indifference to real information as to existing conditions at Panama
has been astounding. Despite, for instance, the private knowledge of
the Commission in 1906 through their last 15 months that the bores in
these Gatun gorges were flowing bores, not one additional test had
been undertaken in them. In summary of foundation conditions one thing
is certain. First and foremost and indispensibly there must be at the
Isthmus, since the underground conditions have been revealed, the safe
barring off of permeable strata under the crucial dam. This cannot be
done at Gatun for the high dam”.
On the other hand an editorial in the Engineering News of February 25,
1909, says, “We can testify from actual personal observation and study
of the dam site and of the borings and pits that the Gatun dam will be
as safe and permanent as any structure ever reared by man”.
In the President’s message of February 17, 1909 there is this
statement, “As to the Gatun dam itself, they (the board of engineers)
show that not only is the dam safe, but that on the whole the plan
already adopted would make it needlessly high and strong, and
accordingly they recommend that its height be reduced by 20 feet, which
change I have accordingly directed”.
In the Engineering News of April 1, 1909 is the following statement,
“If a private corporation, not subject to the clamor of public
criticism were confronted with the task of throwing a dam across the
Chagres Valley at Gatun, they would build a structure which would be
not more than one-fifth the size of that which is now being built
there”. Farther on in the same article a comparison of the Gatun dam
with alluvial dams of India and the levees along the Mississippi is
summed up with these words, “Compared with any and all of these the
conditions for safe and permanent dam construction at Gatun may be
considered ideal”. Is it any wonder that people are confused and
disgusted when they attempt to obtain the truth?
The length of the dam is to be 7,700 feet, but the natural surface
reaches or exceeds the dam elevation in three places for about 700 feet
in all. At the level of 21 feet above the sea it will be about 2,600
feet long in two sections, separated by Spillway Hill. According to the
engineer’s report the dam will rest upon brown or blue clay and silt.
Under the dam there are two geologic gorges, one 185 feet deep (below
sea level) and the other 255 feet deep. These are filled with river
alluvium and other deposits, consisting, according to official reports,
of silt, soil, brown and blue clay, rotten wood, sand, and gravel--the
most, if not all of it water bearing. The cross-sectional area of the
shallower gorge is 205,000 square feet and of the deeper one 120,000
square feet.
(For profile, cross-section, and plan see the following page.)
The dam is to consist of two piles of rock 1,200 feet apart and carried
up to 60 feet above mean tide with the space between them and up to 115
feet above sea-level filled by selected material deposited in place by
the hydraulic process. A slip occurred at one of these rock toes during
November, 1908, and caused considerable alarm throughout the country,
so much, in fact, that the President sent W. H. Taft with a group of 7
noted engineers to investigate. They reported that “A full study of all
the data and of the material, and of the plans that are proposed leaves
no doubt in our minds as to the safe, tight, and durable character of
the Gatun dam”.
At the close of the fiscal year 1908–’09 three 20-inch suction dredges
were depositing material over the area between the rock piles, and the
fill had reached an average elevation of 16 feet above sea-level. A
total of 2,501,372 cubic yards was placed in the dam during the year.
Excavation through the Spillway Hill was practically completed and
30,464 cubic yards of concrete laid. During the year 359,821 cubic
yards of material were removed from Spillway hill by steam shovels and
placed on the dam.
The original canal plans provided for a flight of two locks at La
Boca, near the Pacific, and one at Pedro Miguel. Steps were taken to
construct the former and trestles were built along the toes from which
to dump material from Culebra Cut. The trestles failed after dumping
began and material overlying the rock moved laterally, the movement
continuing for two weeks in some places. After this result these dams
were abandoned so that instead of locks at La Boca they will be built
at Miraflores. Another reason for the change besides poor foundations
is the military advantages of the latter over the former position.
Both the dams at Pedro Miguel and Miraflores will be constructed of two
rock piles, the portion between being filled by hydraulic methods. Very
little work has been done upon them.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--PROFILE ON THE AXIS OF THE GATUN DAM SITE
SHOWING UNDERLYING MATERIAL AS DETERMINED BY BORING.
(From Report of C. M. Saville, Assistant Engineer, August 29, 1908.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Revised cross-section of Gatun Dam as
recommended by Board of Consulting Engineers, February, 1909.]
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--GENERAL PLAN OF GATUN DAM.]
X. SANITATION
At Panama the seasons are divided into two well defined periods: the
dry, or winter, and the wet, or summer seasons. By this occurrence of
maximum moisture and maximum heat, the health conditions are made the
worst possible.
The dry season includes the months of January, February, March and
April, the rainy season the remainder of the year. During the dry
season the average temperature at Colon for 6 years was 70.5° F, with
a monthly maximum of 90.9° F, which came in January, and a monthly
minimum of 68.4° in the same month. During the rainy season the maximum
average temperature for any month occurred in October and was 91.9° F.
