Essays
On Horse Subjects
BY
F. C. GRENSIDE, V. S.
[Illustration]
NEW YORK
PRIVATELY PRINTED
1907
Copyright, 1907, by
F. C. GRENSIDE
PREFACE
Having been requested to contribute from time to time, articles for
papers devoted to the horse, I have an accumulation of these that I
thought it might not be amiss to publish under the title of “Essays
on Horse Subjects.”
Many of these subjects I have never seen any literature upon, and
these Essays are largely the result of twenty-eight years’ experience
as a practical horseman and veterinarian. Covering as they do the
borderland between the provinces of the veterinarian and horseman,
they relate to subjects which have been to a large extent neglected
by both. This fact is my excuse for publishing them. F. C. G.
CONTENTS
PAGE
QUALITY IN HORSES 1
HEREDITARY UNSOUNDNESS IN HORSES 8
HITCHING IN HORSES 20
HORSESHOEING AND HORSES’ HOOFS 25
CORRECT ACTION IN HORSES 34
FORGING, OVER-REACHING AND CLICKING 41
INTERFERING, STRIKING, CUTTING OR BRUSHING IN HORSES 46
THE HORSE’S MOUTH 54
TURNING HORSES OUT 64
BITTING, SHOEING AND CONDITIONING FOR ACTION 69
EXERCISE FOR HORSES 90
THE HORSE’S COAT IN SPRING, SUMMER, AUTUMN AND WINTER 98
THE CAUSES OF DIGESTIVE DISORDERS 105
THE USE OF BURRS ON HORSES’ BITS 124
QUALITY IN HORSES
There is no subject upon which there seems to be more diversity of
opinion amongst horsemen than as to what constitutes “quality” in a
horse.
It is a term in very common use, but if you ask a number of horsemen
what they mean by it you are sure to get a variety of answers. One
will say it means breeding; another, conformation; another, finish;
another, “class”; another, symmetry; another, individuality; another,
an accentuation of all fine points; another, magnetism; another,
refinement of lines or perhaps a combination of some or all of these
attributes. Some say that quality is recognizable, but indefinable
and unexplainable.
The term “quality” is an abstract one, indicating a special attribute
in an individual, just as being well bred, well conformed and
possessing finish are attributes of some individuals. When one says
that a horse has “quality,” one means that he has a special attribute
which may or may not be combined with any or all of the others
mentioned. Of course there are varying degrees of “quality,” so
that the term can only be used in a comparative sense. In the light
classes of horses it is very often used synonymously with breeding.
Certainly the more warm-blooded a horse is the higher the degree
of quality he is apt to possess, but one may take two equally well
bred thoroughbreds and find one showing evidence of the possession
of a higher degree of quality than the other. So that breeding and
quality do not mean the same thing. Neither does quality signify the
possession of symmetry, good conformation, finish or “class.” A horse
may be defective in any or all of these respects and still possess
a high degree of “quality.” He may be fiddle-headed, lop-eared,
ewe-necked, sway-backed, flat-sided, slack-loined, cow-hocked and
calf-kneed, and yet show much “quality.”
Much confusion is caused by using the term “quality” synonymously
with “class.” Horses are spoken of as high-class, medium-class and so
on, indicating the degree of excellence which they possess for the
purpose for which they are best suited. Two individuals can be taken
as an example, showing equal “quality,” but one of them, on account
of better conformation, more style and action, may be worth twice
as much as the other. Consequently he is a higher-class individual,
although the two are equal in “quality.” So that “quality” and
“class” do not mean the same.
If, then, “quality” does not mean breeding or conformation or
symmetry or finish or “class,” or a combination of any or all of
these, what does it mean? It is an easier matter to explain what
constitutes “quality” than it is to give a concise and at the same
time comprehensive definition of what it is. It may not inaptly
be defined as _fineness in contradistinction to coarseness_, or
as _fineness of texture_. How frequently one hears a prospective
purchaser say to a dealer: “He is a very nice horse, but very light
in bone.” The dealer almost invariably replies: “Yes, but his bone is
of good ‘quality,’” and still further endeavors to make the statement
more emphatic by saying that the bone is so dense, so compact, so
ivory-like, that a cubic inch of it will weigh more than a cubic inch
of some other horse that has indisputably more bone. It is a fact
that the bone of some horses is much more dense or compact, and is,
as the dealer expresses it, of better “quality” than that of some
others.
What causes this greater density in the bones of some individuals
than in those of others? We have to look to the elements of which
bone is composed for the determining cause. The animal tissues are
made up of fluids and solids. The solids are composed of three
simple elements, viz.: granules, fibres and cells that are only
determinable by means of a microscope. This difference of quality
is most easily determinable with regard to the element fibres.
