determinable by an inspection of a horse’s conformation. All
deviations from the steadily carried top in the trot, in which there
is no rolling, jerking or waddling, and from the straight flexion
and extension of the forelegs, in which there is no straddling,
dishing or winding-in, and from the equally straight and easy flexion
of the hock, can, as a rule, be determined by an examination of an
individual’s conformation. The horse with thick or loaded shoulders
and wide chest is apt to roll; the one that stands with his forefeet
placed wide apart, straddles; the knock-kneed one, as well as the one
that toes-in, generally dishes, while the horse that toes-out, winds
in. The horse with his hocks wide apart and feet close together,
“screws” his hocks outwards and usually “plaits.” When the hocks
are placed behind instead of under the quarters there is likely
to be a dragging movement of the hind legs. It is therefore true
that faulty progression is usually determinable by conformation.
Defective conformation of the legs shows itself with almost unvarying
regularity in its effect upon the action. In order to have straight,
undeviating action a horse must flex and extend his legs during
progression in a line parallel to the long axis of the body. The
knock-kneed, bow-legged, or even calf-kneed horse cannot do this, and
consequently experiences the ill-results of loss of time and power in
progression.
Apart altogether from the question of the degree of the lightness
or heaviness of the step, the manner in which the feet are placed
on the ground has a great influence in determining wear and tear,
and is consequently an important point to study. The horse that
toes-in usually has the inside quarter of his forefeet defectively
developed, which becomes more marked if he is not rationally shod.
This defect of formation of the inner quarter consists in a slanting
off of it from before backwards and outwards and from above downward
and toward the centre of the foot, causing this quarter to assume
a wedge-like form and literally to act as a wedge between the shoe
and the sensitive part of the inner quarter, thus predisposing it
to bruising. In addition to this, the horse that “dishes” usually
brings his foot down with force on the inner quarter. This manner of
planting the foot not only subjects the ligaments to undue tension,
but is a fruitful source of troublesome corns.
On the other hand, a horse that toes-out is apt to come down with
most force on the outside of his foot. This is a much more defective
formation than the former, for it not only causes winding-in and
great liability to interfere, but the planting of the foot is
usually accomplished in a manner that results in the production of
considerable concussion, and also subjects the ligaments to great
tension, so that the legs soon begin to show the effects of wear and
tear. Some horses come down with most force on their toes, causing
them to stub their toes, as it is called. Such a manner of planting
the foot is apt to cause stumbling and increases concussion to a
marked extent. Short-pasterned, straight-shouldered, and short-gaited
horses often show this defect.
Just the opposite manner of planting the foot or coming down with
the heel first is not at all uncommon. This defect of action is
not only likely to cause bruising of the heels, but subjects the
tendons and ligaments at the lower and back portion of the forelegs
to excessive strain. Ordinarily this imperfection is only observed
in long-gaited horses, but some that plant their feet in a favorable
manner when going at a slow pace, when forced to a faster one
lengthen their stride, and show this defect, often called “pointing,”
to a pronounced degree. Deep and oblique-shouldered horses with
little knee action, like thoroughbreds, often go in this way, but its
ill-effects are not so great as in those with a considerable amount
of knee action.
“Threading” or “plaiting” are terms used to designate the swinging
of the elevated foot around the one that is placed on the ground in
progression. This ungraceful manner of going, which occasions a loss
of power, is most clearly shown in the walk or slow trot.
FORGING, OVER-REACHING AND CLICKING
This Paper Won the Prize Given by _The American Veterinary Review_
for the Best Essay on This Subject
That very disagreeable and annoying fault of striking the forefeet
with the hind ones during progression, variously referred to as
“clicking,” “over-reaching” and “forging,” is one to which some
horses are predisposed; but it is excited by a number of conditions
which can, as a rule, be remedied by rational treatment, even in some
instances where there is a predisposition. Forging is the result of
any cause that prevents a horse from getting his forefeet out of the
way of his hind ones, in progression.
