horizontal-face machine, it is a simple matter, after the face is
tamped and cores pushed into place, to throw into each opening a small
amount of rich and rather wet mortar, spread this fairly evenly, and
then go on tamping in the ordinary mixture until the mold is filled.
A dense layer across each of the cross walls is thus obtained, which
effectually prevents moisture from passing beyond it. A method of
accomplishing the same result with vertical-face machines, by inserting
tapered wooden blocks in the middle of the cross walls, withdrawing
these blocks after tamping, and filling the spaces with rich mortar,
has been patented. In the two-piece system the penetration of moisture
through the wall is prevented by leaving an empty space between the web
of the block and the inside face, or by filling this space with rich
mortar.
5. Use of Waterproof Compounds.—There are compounds on the market, of
a fatty or waxy nature, which, when mixed with cement to the amount of
{698} only 1 or 2 per cent of its weight, increase its water-resisting
qualities in a remarkable degree. By thoroughly mixing 1 to 2 pounds
of suitable compound with each sack of cement used, blocks which are
practically waterproof may be made, at very small additional cost,
from 1 to 4 or 1 to 5 mixtures. In purchasing waterproof compound,
however, care should be taken to select such as has been proved to be
_permanent_ in its effect, and some of the materials used for this
purpose lose their effect after a few days’ exposure to weather, and
are entirely worthless.
6. Application to Surface after Erecting.—Various washes, to make
concrete and stone impervious to water, have been used with some
success. Among these the best known is the Sylvester wash of alum and
soap solution. It is stated that this requires frequent renewal, and it
is hardly likely to prove of any value in the concrete industry. The
writer’s experience has been that the most effective remedy, in case
a concrete building proves damp, is to give the outside walls a very
thin wash of cement suspended in water. One or two coats will be found
sufficient. If too thick a coating is formed it will show hair cracks.
The effect of the cement wash is to make the walls appear lighter in
color, and if the coating is thin the appearance is in no way injured.
«General Hints on Waterproof Qualities.»—To obtain good water-resisting
properties the first precaution is to make the concrete sufficiently
wet. Dry-tamped backs, even from rich mixture, will always be porous
and absorbent, while the same mixture in plastic condition will give
blocks which are dense, strong, and water-tight. The difference in this
respect is shown by the following tests of small concrete blocks, made
by the writer. The concrete used was made of 1 part cement and 5 parts
mixed fine and coarse sand, by weight.
No. 1. With 8 per cent water, rather dryer than ordinary block
concrete, tamped in mold.
No. 2. With 10 per cent water, tamped in the mold, and the mold removed
at once.
No. 3. With 25 per cent water, poured into a mold resting on a flat
surface of dry sand; after 1 hour the surface was troweled smooth; mold
not removed until set.
These blocks were allowed to harden a week in moist air, then dried.
The weights, voids, and water absorption were as follows:
1 2 3
Damp- Wet- Poured
tamped tamped
Weight, per cubic foot, pounds 122.2 123.9 110.0
Voids, calculated, per cent of volume 25.9 24.9 33.3
Water required to fill voids, per cent
of weight 9.8 9.4 12.5
Water absorbed, after 2 hours, per cent
of weight 8.8 6.4 10.5
The rate at which these blocks absorbed water was then determined by
drying them thoroughly, then placing them in a tray containing water
1/4 inch in depth, and weighing them at intervals.
1 2 3
Damp- Wet- Poured
tamped tamped
1/2 hour 2.0 0.9 1.8
1 hour 3.2 1.1 2.5
2 hours 4.1 1.6 3.2
4 hours 5.2 2.0 3.8
24 hours 6.1 3.4 7.0
48 hours 6.4 4.3 7.5
These figures show that concrete which is sufficiently wet to be
thoroughly plastic absorbs water much more slowly than dryer concrete,
and prove the importance of using as much water as possible in the
damp-tamping process.
«Cost.»—Concrete blocks can be sold and laid up at a good profit at 25
cents per cubic foot of wall. Common red brick costs (at this writing)
generally about $12 per thousand, laid. At 24 to the cubic foot, a
thousand brick are equal to 41.7 cubic foot of wall; or, $12, 29 cents
per cubic foot. Brick walls with pressed brick facing cost from 40
cents to 50 cents per cubic foot, and dressed stone from $1 to $1.50
per foot.