The fibres that form part of the tissues of an individual of high
“quality” are more slender, more compact and tougher than those of
one of less “quality.” One can appreciate this even with the naked
eye, in examining the walls of horses’ hoofs. In a horse possessing
a fairly high degree of “quality,” the fibres which run from the
coronet down, in forming the basis of the wall, are most palpably
finer than in those of the wall of a coarser individual. So with
the bone; the elements that combine to form it in a horse of high
“quality” are finer and more highly organized than in those of a
coarser individual.
What you find in regard to quality in the bones of an individual,
you find pervading all the tissues of his organism. You do not
find a horse with coarse bone and fine skin, or coarse skin and
fine bone. If the bone is fine or has “quality,” the muscles,
tendons, ligaments, skin, hoofs, hair and all the other tissues
which enter into his composition are equally fine or are of equal
“quality.” The “quality” of a horse’s bone may be perfect, but
undue or disproportionate length or other defective form, or faulty
relationship of one bone to another, may make his conformation
very imperfect indeed, so that it is difficult to understand why
some horsemen think there is any relationship between “quality” and
conformation.
A high degree of “quality” is apt to be associated with defects, so
that one might almost state that a horse can have too much quality.
Size, or more correctly, substance, is strength, other things being
equal. A horse with a high degree of quality may be so lacking in
substance as to impair his power for the performance of work or
for severe tests of endurance or speed. He may be so light-limbed
that he cannot stand the “wear and tear” of hard work and remain
practically sound. We often find horses that are superfine with
disproportionately small feet, and every experienced horseman knows
that it is seldom that such horses do much work and remain sound.
A horse, however, cannot have too much “quality,” providing it is
combined with sufficient substance for the purpose for which he is
required. A high degree of “quality” and sufficient substance are
most important attributes in contributing to perfection in horseflesh.
There are many every-day evidences of the ill consequences of
deficient quality in horseflesh. You hear a horseman say that a horse
has soft legs, and he points out an individual inclined to fill
about the skin of the fetlocks, to show windgalls which extend up
the sheaths of his back tendons, and whose hocks are inclined to be
puffy throughout. If he gets a bruise or injury of any kind to the
skin of his legs, the consequent swelling is apt to extend and is
inclined to remain. Abrasions, cuts, cracks and scratches heal rather
tardily. Concussion and direct injury to bone are very much inclined
to result in bony enlargement, such as splints, that spread out and
have not well-defined limits. Standing in the stable too much readily
produces stocking of the legs; there is a predisposition to greasy
legs. The feet are inclined to be flat, large and easily bruised.
These tendencies show coarseness of tissue and low organization, a
meagre blood supply and inactive nutrition. Horses with “quality”
also develop windgalls and splints if subjected to sufficient cause,
but their character differs from those of coarse horses in being
clean-cut and well-defined and not having the tendency to spread out.
A horse with “quality” may have a bog spavin, but it will show as
a well-defined prominence and not as a round puffiness of the hock
throughout.
Draft horsemen talk “quality” just as much or more than those who
have to do with the light breeds. The difference in the “quality”
of individuals of the draft breeds is just as well marked as in the
light breeds. Take for instance a Clydesdale or Shire, both of which
breeds have a considerable quantity of long hair on the back of the
legs, which is often referred to as “feather.” If this hair is found
to be fine and silky, not coarse and wiry, you will find that it is
possessed by an individual that shows “quality” throughout. His skin
will not be coarse and beefy, his legs will be fluted, his bone will
have a tendency to flatness, showing density of structure. The hair
of his mane and tail will be fine, like that at the back of his legs.
The eminences and depressions formed by the bones of his head will
be comparatively finely chiseled. He, in fact, shows “quality” when
compared to other members of the same breed that are equally well
bred as far as possessing the characteristics of the breed, and as
far as the stud book is an indication of breeding. This is a further
example of the fallacy of the view that “quality” and breeding are
the same thing.
HEREDITARY UNSOUNDNESS IN HORSES
The question of hereditary unsoundness in all its aspects is by no
means an open book to the horse-breeder, but it is one well worth
studying by him, if as thorough a knowledge as is possible of this
subject will tend to lessen the percentage of unsound stock produced.
Of the various causes which tend to make horse-raising disappointing
and unprofitable, this is one of the important ones, if not the most
important. Literally speaking, it is not so much the inheritance
of a disease itself that we fear, but it is the tendency to the
development of this disease. Comparatively few foals are dropped
with unsoundnesses, that impair their value ultimately, but there
are many that are foaled with a predisposition to the development of
unsoundness. The study of this subject, then, practically resolves
itself into a consideration of what constitutes the predisposing
causes of unsoundness.
They may be divided into several heads, viz: Defective formation,
defective quality, and insufficient quantity of tissue and
temperament. Within certain limits, the practised eye of the
observant horseman can determine in sire or dam the existence of
these defects that are transmissible to the offspring, and predispose
it to the development of unsoundness.