Undue shortness of body is a frequent predisposing cause, but one
must not fall into the error frequently made of assuming that a
short-backed horse is necessarily a short-bodied one. A horse may
have a short back but long quarters, causing him to stand over a lot
of ground or be what is called “long underneath,” and be anything but
short-bodied, and in fact possessing the ideal formation, as far
as this point is concerned, and be anything but inclined to forge.
Horses with the fore pasterns disproportionately long, when compared
to the hind ones, especially if the forefeet are also inclined to
unusual length, experience retardation in the flexion and extension
of the forelegs, to a degree that renders interference from the hind
ones liable.
An important factor in good action is the straight advancing of the
forelegs in progression. Any deviation from this, as in wind-out or
winding-in, or a combination of these two defects, sometimes called
“wiggling,” retards sufficiently prompt action of the forelegs to
enable the feet to make way for the hind ones. These defects of
action are the result of the fact that the bones that make up the
foundation of the legs are defectively related to one another in
forming the joints. There are very palpable illustrations of these
defects of formation in horses with “knock-knees,” calf-knees,
turned-in or turned-out pasterns. We notice in individuals a lack
of harmony in formation between the fore and hind extremities. For
instance, some horses have the pasterns of the hind extremities of
a length disproportionate to those of the fore, and vice-versa. So
with action: some have quick and extensive flexion of the hock, out
of proportion to the degree of promptness of flexion and extension
of the forelegs. Such horses are liable to forge. Those that stand
lower at the withers than they do at the highest point of the croup
are also liable to this fault, as are also low-headed horses,
particularly if they are of a sluggish temperament, as they not only
lack “snap” in their action, but the lowness forward interferes with
the freedom of the forward action.
In addition to the predisposing causes of forging there are a number
of exciting ones, and horses that cannot be said to be predisposed
may be found to forge under certain circumstances. Perhaps the
exciting cause most frequently in operation is the lack of strength
or condition. Many young horses forge for a time, or until they have
been fed and worked sufficiently to establish nervous force and
proper muscular development, so that they have perfect control of
their legs.
Horses that are not in good condition may go a mile or two without
“clicking,” but as soon as they become fatigued or winded, begin to
forge. They are particularly apt to do this if driven or ridden fast
at first, and the more so if the weight they are drawing or carrying
is excessive for the pace at which they are traveling.
Horses that are called upon to carry a rider--not being used to
it--may temporarily show this fault, particularly if the footing is
soft or going heavy.
Those used to the hard footing and light draft of the pavement in
cities may never be heard to forge until driven on a country road
where the draft is greater and the going heavier.
The mouth, too, is not without an exciting influence. The horse that
has a hard, unyielding, unresponsive mouth is much more liable to
forge than one that, at a touch of the whip or spur, will raise his
head, get his nose in, and respond to the pressure of the bit, so as
to go in a balanced manner.
Indifferent riders and drivers that have bad hands, and do not know
how to keep their horses collected, will allow many to over-reach.
One need never be discouraged about a young well proportioned horse,
but should wait until the mouth is made, the animal got into good
condition by steady judicious work, good feeding and grooming.
In horses inclined to “click,” the forefeet should be kept as short
as possible, and the shoes for them should be as light as can be
used in order to conserve their normal condition. Very frequently
horse owners use an increased weight of shoe on forefeet as a remedy
for this fault, which is a palpable error, as undue weight is one
of the exciting causes. Rounding off the toes of the front shoes
has a tendency to enable a horse to raise his feet from the ground
more quickly, and is an aid. It is well, however, not to resort to
artificial measures more than necessary. It is best, in fact, to keep
the feet in as natural a condition as the circumstances of the case
will permit. But in order to overcome forging in some horses, either
as a temporary or permanent expedient, the principle to pursue is to
encourage slow or dwelling movement of the hind feet, in order to
allow the fore ones to get out of their way.