The factory cost of concrete blocks varies according to the cost of
materials. Let us assume cement to be $1.50 per barrel of 380 pounds,
and sand and gravel 25 cents per ton. With a 1 to 4 mixture, 1 barrel
cement will make 1,900 pounds of solid concrete, or at 130 pounds per
cubic foot, 14.6 cubic feet. The cost of materials will then be:
Cement, 380 pounds $1.50
Sand and gravel, 1,500 pounds 0.19
──────
Total $1.69
or 11.5 cents per cubic foot solid concrete. Now, blocks 9 inches high
and 32 inches long make 2 square feet of face of wall, each. Blocks of
this height {699} and length, 8 inches thick, make 1 1/3 cubic feet
of wall; and blocks 12 inches thick make 2 cubic feet of wall. From
these figures we may calculate the cost of materials for these blocks,
with cores or openings equal to 1/3 or 1/2 the total volume, as
follows:
Per cubic foot of block, 1/3 opening 7.7 cts.
Per cubic foot of block, 1/2 opening 5.8 cts.
Block 8 x 9 x 32 inches, 1/3 opening 10.3 cts.
Block 8 x 9 x 32 inches, 1/2 opening 7.7 cts.
Block 12 x 9 x 32 inches, 1/3 opening 15.4 cts.
Block 12 x 9 x 32 inches, 1/2 opening 11.6 cts.
If one-third of the cement is replaced by hydrate lime the quality of
the blocks will be improved, and the cost of material reduced about
10 per cent. The cost of labor required in manufacturing, handling,
and delivering blocks will vary with the locality and the size and
equipment of factory. With hand mixing, 3 men at an average of $1.75
each will easily make 75 8-inch or 50 12-inch blocks, with 1/3
openings, per day. The labor cost for these sizes of blocks will
therefore be 7 cents and 10 1/2 cents respectively. At a factory
equipped with power concrete mixer and cars for transporting blocks,
in which a number of machines are kept busy, the labor cost will be
considerably less. An extensive industry located in a large city is,
however, subject to many expenses which are avoided in a small country
plant, such as high wages, management, office rent, advertising, etc.,
so that the total cost of production is likely to be about the same in
both cases. A fair estimate of total factory cost is as follows:
Material Labor Total
8 x 32 inch, 1/3 space 10.3 7 17.3 cts.
8 x 32 inch, 1/2 space 7.7 6 13.7 cts.
12 x 32 inch, 1/3 space 15.4 10.5 25.9 cts.
12 x 32 inch, 1/2 space 11.6 9 20.6 cts.
With fair allowance for outside expenses and profit, 8-inch blocks may
be sold at 30 cents and 12-inch at 40 cents each. For laying 12-inch
blocks in the wall, contractors generally figure about 10 cents each.
Adding 5 cents for teaming, the blocks will cost 55 cents each,
erected, or 27 1/2 cents per cubic foot of wall. This is less than
the cost of common brick, and the above figures show that this price
could be shaded somewhat, if necessary, to meet competition.—_S. B.
Newberry in a monograph issued by the American Association of Portland
Cement Manufacturers._
«Artificial Marbles.»—I.—The mass used by Beaumel consists of alum and
heavy spar (barium sulphate) with addition of water and the requisite
pigments. The following proportions have been found to be serviceable:
Alum, 1,000 parts; heavy spar, 10 to 100 parts; water, 100 parts; the
amount of heavy spar being governed by the degree of translucence
desired. The alum is dissolved in water with the use of heat. As soon
as the solution boils the heavy spar is mixed in, stirred with water
and the pigment; this is then boiled down until the mixture has lost
about 3 per cent of its weight, at which moment the mass exhibits a
density of 34° Bé. at a temperature of 212° F. The mixture is allowed
to cool with constant stirring until the substance is semi-liquid. The
resultant mass is poured into a mold covered on the inside with several
layers of collodion and the cast permitted to cool completely in the
mold, whereupon it is taken out and dried entirely in an airy room.
Subsequently the object may be polished, patinized, or finished in some
other way.