It is claimed by some authorities that some horses and mares possess
a peculiar habit of body, an indefinable something about them which
predisposes them and also their progeny to the development of some
unsoundness. Such cases are rare, however, and their supposed
existence is very frequently the result of the inability of an
observer to appreciate the existence of detectible predisposing
causes. If this indefinable something is the determining cause of
predisposition in some cases, then the only positive evidence of
its existence is the developed unsoundness. This theory presupposes
that none of the detectible predisposing causes already mentioned
exist in sufficient degree in such cases, so that when subjects
of them are subjected to more than ordinarily exciting ones they
would develop unsoundness unless the peculiar habit of body exists.
It is also an acknowledgment of the helplessness of breeders in
a considerable degree to prevent breeding colts with an inherent
tendency to unsoundness. No matter how capable and careful a
breeder is he will produce a certain percentage of unsound stock,
due to heredity, but with care it can be reduced to a small one.
Many breeders use a sire from convenience or from some quality he
possesses, such as speed, action, style or disposition, knowing they
are taking a chance of perpetuating some tendency to unsoundness
that he possesses. Favorite mares are also bred, with a disregard
to the well-established principle that “like begets like,” even
when they are the victims of hereditary unsoundness or a strong
predisposition to it. The successful breeder must divest himself
of all sentiment and be capable of appreciating all defects which
constitute predisposition to unsoundness. Of the predisposing causes,
defective formation is the most fertile one. The predisposition to
navicular disease is hereditary. Horses with narrow, deep heels are
predisposed to it. Some observers may say: “But look at the large
number of horses one sees with narrow, deep heels that have not
got navicular disease.” Of course, such an argument is fallacious,
as there may be many compensating conditions that will tend to
neutralize the tendency to this disease in some subjects. A horse
with the formation of foot described, even although he is subjected
to the exciting causes of hard, fast and steady work, and irrational
and infrequent shoeing, may be endowed by nature with a very light
step. Nothing tends to prevent “wear and tear” of the legs and feet
like light stepping. Here, then, is an example of an influence which
tends to counterbalance the ill effects of a defective formation,
but renders complicated the study of formation as a predisposing
cause of unsoundness. One, then, has to weigh the influence of
compensating conditions in determining the ill-consequences likely
to result from defective formations of feet when transmitted to
offspring. That defective formation of feet is handed down to progeny
there is no manner of doubt. The predisposition to ringbone is
undoubtedly hereditary, and when the pastern is of good formation
one seldom finds it unless it is the result of some extraordinarily
exciting cause. The two extremes of long, light oblique pasterns,
and the short, straight coarse ones, are both predisposed, the
former from the tension to which the ligaments are subjected, and
consequent tendency to sprain, and the latter from the increased
tendency to concussion. As we proceed up the front leg we find
defective formation in the neighborhood of the knee, predisposing
to unsoundness. Many horses that are more or less knee-sprung
are practically sound. Others become progressively weak and are
decidedly unsound; so that we are not much amiss in characterizing
the condition called knee-sprung as an hereditary unsoundness. A
commission was appointed some years ago in England to make out a list
of hereditary unsoundnesses. The list included navicular disease,
ringbone, spavin, sidebone, periodic ophthalmia or moonblindness,
and roaring. It will be observed that knee-sprung was not included.
In order not to complicate matters they made the list as short as
possible, and only included the most serious forms of unsoundness
or those that are very obstinate in yielding to treatment or are
incurable. Unsoundnesses such as knee-sprung, curb or splint, though
the tendency to them is undoubtedly hereditary, were not included.
This was because these conditions seldom permanently interfere with
a horse’s practical soundness. A horse is what is called “tied in”
below the knee when the leg immediately below that joint is narrower
from before backwards, than it is just above the fetlock. In this
condition the tendons behind the knee are not well developed, and
are placed too close to the shank-bone at this point. This imperfect
tendonous development in a front leg is not usually confined to the
tendons behind the leg, called the flexor tendons, as an imperfect
development of these tendons is usually associated with an impaired
development of the tendons running down the front of the leg called
the extensor tendons. Such a condition frequently results in shaky
knees, and if the subject experiences hard work, he is likely to
become progressively worse. In some cases the flexor tendons appear
to be much better developed than the extensors, and in an individual
so formed, particularly if he is inclined to stand with his forefeet
well back under him, there is an inordinate strain on the extensors,
leading to relaxation and a corresponding tendency to contraction of
the flexors. Here we have a lack of balance between the extensors
and flexors, and the result is a knee-sprung condition. Although
shaky-kneed or knee-sprung horses are not frequently incapacitated
for work, the breeder should not lose sight of the fact that this
condition is apt to considerably depreciate a horse’s value in the
market, particularly for some purposes, and he can seldom afford to
ignore this fact. It is not intended to advise breeders never to
breed to a sire that stands a little over in the knees, especially
if sufficient cause can be assigned for it, but we should recommend
them to be very wary about using sires and dams that show a
congenital tendency to this defect. Purchasers of horses usually look
with considerable disfavor on a horse that is at all knee-sprung.