The most effectual way of doing this is to raise the toes of the hind
feet and lower the heels. The toes can be raised either by thickening
the shoe at the toe or putting on a toe piece. Allowing the toes of
the hind hoofs to grow long is an aid, and gives opportunity for
setting the shoes back, so as to do away with or lessen the noise of
“clicking.”
“Forging” is not an unsoundness, but it is a defect or fault, as bad
action is.
INTERFERING, STRIKING, CUTTING OR BRUSHING IN HORSES
Of the many faults, accidents or habits to which horseflesh is heir,
“interfering” is one of the most troublesome. Fortunately, however,
it is one that admits of a large measure of prevention, and the
ill-effects of it can, to a very considerable extent, be overcome.
In the consideration of this subject, one of the most important
points to thoroughly study is the causes. Of the somewhat numerous
influences which contribute to this fault, defective conformation is
a very important one in predisposing to it. It is important from the
fact that cases that are largely the result of defective formation
are the most difficult to successfully cope with. A horse of perfect
formation of limbs should raise, advance and put down his feet
approximately in a straight line in the walk or trot. Any deviation
inwards from the straight line renders him liable to strike if any
exciting cause is brought into operation.
Narrow horses, particularly if they are leggy, are apt to go close
both behind and in front, and consequently to “brush.” Those that
“toe-out” either in the hind or fore extremities, usually wind
inwards in progression, and are consequently apt to interfere. In
fact, there is no formation of limb that so strongly predisposes
to this fault, in its most aggravated form, as the defect just
mentioned. Horses as a rule that “toe-in” in the fore limbs, wind
outwards, and consequently show no disposition to “brush.” In such
cases the “turning-in” of the toes is due to the position in which
the leg is fixed on to the body. It is due to the back part of the
leg showing a tendency to turn outwards from the body. This can
be most clearly observed at the elbow, where the point inclines
outwards. “Toeing-in,” however, is not always the result of a
malposition of the limb throughout, for sometimes the deformity is
confined to that portion of it from the fetlock down, constituting
what might be called a “club-foot.” This formation often predisposes
to “striking” to a marked degree, as in progression the foot comes
very close to the opposite limb. In spite of the predisposition many
horses show to interfering, from defective formation, such horses may
be seen working month after month without inflicting any injury to
themselves.
Horses that are in good condition, well balanced in going, and
that have complete power of co-ordinating the movements of their
limbs, are the ones that are likely to escape the not infrequent
consequences of defective formation of limb. The exciting causes of
interfering are numerous, but the one most frequently heard spoken
of is defective shoeing, and it is no doubt sometimes a cause, but
not nearly so frequently as is sometimes supposed. The unfortunate
shoer is frequently maligned for what is no fault of his. It does not
matter how some horses are shod, or whether they are shod or not,
they will interfere under some circumstances.
The best that we can do in the way of shoeing is to use a good,
rational shoe, properly applied on a suitably prepared foot. Too
heavy a shoe will sometimes act as a cause from the excessive weight
taxing the muscular control of the limb unduly, so that during quick
movements and sharp turns, “striking” is particularly apt to occur.
Leaving the hoofs too large is sometimes a cause, from the simple
consequence of its bringing the hoof closer to the opposite leg.
Not only that, but the increased length of toe resulting from too
large a hoof intensifies the tendency to winding either in or out in
progression, and consequently increases the tendency to “cut.”
The first step, then, in the attempt to prevent striking, is to
reduce the wall to reasonable dimensions with the rasp. Defects
of the form and direction of hoof may sometimes be remedied in
a measure; as, for instance, in a horse that “toes-out,” shorten
the outer part of the toe to a greater extent than the inner. The
tendency of this is not only to correct the unsightliness of the
deformity, but also to remedy its ill-consequence in progression.