The minimum was 66.9° F., for August. A record of 15 years at Colon
shows a maximum rainfall of 154.9 inches and a mean of 130.2 inches.
Four years’ records at Panama show a maximum of 84.73 inches and an
average of 66.8 inches. At Culebra the records for 3 years showed a
maximum of 98.97 inches and a minimum of 64.25 inches.
The most common forms of disease on the Isthmus are due to fevers.
According to good authority the most sickly period is September,
October and November, during which time dysentery and a severe bilious
fever are very common. Foreigners seldom acquire the immunity of the
natives from local diseases. The Isthmus by various writers has been
called, “The Grave of the European”, “The Pest-House of the Tropics”,
and one author says that here truly “Life dies and death lives”.
On account of the health conditions the labor question is greatly
complicated. For this reason extreme care has been taken by the United
States Government to do all in the power of science to make the
zone a healthy locality. Sanitation expenses will average at least
$2,000,000 per year. The work has been under the direct supervision of
Colonel W. C. Gorgas. The war on the mosquito has been continual and
unrelenting. For the first two months of the fiscal year 1908–’09, the
work in the Canal Zone, consisted of the collection and disposal of
garbage and night soil, the cutting of grass and brush, and sanitary
drainage and oiling. In the terminal cities the work consists of
inspection, fumigation, grass cutting, surface drainage, and oiling
undrained areas.
This department also has charge of the hospitals and of the quarantine.
As far as possible all the sick are concentrated at Ancon.
Last year’s records show an improvement over the preceding year. The
total number of employees admitted to the hospitals and sick camps
amounted to 46,194, representing 23.49 as the number of men sick daily
as against 23.85 for the preceding year. The number of deaths was 530.
According to these figures the Canal Zone is one of the healthiest
communities in the world; but it must be remembered that the population
there consists of men and women in the prime of life and that a number
of the sick are returned to the United States before death overtakes
them.
There were no cases of plague or yellow fever originating on the
Isthmus during the year 1908–’09. The last case of yellow fever
occurred in May, 1906.
A supply of perfectly healthful water has been secured by the
construction of reservoir at different points of the Zone, and the
Commission hotels and cottages have all the advantages of an excellent
modern water system.
XI. SOCIAL LIFE
Those who have endeavored to better the standard of social life at
Panama have met with difficulties always connected with an enterprise
of the character and magnitude of the great Canal. It is surprising
what has been accomplished. Questionable amusements there are, but that
is to be expected among such an assemblage of men. Nevertheless, the
conditions of living there are gradually approaching what we find in
the average community in the United States.
There is a well organized school system in the Canal Zone. Twelve
schools are maintained for white children and seventeen for colored
children. The highest monthly enrollment was 675 whites and 1,417
colored pupils. There is a superintendent of schools and assistant
supervisor of primary grades.
Two high schools are in operation, one at Culebra and one at Cristobal.
Children at other points in the Zone requiring high school instruction
are given free transportation over the railroad by the Commission.
Instruction is given in algebra, geometry, physical geography, general
history, botany, English, German, French, Spanish, and Latin. There
were but 25 children who took high school work in 1908–’09.
In addition to the transportation given high school pupils,
transportation is given to children in towns where no white schools are
maintained. Last year children were also carried by wagon from Balboa
to Ancon, as were high school pupils from Empire and Culebra. A boat
and ferryman were employed in two cases.
Quarters are furnished free to all the men, married and unmarried.
Roosevelt, upon his return from Panama said the wives of the employees
seemed satisfied with their home life and surroundings. The houses are
excellent considering the conditions.
Employees purchase all necessary supplies from government commissaries
at about the same prices as are current in the United States. On every
workday a refrigerator car runs from Colon to Panama and delivers to
the various villages all orders previously placed for supplies such as
ice, meat, vegetables and fruit. Payment is made by the use of coupons,
their values being deducted from the employee’s salary.
Employees are allowed free medical, surgical, and hospital attendance,
including medicines and food while in the hospital.
Employees with salaries fixed on an annual or monthly basis receive no
pay for overtime work but if their health requires it, will be granted
a leave of 6 weeks absence or less during the year with full pay. Those
who are paid by the hour do, of course, receive pay for overtime work.
A number of suitable church buildings has been erected by the
Commission. They are two-story buildings, the upper floors being
fitted up as lodge rooms and the first floor for religious purposes.
Practically every religious denomination is now represented on the
Isthmus by the chaplains employed by the Commission.