Personally, the writer would rather buy a horse for his own use that
is a little forward in the knees than one that stands back in them
or is what is called calf-kneed. A horse with the former defect
is almost sure to be much more elastic in his step than one with
the latter and, consequently, will not suffer to the same extent
from the ill-effects of concussion. A calf-kneed horse is also much
more likely to suffer from strains. Knee-sprung, unlike the other
unsoundnesses given in the list of hereditary troubles, is not very
infrequently congenital. Swan-necked horses and those with thick,
coarse throttles are considered to be of the formations most liable
to develop the defect of the wind called “roaring.” In Great Britain
and Ireland and on the continent of Europe, breeders are usually very
particular about avoiding roarers for breeding purposes. The climatic
conditions there seem favorable to its development; but in this
country it is not nearly so much to be feared, and one should not
hold aloof from an otherwise desirable sire on account of his being
a roarer, though it must be admitted that the predisposition to the
trouble may be transmitted. The predisposition to periodic ophthalmia
or moonblindness is handed down from parent to offspring, but it
is not nearly so common in this country as it once was, when the
sanitary conditions were not so good; and it may be that some care
has been exercised in breeding, so as to avoid its propagation. The
only appreciable evidence of a predisposition to this unsoundness,
outside of the existence of the disease, is the small or what is
called “pig eye.” The writer knew a sire well that had “pig eyes” but
sound ones, and they remained sound throughout his long life, but
certainly ten per cent. of his progeny developed moonblindness.
The tendency to string-halt is undoubtedly transmissible from
parent to offspring. Horses with snappy hock action are most likely
to develop it. Nowadays it is not feared nearly so much as it was
formerly, for if it should develop, a very large percentage of
cases are curable by a not very difficult and by no means dangerous
operation, which consists in the cutting of a tendon. A change has
taken place in the generally accepted view as to the nature of
string-halt. It was considered a purely nervous malady until it was
found that the cutting of a tendon would in many instances cure it.
Curb, although not, as I remember it, included in the list of
hereditary unsoundnesses, is decidedly hereditary, as well as the
predisposition to it. It is not an infrequent occurrence to find
foals “dropped” with curbs which frequently disappear in a large
measure. But there is always some trace of them remaining. It is
the rarest possible occurrence to find a broad hock, and one with
the tendon standing well out behind, with any sign of curb. Narrow
hocks and those with the point dipped forward towards the body of the
joint; a leg with small circumference immediately below the hock,
or what is commonly called tied in; those with the back tendon
not standing out posterior to the bone at the back and outer part
of hock--in addition to these indications of weakness and tendency
to curb, if the joint is crooked, or what is called sickle-shaped,
the predisposition is much increased. Curb is not so very much
feared by some breeders, as it seldom causes permanent lameness. It
is, however, a great eyesore; it depreciates a horse’s value very
considerably, and it is liable to cause recurring lameness.
Crooked hocks, unduly straight hocks, narrow hocks, small hocks,
those bent inwards or outwards, are all of weak formation, and are
consequently predisposed, amongst other unsoundnesses, to bone
spavin. Even though a horse should happen to have a bone spavin,
provided he has a strongly formed hock, it would be safer to take
a chance of breeding to him than one with a sound hock but of weak
formation. So far we have run over briefly most of the defective
formations that predispose to serious hereditary unsoundness. We
have divided the causes into four heads, the second one of which was
“insufficient quantity.” The old saying, “Size is strength, others
things being equal,” applies to a horse’s extremities. We frequently
hear it said that such and such a horse has “plenty of timber
under him.” By this is meant that the individual in question has
sufficient substance in the various structures that make up his legs
and feet to give them strength and ability to stand “wear and tear.”
The practical horseman of experience learns that the horse with
disproportionately small feet seldom stands much work without
going sore from some unsoundness of these organs. So with the
slender-pasterned horse. He is not only subject to strain at that
point, but predisposed to ringbone. The horse light under the knee
is apt to suffer from strains of the tendons and ligaments in that
situation, as well as troublesome splints. Proportionately large
joints give wearing ability to the legs. This is well exemplified
in the case of hocks with plenty of tissue in them. The sire that
transmits small hocks to his offspring has handed down to him one of
the most prolific sources of unsoundness in these joints. Defects
of formation of these joints are often a cause of trouble, as has
already been pointed out, but not so much so in my experience as
lack of size. Stating that a horse has plenty of timber under him
does not cover all cases, as some horses have plenty of tissue in
their front legs and are deficient in their hind ones. In addition
to formation and quantity of tissue, “quality” is of vast importance
in influencing the wearing ability of the legs and feet. Parents
transmit with great faithfulness to their progeny defects in the
quality of the horn of hoofs. Shelly, brittle hoofs are strongly
predisposed to crack, developing sand and quarter cracks on slight
provocation, and giving rise to that very troublesome inability
of being unable to hold the shoes tightly. Brittle hoofs are not
necessarily coarse in fibre. Hoofs of coarse fibre lack the density
of structure which generally contributes to toughness. Undue size
of foot, low heels and flat soles, with a tendency to be easily
bruised, are apt to be associated with a lack of quality in the horn
structure. A horse with bone of a spongy character or lacking in
density is deficient in quality. Such an individual is predisposed to
inflammatory diseases of bone, such as splints, sore shins, ringbone
and spavin. The lack of quality in a horse is particularly well shown
in the skin of his legs. The tendency to the development of cracked
heels, stocked legs, mud fever and grease is very evident on slight
provocation. Sires deficient in quality are apt to transmit to their
progeny the tendency to what are called soft-legs, in which there is
not only the inclination of the skin to swell up from little cause,
but windgalls, puffy sheaths of tendons and boggy hocks are easily
induced. If, then, we accept these statements with regard to quality,
as it would appear that every practical horseman must, we must admit
that coarseness or lack of quality is by no means an unimportant
factor in contributing to hereditary predisposition to unsoundness.
