returning
almost every day from the time of leaving until the attack, caused
by dissensions, omens, or other dissatisfaction, but no disgrace or
remarkable comments are attached to this fact, though the excuses some
of them give look very much like fear.
Having arrived at their enemy’s country, the greatest possible
precaution and vigilance are now exercised.
According to the orders of their leader they proceed slowly, scatter
in different directions for miles around, lie about on the tops of the
hills covered with their wolf skins, or headdresses made of bunches of
wild sage, examining the country in every direction for hours before
they move. If nothing is seen they signal to each other the result by
imitating the howling of wolves, the barking of foxes, or the hooting
of owls, as the signals agreed upon require. Assembling in some hollow,
they compare notes, receive new directions, and proceeding a few
miles, separate again and reconnoiter as before. They now shoot very
seldom, and only when meat is absolutely wanted, and the wind blows
in a direction to carry the report away from their enemies, or toward
that part of the country already explored. By observing the movements
of crows and wolves, in which direction they travel, where they stop
and light, they will find out the carcass of some animal killed by the
hunters of the camp. The state of its decay, tracks, and other signs
around will determine the probable direction of their enemies, and they
steer for that point.
When advanced thus far—that is, to know they are in the vicinity of
a camp—the real science of their manner of warfare exhibits itself.
Night marches commence, and separating as before about daylight they
occupy the hills, lying motionless all day, watching in every direction
some signs of their enemies. They are placed so as to be within call
of each other, and the signals for different discoveries being agreed
upon by imitating the howling of wolves, etc., as has been stated, they
can communicate with each other all the time without rising to their
feet. They never expose their persons to view on a hill. If necessary
to assemble they crawl down and meet in some ravine well covered with
thick bushes. They now never shoot, make no fire, eat nothing, keep
very quiet, and travel in the night. Of course, by these measures they
must soon perceive some one belonging to the camp, and by observing his
direction will find where it is.
Having discovered the camp, the last rendezvous takes place prior to
the attempt upon the horses, and here several things are determined—a
place is agreed upon where they will all assemble after the attack, a
direction for the return chosen in case of separation, smoking, and
invoking the different fetishes are performed, and general directions
given by their leader as to the manner of approaching the camp.
There can be no plan of operations laid down, as they are as yet
unaware of the position of the camp, how their horses are kept,
what surrounding objects afford concealment, etc. In the night they
approach the camp in a body under cover of the hills and bushes, and
when near enough to see the horses, and judge of the opportunities
of getting to them unobserved they again separate, and each pursues
his own way of proceeding from different points, as the nature of the
ground affords. The best horses of the Crows and Blackfeet are usually
picketed near the lodge of their several owners and the rest grazing
near. Sometimes pens are made around the lodges, the horses driven in
at dark, and cottonwood bark thrown in for them to eat. The risk of
extracting horses from the interior of a camp is very great, as young
men are moving about from lodge to lodge all night in their various
prosecutions of schemes on women; but the horses must be had, and the
venture must be made.
Near daylight, when all the people of the camp are supposed to be
asleep, but when yet dark (and the darkest kind of nights are chosen)
each warrior creeps slowly and silently toward that portion of horses
apparently the best situated to be taken off unperceived. Should he in
this way be so fortunate as to reach them without discovery he cuts the
cords with which they are tied and works them gradually into the shade
or darkness, then mounting one, drives the whole to the appointed place
of rendezvous. But owing to the many obstacles in the way of each, the
probability of some one being observed is great, and in that case the
whole camp is alarmed on the instant, each rushing toward his horses.
Shots are fired and the warriors seek safety in flight, with or without
horses as it happens. If there be snow to show their tracks the enemy
pursues them the next day, but if no trail can be found to follow they
abandon it. In either case the warriors shape their course individually
toward the appointed place of meeting, and if all are not assembled,
leave some token for those not arrived to know they have passed, and
continue their flight.
The horses are put to full speed day and night for several days in
succession until entirely out of reach of pursuit, and now begins a
series of quarrels as to the right of possession of the animals. Some
who have been disappointed and drove none off take from those who
have. The leader takes several, combinations of two or three to rob
another are entered into, horses are killed in the quarrel, or stolen
from each other, and unless a great haul has been made very little
satisfaction appears. These differences are mostly gotten through with
before reaching home and they make known their approach by setting the
prairie on fire. When arrived in the outskirts they shoot and sing, but
do not black themselves for stealing horses, unless they have brought a
scalp also, which occasionally happens. If any of their party have been
killed they arrive uttering loud lamentations.
The whole camp turns out to meet them. The old women cry over their
sons, rubbing the hand down their face, a great deal of flattery is
used by some of the elderly men, shouting the name of some one of the
warriors in a loud voice, stating his bravery, greatness of heart,
etc., until overwhelmed by glory, he presents him with one of the
horses. Great is the joy and tumult, and it frequently happens before
the warrior has arrived at his own lodge, that all his horses are given
away, and he retains nothing but the glory of the action. In this
event, however, his name is sung around the camp by the persons who
have received these gifts, accompanied with the song of thanks, and
loud and prolonged praises of his bravery and strength of heart.
War parties for battle are a long time in contemplation, frequently
occupying a whole winter in preparing for the campaign, and in
counseling regarding it. Usually large parties are led by some chief of
a band, and invitations are sent by him to different chiefs of other
bands of the same nation and to those of another nation with whom they
are at peace.
In the beginning of the summer they all assemble with their lodges at
the place appointed, and a great deal of debate, feasting, and private
consultation takes place, with sacrifices by the chiefs and soldiers,
and also by many of the warriors to the several supernatural powers
before referred to. It appears to be the misfortune of these large
expeditions to fail in executing anything like what is anticipated at
the start. Here also, the cause of their failure appears to be due to
their insubordination. There is no one man to lead, no one source of
authority in carrying out any plan decided upon. The nominal leader as
chief is only chief of his band, and even among these there are others
who are his equals in war. There are several chiefs of bands, and also
many other chiefs; every one’s advice, although asked, can not be
taken, which produces dissatisfaction. The soldiers of one band will
not be commanded by those of another, rank on every side is interfered
with, old grudges renewed by meeting with old delinquents, in short
though all looks pretty fair on starting, yet difficulties and disputes
from various causes take place every day after, which results in their
leaving and returning home in detached parties.
When, however, the ranks have by these means become purged of the most
turbulent and unruly characters the others proceed in the following
order: Chiefs, warriors of note and soldiers, dressed in deerskin
shirts and leggings trimmed with ermine, horse, or scalp hair. A war
eagle feather cap is on his head, a shield of bull’s hide covers his
arm, a bow and quiver of arrows is carried on his back, a short gun
stuck in his belt with pouch and horn across his shoulders and scalping
knife in its sheath, the powder horn and ball pouch are carried on the
middle of the back, the connecting strap reaching across his breast
and the upper parts of both arms. These are the mounted men, and the
most distinguished for their former deeds. The footmen consist of young
warriors and new recruits without any peculiar insignia, but well armed
if possible. The soldiers are men holding that rank in whichever camp
they reside, and their duty is to ride on the outside of the main body
to keep any person from straying away and prevent any useless noise or
manner of travel.