The same may be done, but just in the opposite way, in horses which
“toe-in.” In the hind legs it is generally the inner part of the
toe of the hoof that inflicts the injury. This can be rasped so as
to reduce its convex form to an approach to a straight line with
the rasp, which lessens somewhat the danger. The shoe should be of
reasonable weight, strong enough to keep it from breaking, and set
in as much as possible on the inside without running too much risk
of bruising the sole. Have the inside branch of the shoe narrow and
rounded, so that there will be as little danger of inflicting injury
as possible. The nails may also be withheld from the inside of the
toe, so that no injury may be done from the clinches. It is a good
plan to also shorten the inside of the hoof more than the outside and
compensate for this by deepening the inside branch of the shoe, so as
to keep the foot level and have even bearing. The inside branch of
the shoe may be made almost straight from the toe back, and the hoof
made to correspond pretty much in form. The following out of this
plan of shoeing will minimize the likelihood of injury being done by
striking.
The weighting of the shoe on the outside is often recommended by
having the outer branch considerably heavier than the inner one, with
the idea that the weight on the outside makes a horse go wider. This
would, no doubt, be the tendency, and provided it does not increase
the weight of the shoe too much, there is no objection to it.
Another plan sometimes followed is to raise the inside of the foot
higher than the outside, with the idea that the fetlock of the leg on
the ground will be thrown outwards, and thus be more likely to escape
injury from the opposite foot. This plan is irrational, from the fact
that it causes a horse to tread unevenly, and thus tends to result in
injury to some other part of the leg, disturbing the relations of the
various parts that make up the weight-bearing column.
In the front legs a three-quarter shoe is sometimes used, the shoe
only coming half way round on the inside, and not covering the
ground surface of the inner quarter. The difficulty about this plan
is getting the shoe so applied that all the wall will bear its
normal amount of weight. It doesn’t do to leave the inner quarter
unsupported, for in that case there will be tilting of the leg
inwards when the foot is put on the ground, or, in other words,
uneven treading, with the ill-consequences already explained.
Charlier shoes sometimes do very well and are much safer than a
three-quarter shoe. This is a light, narrow-webbed shoe, that only
comes half way round on either side of the hoof and is sunken into a
groove cut out of the plantar surface of the wall, so that the lower
surface of it is just flush with the quarters that are not grooved
out. By this plan there is an even bearing all round the hoof, a
light shoe, and one no more likely to cause injury to the opposite
leg than the natural unshod hoof. The drawback about this shoe for
general use on hard roads is that it has not strength enough to form
a substantial stay to the hoof. It also lessens the action, and
horses are apt to go sore with them on very hard roads.
It is questionable if we have a much better device for shoeing
interfering horses than the rubber pads now so generally in use in
cities. Their use has a tendency to prevent interfering by virtue of
their effect in preventing slipping, which is one of the exciting
causes of this trouble. In the hind legs, where “cutting” is most
usual, the inner and back part of the fetlock is the common seat of
injury. Occasionally in horses with a good deal of hock action, they
will strike the leg higher up, and in very low, close-going horses
the inside of the coronet is scraped.
In the front legs the injury may be anywhere from the fetlock to
the knee. When it is high up it generally gets the designation of
speedy-cut. Another cause of “striking” is fatigue. It has already
been pointed out that when a horse has not perfect control of his
legs he is apt to “brush,” so that horses that have not had regular
work and good feed for a length of time, or, in other words, are not
in good condition, are easily fatigued and consequently liable to
interfere.
The uneven footing of rough roads, slippery roads or pavements, the
swaying of a two-wheeler, are all circumstances likely to interfere
with a horse’s equilibrium, and consequently are not infrequently
exciting causes of “striking.”
Another very fertile exciting cause, particularly in cities, and
one which, strange to say, is never referred to in print, is the
influence of discomfort in connection with the mouth in causing
“interfering.” There is nothing that puts a horse out of balance more
completely than anything wrong with his mouth. Horses that cross
their jaws, open their mouths, put their tongues out or over their
bits, carry their heads sideways, fuss with their bits, slobber,
pull, etc., or “pull out” or “crowd” in double harness, generally
have some soreness of the mouth caused by their bits, and, if they
are at all predisposed, are very apt to “cut.” We see examples of
this every day in cities where dealers get horses from the country
that have been chiefly used to snaffle bits. They at once begin to
drive them with curb bits, and they nearly all show some discomfort
at the change in the various ways already mentioned. It is very
common to see a horse cut his legs badly, under such circumstances,
that showed no evidence of ever having struck before. The treatment
of “interfering” resolves itself largely into methods of prevention.