Temperament is the last of the four heads into which we divided the
predisposing causes of hereditary unsoundness. Although it must be
admitted that it has an influence, we look upon it as the least
important of the four. The nervous horse that jumps and gets excited
on slight provocation; the anxious horse that is always up in his
collar and against the bit, are more taxing on the physical mechanism
than easier-going horses. We cannot afford to quite ignore this
question of temperament in selecting sires and dams, but if the legs
and feet are well formed, have sufficient substance, and are made up
of a good quality of tissue, they will generally stand any taxing
that may result from a high-strung temperament.
HITCHING IN HORSES
Of the many defects of action that horses show, one that detracts
very much from the gracefulness of movement in the trot and walk is
“hitching.” It is a peculiar hopping movement which results from a
lack of power, or from defective balance. It is said that good cooks
are born, not made. Exactly the opposite is the case with “hitchers”;
they are made, not born, although there is no doubt that some colts
are foaled with a predisposition to “hitch.” Still, even then, it may
be kept in abeyance by good handling. The causes of “hitching,” then,
may be said to be predisposing and exciting. Of the predisposing ones
the most prolific is the want of power and freedom of movement in
the hindquarter. Cat-hammed horses, those with short hindquarters,
and those that stand with their hocks too far behind them, are very
liable to “hitch.” Bad driving is a cause that frequently contributes
to this fault. Some drivers will make almost every young horse they
handle get into the habit, for it becomes almost a habit in some
individuals.
Starting off at too fast a pace, urging a horse beyond his speed,
particularly if he has a heavy trap behind him, and allowing him
to go uncollectedly from driving with a loose rein, are causes.
Drivers that allow horses to rattle along with their heads loose,
particularly if they are inclined to be free, will make many
hitchers, especially amongst young horses and those in which there is
a predisposition to the fault.
Besides the causes already discussed and really the most important
of all, is the mouth, for a very large percentage of “hitching” is
referable to that organ. Horses which carry their heads steadily,
hold them straight, with no crossing of jaws or opening of the
mouth, and which keep their tongues in position under the bit and
have responsive, firm mouths, never “hitch” when they have proper
driving. Any discomfort of the mouth caused by bruises, abrasions
or excoriations, making a horse sideline or bore, is very apt, in
the case of a very prompt horse, to cause “hitching.” On the other
hand, horses that do not face the bit firmly on account of soreness
of the mouth or from the bit being placed too low in the mouth or
from lack of courage, or any cause that makes them go with unsteady
heads, are apt to “hitch.” A driver or rider with what is called bad
hands is also apt to make a horse “hitch.” A driver with bad hands
either takes a heavy, unyielding grip of the reins, or else holds
them unsteadily, either of which causes is apt to put a horse off his
balance.
The uninitiated are apt to mistake “hitching” for lameness, and it
is very hard to persuade them to the contrary, especially if a horse
keeps doing it persistently. It is not an unsoundness, however, for
there is no lesion necessarily of the extremity “hitched.” Habitual
“hitching” is a fault or defect, just the same as other defects of
action and “forging” are faults.
If a horse is a persistent “hitcher,” however, he might almost as
well be lame, as far as the unsightliness of the gait is concerned.
In good hands, however, there is not much fear of it becoming
habitual, and if it has become so from any cause, it can usually be
remedied by good handling.
In standing about sale and show rings, we frequently hear onlookers
say that such and such a horse is going lame behind, when in reality
he is only “hitching.” At sale and show times horses are frequently
urged and pulled together to a degree very apt to put them off their
balance, especially when they are called upon to keep making short
turns. Some horses, even at the walk, will persistently “hitch” in
being ridden in a ring when sharply bitted. Horses may be seen to
drag and hop on one hind leg in going around a ring at a walk when
ridden with bit and bridoon, but if a change is made to a snaffle
bit they will go squarely, thus showing how a sharp bit will cause
unsteadiness and irregularity of the gait in some light-mouthed
horses.