Roosevelt stated after his visit to the Zone that “It is imperatively
necessary to provide ample recreation and amusement if the men are
to be kept well and healthy.” To this end four clubhouses have been
completed at Culebra, Empire, Gorgona, and Cristobal and several
more are contemplated. The four are alike in design, and consist of
a front building of two stories connected with a rear building of
one story. The front part is 135 feet by 45 feet, and contains a
social parlor, a card room, a billiard and writing room on the first
floor and an assembly hall on the second floor. The rear building,
100 feet by 28 feet, contains a double bowling alley, a gymnasium,
shower baths, and over a hundred single lockers. The Commission,
assisted by the Young Men’s Christian Association, manages these
buildings. Besides furnishing a library of 787 volumes to each of these
buildings provision is made for the delivery of 100 weekly and monthly
periodicals.
Last year 1908–’09, 2,140 employees availed themselves of regular
membership privileges. The membership rate is 10 dollars per year. The
fact that 56,835 games in bowling took place during the year shows the
extensive use made of these buildings.
There are various athletic organizations on the Isthmus. Gymnasium
activities have consisted mostly of basket ball and indoor baseball.
Field sports are sometimes held on moonlight nights and holidays. An
athletic park has been built near Cristobal.
During the year there were 81 performances given by lyceum and
vaudeville talent from the United States, with an attendance of
18,225. Chess, checker, glee, minstrel, dramatic, and orchestra clubs
have been successfully maintained.
“These associations have held a vital relation to the canal
construction in promoting contentment among employees, furnishing
healthful amusement, effecting greater permanency of the force, and in
elevating the standards of living”.
XII. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
The economic importance of the Panama Canal is a fruitful topic for
discussion. Some authorities think that a large share of the world’s
commerce will naturally and immediately use this new path between the
oceans; but the general opinion of those best fitted to decide is that
the canal will not be a paying investment, at least for the first
years of its operation. As a German paper puts it, “Nobody thinks of
remunerativeness any more. The fruits of the enterprise consist in
indirect profits; they must be looked for in the military-political
field and in the promotion of American commerce. In this lies the
center of gravity of the situation”.
From a commercial standpoint the canal will be of little or no
advantage to Europe for the way to the whole of eastern Asia and
Australia, inclusive of New Zealand via the Suez Canal will remain
much nearer. For Europe, then, the only saving is in traffic with the
west coast of America. In commerce with western South America England
occupies first place, and is followed by Germany, the United States and
France, in the order named. It is to be noted that vessels trading with
the southern portion of the west coast of South America will prefer to
go around Cape Horn rather than pay the tolls through the Panama Canal.
The greatest commercial advantage comes to the eastern ports of the
United States, namely 9,531 nautical miles between New York and San
Francisco, so that New York on this route gains 2,889 miles more, for
example, than Hamburg, Germany. The main fact, however, is that this
saving is so large on the route from New York to Eastern Asia and
Australia that it changes the present disadvantage of New York into
an advantage when compared with many European ports. From Hamburg to
Hongkong, via Suez, the distance is 10,542 miles; from New York to
Hongkong, via Suez, it is 11,655 miles. The Panama Canal will give
nothing to Hamburg but a saving of 1,820 miles to New York so that the
distance will be 707 miles less than from Hamburg. In routes to the
more northern ports of eastern Asia, as well as to those of eastern
Australia, the gain of New York is still greater. From Hamburg via
Suez to Melbourne is 12,367 miles; from New York 12,500 miles. Via
Panama, however, the distance from New York is only 10,427 miles, so
that New York will be about 2,000 miles nearer than Hamburg. In many
cases therefore the Panama Canal will give New York a decided advantage
over European ports.
There are other than commercial reasons for building the canal. The
effect which it will have upon the tropical districts of the west
is worth considering. An author on “Social Evolution” in describing
this region said that there are only two words which adequately
represent the conditions of this country, “anarchy and bankruptcy”,
and he suggests removing the anarchy by the substitution of strong
and righteous government. Can any one doubt that the construction of
an international waterway through the Isthmus will tend to improve
administration in the American tropics?
[Illustration:
GENERAL MAP
OF THE
CANAL ZONE
AND THE
PANAMA CANAL
]
Transcriber’s Notes
Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant
preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.
The original text was typed, not printed. Consequently, there were
more typographical errors than would normally be found in a book, and
Transcribers corrected most of them without noting the individual
corrections here.
Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained; occurrences of
inconsistent hyphenation have not been changed.
Transcriber segmented the map at the end of the book into three larger
parts for readability, in addition to retaining an image of the original.
“Maratime” was printed that way, twice; “Maritime” did not occur in
this book.
Page 3: “concensus” was printed that way.
Page 15: “built on the lock canal” was printed as “built on the
sea-level canal”, but “sea-level” was crossed out by hand and replaced
by what appears to be “Loc”. Given the context and name of the chapter,
Transcribers decided it was intended to be “lock”.