II.—Imitation Black Marble.—A black marble of similar character to
that exported from Belgium—the latter product being simply prepared
slate—may be produced in the following manner: The slate suitable for
the purpose is first smoothly polished with a sandstone, so that no
visible impression is made on it with a chisel—this being rough—after
which it is polished finely with artificial pumice stone, and lastly
finished with extremely light natural pumice stone, the surface
then presenting a soft, velvet-like appearance. After drying and
thoroughly heating the finely polished surface is impregnated with a
heated mixture of oil and fine lampblack. This is allowed to remain 12
hours; and, according to whether the slate used is more or less gray,
the process is repeated until the gray appearance is lost. Polishing
thoroughly with emery on a linen rag follows, and the finishing polish
is done with tin ashes, to which is added some lampblack. A finish
being made thus, wax dissolved in turpentine, with some lampblack, is
spread on the polished plate and warmed again, which after a while is
rubbed off vigorously with a {700} clean linen rag. Treated thus, the
slate has the appearance of black marble.
STONE CEMENTS: See Adhesives.
STONE CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
STONES FOR SHARPENING: See Tool Setting and Whetstones.
STONES (PRECIOUS), IMITATION OF: See Gems, Artificial.
STONEWARE: See Ceramics.
STONEWARE CEMENTS: See Adhesives and Lutes.
«STOPPERS.»
I.—To make an anti-leak and lubricating mixture for plug-cocks use
2 parts of tried suet and 1 part of beeswax melted together; stir
thoroughly, strain, and cool.
II.—A mixture for making glass stoppers tight is made by melting
together equal parts of glycerine and paraffine.
To Loosen a Glass Stopper.—I.—Make a mixture of
Alcohol 2 drachms
Glycerine 1 drachm
Sodium chloride 1 drachm
Let a portion of this stand in the space above the stopper for a few
hours, when a slight tap will loosen the stopper.
II.—A circular adjustable clamp, to which is attached a strip of
asbestos in which coils of platinum wire are imbedded, is obtained.
By placing this on the neck of the bottle, and passing a current
of electricity through the coils of wire, sufficient heat will be
generated to expand the neck and liberate the stopper. Heat may also
be generated by passing a yard of cord once around the bottle neck and,
by taking one end of the cord in each hand, drawing it rapidly back and
forth. Care should be taken that the contents of the bottle are not
spilled on the hand or thrown into the face when the stopper does come
out—or when the bottle breaks.
STOPPER LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants.
«STOVE POLISH:»
See also Polishes.
The following formula gives a liquid stove blacking:
Graphite, in fine powder 1 pound
Lampblack 1 ounce
Rosin 4 ounces
Turpentine 1 gallon
The mixture must be well shaken when used, and must not be applied when
there is a fire or light near on account of the inflammability of the
vapor.
This form may be esteemed a convenience by some, but the rosin and
turpentine will, of course, give rise to some disagreeable odor on
first heating the stove, after the liquid is applied.
Graphite is the foundation ingredient in many stove polishes;
lampblack, which is sometimes added, as in the foregoing formula,
deepens the color, but the latter form of carbon is of course much more
readily burned off than the former. Graphite may be applied by merely
mixing with water, and then no odor follows the heating of the iron.
The coating must be well rubbed with a brush to obtain a good luster.
The solid cakes of stove polish found in the market are made by
subjecting the powdered graphite, mixed with spirit of turpentine, to
great pressure. They have to be reduced to powder and mixed with water
before being applied.
Any of them must be well rubbed with a brush after application to give
a handsome finish.
STOVE CEMENT: See Cement.
STOVE CLEANERS: See Cleaning Compounds.
STOVE LACQUER: See Lacquers.
STOVE VARNISHES: See Varnishes.
STRAMONIUM, ANTIDOTE FOR: See Atropine.
STRAP LUBRICANT: See Lubricant.
STRAW FIREPROOFING: See Fireproofing.
STRAWBERRIES, FROZEN: See Ice Creams.
STRAWBERRY JUICE: See Essences and Extracts.
STRAW-HAT CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
STRAW-HAT DYES: See Hats. {701}
STROPPING PASTES: See Razor Pastes.
«STYPTICS.»
Styptics are substances which arrest local bleeding. Creosote, tannic
acid, alcohol, alum, and most of the astringent salts belong to this
class.
«Brocchieri’s Styptic.»—A nostrum consisting of the water distilled
from pine tops.
«Helvetius’s Styptic.»—Iron filings (fine) and cream of tartar mixed to
a proper consistence with French brandy.
«Eaton’s Styptic.»—A solution of sulphate disguised by the addition of
some unimportant substances. Helvetius’s styptic was for a long time
employed under this title.