In case there is any doubt as to whether irregularity of the gait is
due to lameness or to “hitching,” it is easily settled by jogging the
animal in question at a slow trot “in hand” without any bit in the
mouth, or at most a plain snaffle, with the head loose and carried
straight. It may be emphasized here that the only true test in the
determination of the question as to whether a horse goes sound or
not, unless the lameness is fairly pronounced, is to jog “in hand”
as already explained. Horses are sometimes condemned as going lame
in the show ring when it is impossible to determine with certainty
whether they are lame or not until taken out of harness and run
“in hand.” It is sometimes a help, in deciding whether a horse is
slightly sore forward or not, to get on his back, when the increased
weight on the legs will intensify the tenderness.
The idea of a horse “hitching” in front is sometimes ridiculed, but
occasionally one may be seen to do it unmistakably, and it is usually
the result of some discomfort in connection with the mouth. As has
been already said, anything that puts a horse off his balance is
liable to make him “hitch.” A horse may be said to be “balanced”
when every leg bears its proper proportion of weight and also exerts
its share of propulsion. The position of the head is very important
in regulating balance. If it is carried too low, too much weight is
thrown on the fore extremities; if too high, too much strain is put
on the hind ones. It is most important that the head shall be carried
steadily and in proper position, for a want of firmness in its
carriage is apt to put a horse off his balance and consequently lead
to “hitching.”
HORSESHOEING AND HORSES’ HOOFS
As with many other subjects relating to horseflesh, there is a
wide diversity of opinion as to the treatment of the horse’s hoof,
particularly as to that phase of it which has to do with shoeing. In
New York, especially, there is a deeply rooted prejudice in favor of
allowing the hoofs to grow out to very considerable proportions. If
you ask some of the strong advocates of this practice their reason
for it, you get the nonexplanatory answer that they like to see a
horse with a good foot. The question then naturally presents itself:
Does a luxuriant growth of horn constitute a good foot, and is a long
hoof conducive to the welfare of the foot and that portion of the
extremity above it? There is no doubt you can take liberties with
a horse’s foot with impunity under some circumstances, but if you
want a horse to do everyday work, the nearer you get a hoof to its
proper dimensions the better for the foot and the leg above it. For
ordinary work the hoof should be kept of such dimensions that every
part of the lower surface of it shall bear its proportionate amount
of weight, and that there shall be no disturbance in the proper
relations of the various parts that make up the legs and feet.
Dealers keep their horses’ toes long because length of toe increases
their action. A horse with long toes is bound to exert more muscular
force in order to raise his feet off the ground and extend them in
progression; consequently his action is increased. As they do not
work their horses hard, but merely give them exercise enough to keep
them well mannered to show to their customers, they do not as a rule
experience the ill-results they would if they were worked fairly
hard. The same remarks apply to heavy harness show horses, that are
simply kept in condition to show all the style and action possible.
Everyday work, however, is another matter. The dealer and showman is
right from his standpoint, but not from the standpoint of the owner
who is looking for everyday service.
Too long a toe acts as a lever and very much increases the tension of
the tendons and ligaments that support the fetlocks, rendering them
liable to strain, and also increasing the tendency to windgalls.
Too long a toe is also a fertile cause of corns, as it increases very
much the pressure on the heels and consequent liability to bruise the
quick of the foot at that place, which bruise constitutes a corn.
Besides having the toes too long, the heels are allowed to grow down,
taking all the pressure off the frog. Nature intended the frog to
bear its proper proportion of weight, and, if it doesn’t do so, it
shrinks, the heels contract, and the inner quarter curls in and acts
as a wedge between the shoe and the quick, and is thereby another
cause of corns. Too long a hoof hastens fatigue, as the increased
exertion necessary in raising and advancing the foot in progression
augments the expenditure of force. The tendency to “interfere” is
also much increased.
This prejudice in favor of keeping the hoofs long has been brought
about and encouraged largely by the example and expressed opinions of
dealers. A dealer sells a horse with long hoofs, and the purchaser
sends him to the forge. The shoer, unless he has been otherwise
definitely instructed, and if he understands what is best for
the horse’s legs and feet, will reduce the hoofs to their normal
proportions. When the owner drives or rides his new purchase again,
he finds the action curtailed, and thinks the horse is going sore. He
applies to the seller of the horse, who tells him that he has had his
feet cut away so much that it has made him sore. This might be the
case in exceptional instances, but very rarely.
In addition to reduction of the hoofs in size, the shoes may be
lightened, which further lessens the action. What are called “green
horses” are very apt to go sore if put abruptly into work, from the
fact that their tissues have not been by degrees hardened for work;
in other words, they are not in condition, and it will take some
weeks before they can be safely put into anything like hard work.