The most important point is to remove the cause, where practicable,
and if not, to endeavor to neutralize its operation as much as
possible.
If a horse is in danger of “striking” himself on account of the
mouth not being in proper order, or from any other exciting cause
remaining in operation, protect the part or parts that are likely to
be injured, with a boot. If any part is injured from “cutting,” keep
that part protected until it has entirely recovered from the effects
of the injury.
In a large majority of cases after a horse is in good condition, his
mouth well made, and he is properly shod, there will be no need for
boots, unless he is subjected to some exciting cause, or unless he is
markedly predisposed from defective formation.
THE HORSE’S MOUTH
The discussion of the subject of the horse’s mouth has been prompted
by observing the thoughtlessness and carelessness of otherwise good
horsemen and lovers of horseflesh with regard to the horse’s mouth.
If a horse has a sore mouth he manifests it in some way unpleasant
to his driver or rider, but it is rarely that an examination of that
organ is made in order to determine the nature and extent of the
trouble. Such an examination is not difficult to make by one at all
accustomed to the handling of horses, and can be made as follows:
Take the horse into a place in which the light is good. To examine
the near side of the mouth, pass the left hand into the off side of
it, grasp the tongue gently, and pull it a little to one side--it is
not necessary to pull it out of the mouth--in order to expose the
branch of the lower jaw, or bar, as it is sometimes called. The thumb
of the right hand should be placed in the roof of the mouth so as
to separate the jaws, when the part that the mouthpiece of the bit
presses on can be easily scrutinized. The other side can be examined
in the same manner by using the hands in the opposite way.
The soreness, however, is not always confined to the bars of the
lower jaw, the result of the pressure of the bit, for it is not
infrequently found that the lining membrane of the cheeks is
excoriated by the bit forcibly pressing the cheeks against the
anterior grinders. This form of injury is seldom found in a horse
that readily bends his head upon his neck or “gets his nose in,”
as it is often expressed, unless it is from the use of tight
pulley-bridoon bearing reins, which is almost certain to cause it,
particularly if a horse bores on it. In the majority of instances
it is where a jointed or snaffle bit is used, when a horse “takes
hold,” and in the case of one not inclined to “bend,” that the lining
of the cheeks is injured. It can be readily understood, where a
jointed bit is used on a horse that does not get his nose in, that
when force is exerted upon the reins, it presses the cheeks directly
against the teeth, and we can at once realize the great liability to
injury of the soft and sensitive cheeks when pressed between two hard
bodies, such as an iron bit and unyielding teeth, which frequently
have sharp projecting hooks and angles at the very point at which
pressure is brought to bear. Horses driven with tight over-checks are
particularly subject to this form of injury to the mouth, as can be
understood from the explanation already given. In horses that cannot
be made to get their noses in, in riding or driving, and which show
evidence of soreness of the mouth in the lining of the cheeks, the
front grinders should be kept as smooth as possible. It is impossible
for a horse to have a pleasant responsive mouth when the pressure
comes upon the cheeks. Nature evidently intended the yielding lower
jaw to bear the pressure of the bit, with the soft and elastic tongue
to aid in avoiding injury to the sensitive structure which covers the
branches of that jaw. Many horses which do not bend their heads upon
their necks, when used with a snaffle bit can be made to get their
noses in with a curb, which is consequently, when rationally used,
the more humane and also the much more effectual in promoting style
and action. Occasionally, however, one finds that a horse goes better
in a snaffle than in any other kind of bit unless it is one with a
smooth and slightly curved, unjointed mouthpiece.