After reading the foregoing, it will naturally be asked: What is
the guide in determining the dimensions to which the hoof should
be reduced at the time of shoeing? The practised eye of the man
who understands the natural poise of the horse’s leg can determine
at a glance how much to reduce the hoof so that every part of the
leg and foot will approximately bear its due proportion of weight.
The direction of the line of weight in the extremities varies in
different individuals and nature can be assisted by regulating the
direction of this line in order that no part shall be unduly taxed.
The horse with the straight pastern and high heel is apt to suffer
from the ill-effects of concussion, while the oblique-pasterned horse
is more likely to suffer from strain. The ill-consequences of these
defects of formation can be neutralized in a measure by regulating
the length of hoof according to circumstances. For instance, the
disadvantage of long and oblique pasterns can be overcome in a
measure by keeping the hoof shortened up as much as possible,
thereby reducing the tension on the supporting tissues of the
fetlock. In the same way the elasticity of tread can be promoted in a
straight-pasterned horse by reasonable length of toe.
Nature in some instances supplies compensations for defects of
formation. In the fore extremity, the oblique shoulder, long arm and
forearm and smooth flexion of the joints may in a measure counteract
the injurious consequences of calf-knees and unduly short and
straight pasterns. Added to this there may be that lightness of step,
with which some horses are endowed, that has its determining cause in
the nervous system, and which so much aids the wearing ability of the
legs and feet.
Fleming, who is a justly recognized authority on horseshoeing, gives
as a guide to determine the amount a horse’s hoof should be reduced
at the time of shoeing, that the hoof should be shortened by the rasp
until it is flush with what is called the “white line.” The “white
line” is that portion of the hoof that forms the connecting medium
between the outer margin of the sole and the inner and lower margin
of the wall. Its outline is very clearly defined in a freshly rasped
hoof. Fleming, doubtless, assumes that the sole and white line have
not been reduced with the knife, but have been allowed to remain, as
nature intended them, of their normal thickness.
Just here it may be remarked that the practice of paring away the
sole of the foot, or in other words, thinning it, is a pernicious one.
The shoer appears to like to do this, as it cuts very easily and
gives, as he thinks, a “neat” appearance to the hoof. The owner
appears to endorse this, as he is very careful to have his groom stop
the feet, forgetting that he has permitted the shoer to remove a much
more efficient stopping than any artificial one in the outer surface
of the sole. This is very easy of explanation and illustration if one
takes an unmutilated hoof. First of all it must be noted that the
outer hard and tough crust, called the wall, grows out indefinitely,
unless it is worn or broken off by contact with the ground or
reduced by the instruments of the former. This is not the case with
the sole, for it is so constituted that after it attains a certain
thickness, by a process of nature it exfoliates of its own accord,
thus maintaining its normal thickness. These outer scales that keep
coming off are nature’s stopping. Why? Because by protecting the
inner and deeper layer from the drying effects of the air, they
maintain moisture that is necessary in the sole. If, by paring, you
cut through and examine a normal sole, you will find that the part
next to the quick (the part freshly secreted by the quick) is moist,
and as you proceed to the surface of the sole it gradually gets
dryer, the outer part being almost entirely free from moisture and
admirably adapted to protect the inner and moister part until it is
gradually forced outward by fresh growth from within and becomes in
its turn a “stopping” for the inner and freshly formed layer of sole.
What happens if the knife is used instead of nature being allowed to
go on with its own process of desquamation? Why, the deeper parts
of the sole become exposed to the action of the air before they are
prepared for it by a gradual process of drying, and abruptly dry and
contract. This is what causes the sole to become increasedly cupped,
and the hoof to become contracted in a great measure. The stopping
of horses’ hoofs is not always necessary if the sole is left, as it
should be, in an unmutilated condition, unless horses are made to
stand a great deal upon dry floors. Much of the fuss and waste of
time and material involved in the stopping of horses’ hoofs are based
on error. All that is necessary to remove the sole in a normal foot
is accomplished when the rasp is flatly applied to the lower surface
of the wall in reducing it to its proper dimensions. The thicker the
sole the better, provided it does not project below the wall, or
receive too much pressure from the shoe. One can readily understand
how much more efficient a thick sole is as a protection to the
underlying quick, especially on rough, frozen and stony roads, than a
comparatively thin one.
Now, if the sole is left thick, as it should be, and in which case
the white line would necessarily be, it is a good guide for the
shoer, in the majority of cases, to rasp down to the white line.
Another error frequently made, though not so common as mutilation
of the sole, is cutting away the frog. It does not require a deep
student of physiology of the foot to see almost at a glance the
function of the frog. Take a normal hoof and examine the frog and you
will observe that it is placed at the back of the hoof, where the
major portion of the pressure comes. You further find that, unlike
either the sole or the wall, it is endowed with elasticity equal to
india rubber. It is very evident that it is intended not only to come
in contact with the ground, but also to act as a buffer in lessening
concussion. Now, what happens if you cut it away and leave the heel
so high that it does not come in contact with the ground? Why, it
shrinks and becomes as hard as wood, entirely unsuited to stand
pressure without bruising the underlying quick, and no longer capable
of performing its office of breaking concussion. Not only that, but
with a thin, dried-up sole, the shrunken hoof draws the quarters
with it, and you have contracted feet or at least contracted heels.
After this mischief has been done through ignorance, then the horse
must have that curer of all ills of the foot (according to some wise
ones), spreaders, to overcome the contraction of the hoof.
Although horses are largely kept under artificial conditions, there
is no reason why their hoofs should become contracted if rationally
treated, unless some disease of the foot develops, such as navicular
disease. Under such circumstances, the contraction is the result of
disease, not the cause of it.
Another point that should be carefully watched in preparing the hoof
for the reception of the shoe is to have it level. If either inside
or outside of the hoof is left too long, it changes the direction
of the line of weight and subjects some portion or portions of the
extremity to undue strain or pressure and consequent liability to
injury.
Horses that are turned out into soft fields or put into box stalls or
barnyards, where there is not sufficient attrition to wear the hoof
to its normal dimensions, should have it rasped down every month to
its proper proportions. This particularly applies to young colts,
and neglect of it is the initial step in causing hoofs of defective
formation.
CORRECT ACTION IN HORSES
While it is the intention of this article to endeavor to picture
ideally good action, by which wear and tear and loss of power are
reduced to a minimum, it is not intended to decry the possession for
certain purposes, by a horse, of what is usually called high action.
To render horses attractive for show and for pleasure purposes it
is a highly desirable quality and very much increases their market
value. The good horseman would much prefer, however, to sit behind a
horse with moderate action, that raises his feet, advances them in a
straight line with stride enough to insure desirable progress--yet
not so much that the feet cannot be put down squarely--every part
bearing its proper proportion of weight and striking the ground
lightly, than one with excessive but markedly defective action. High
action, like other qualities possessed in a high degree, is very
apt to be associated with defects that detract from its perfection
and lessen a horse’s wearing quality. The ill-consequences of these
defects are intensified in direct ratio to the excessiveness of the
action. The craze for high action at any cost is not so rampant as
it used to be some years ago. Horse-show promoters became wearied
of seeing their premiums for action carried off by acrobatic
monstrosities, and it caused them to modify the wording of their
prize lists and call for all-around goers with twenty-five per cent.
for conformation. The horse that winds his legs about, “straddles,”
“points,” “rolls,” “spreads behind,” “waddles,” or drags his hind
legs, is no longer in favor with the good judge, no matter how
excessive his action.
The character of the action is a very important factor in determining
the amount of wear and tear a horse will stand. To become a good
judge of action is not such an easy matter as might be imagined.
There are many who have a good eye for a horse, and, in fact, are,
in a measure, good judges, who cannot intelligently criticize a
horse’s action from different standpoints. There are many who are
taken with flashy action, which, as a rule, enhances the market
value of a horse possessing it, but is very apt to be associated
with greater defects from a utilitarian standpoint than that which
is less attractive. In estimating the quality of action correctly
in different individuals one has to have an ideal. How seldom in
sitting behind a horse and closely observing his way of going at the
trot and walk, do we find action that comes up to our ideal! Perfect
action, as far as usefulness is concerned, is frictionless and light,
and the foot is placed on the ground squarely. There is no loss of
time or power in progression, or, in other words, the frictionless
mover does not labor, neither does the light-stepper experience
the ill-effects of concussion, which is the result of bringing the
foot to the ground in a pounding manner. What a saving of wear and
tear and power the smooth-mover and light-stepper experiences! One
is amazed in instances to observe how much work a weak-footed,
poor-legged horse will stand and still remain in workable condition.
It can be accounted for in many cases by the defects mentioned being
compensated for by light action.
It is interesting and instructive to study the numerous and varying
conditions that conduce to defective action. Lightness of step
appears to be a quality not always dependent upon the conformation of
the individual. For instance, length and obliquity of the pasterns
are usually said to cause lightness and elasticity of the tread, but
do not always do so, for we find many heavy-going horses of this
formation. Mechanically, this should conduce to light-stepping, and
does in a measure, but the fact that horses with oblique pasterns
sometimes pound, leads us to look for another explanation. The
statement may be advanced, in explanation, that the elasticity
resulting from oblique pasterns may be neutralized by a straight
shoulder; but this theory will not hold, as one not infrequently
finds straight-shouldered, short-pasterned horses which step lightly.
Another explanation must be found. We have to seek elsewhere in
the animal economy than in the peculiar arrangement of the bones,
muscles, tendons and ligaments of the limbs to account for the light
step of some horses.
The endowment with this desirable quality is undoubtedly referable to
the nervous system, just as speed is. We cannot determine the degree
of a horse’s speed by studying his external form. We have to subject
him to a test, and so we have in forming a conclusion as to the
degree of lightness or heaviness of his step.