«Styptic Paste of Gutta Percha.»—Gutta percha, 1 ounce; Stockholm tar,
1 1/2 or 2 ounces; creosote, 1 drachm; shellac, 1 ounce; or quantity
sufficient to render it sufficiently hard. To be boiled together with
constant stirring, till it forms a homogeneous mass. For alveolar
hemorrhage, and as a styptic in toothache. To be softened by molding
with the fingers.
SULPHATE STAINS, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
SULTANA ROLL: See Ice Creams.
SUNBURN REMEDIES: See Cosmetics.
SUTURES OF CATGUT, THEIR PREPARATION: See Catgut.
SYNDETICON: See Adhesives.
«Syrups»
(See also Essences and Extracts.)
The syrups should either be made from the best granulated sugar,
free from ultramarine, or else rock-candy syrup. If the former, pure
distilled water should be used in making the syrup, as only in this
manner can a syrup be obtained that will be free from impurities and
odor. There are two methods by which syrup can be made, namely, by
the cold process, or by boiling. The advantage of the former is its
convenience; of the latter, that it has better keeping qualities. In
the cold process, the sugar is either stirred up in the water until it
is dissolved, or water is percolated or filtered through the sugar,
thus forming a solution. In the hot process, the sugar is simply
dissolved in the water by the aid of heat, stirring until solution is
effected. The strength of the syrup for fountain use should be about 6
pounds in the gallon of finished syrup; it is best, however, to make
the stock syrup heavier, as it will keep much better, using 15 pounds
of granulated sugar, and 1 gallon of water. When wanted for use it
can be diluted to the proper density with water. The syrups of the
market are of this concentrated variety. Unless the apartments of the
dispenser are larger than is usual, it is often best to buy the syrup,
the difference in cost being so small that when the time is taken
into consideration the profit is entirely lost. Foamed syrups should,
however, never be purchased; they are either contaminated with foreign
flavor, or are more prone to fermentation than plain syrup.
«Fruit Syrups.»—These may be prepared from fruit juices, and the
desired quantity of syrup, then adding soda foam, color, and generally
a small amount of fruit-acid solution. They may also be made by
reducing the concentrated fruit syrups of the market with syrup,
otherwise proceeding as above. As the fruit juices and concentrated
syrups always have a tried formula attached, it is needless to use
space for this purpose.
When a flavor is weak it may be fortified by adding a small amount
of flavoring extract, but under no condition should a syrup flavored
entirely with an essence be handed out to the consumer as a fruit
syrup, for there is really no great resemblance between the two. Fruit
syrups may be dispensed solid by adding the syrup to the soda water and
stirring with a spoon. Use nothing but the best ingredients in making
syrups.
«Preservation of Syrups.»—The preservation of syrups is purely a
pharmaceutical question. They must be made right in order to keep
right. Syrups, particularly fruit syrups, must be kept aseptic,
especially when made without heat. The containers should be made of
glass, porcelain, or pure block tin, so that they may be sterilized,
and should be easily and quickly removed, so that the operation may be
effected with promptness and facility. As is well known, the operation
of sterilization is {702} very simple, consisting in scalding the
article with boiling water. No syrup should ever be filled into a
container without first sterilizing the container. The fruit acids, in
the presence of sugar, serve as a media for the growth and development
of germ life upon exposure to the air. Hence the employment of heat as
pasteurization and sterilization in the preserving of fruits, etc.
A pure fruit syrup, filled into a glass bottle, porcelain jar, or
block-tin can, which has been rendered sterile with boiling water,
maintained at a cool temperature, will keep for any reasonable length
of time. All danger of fracturing the glass, by pouring water into it,
may be obviated by first wetting the interior of the bottle with cold
water.
The fruits for syrups must not only be fully ripe, but they must be
used immediately after gathering. The fruit must be freed from stems,
seeds, etc., filled into lightly tied linen sacks, and thus subjected
to pressure, to obtain their juices. Immediately after pressure the
juice should be heated quickly to 167° F., and filtered through a
felt bag. The filtrate should fall directly upon the sugar necessary
to make it a syrup. The heating serves the purpose of coagulating the
albuminous bodies present in the juices, and thus to purify the latter.
Syrups thus prepared have not only a most agreeable, fresh taste, but
are very stable, remaining in a good condition for years.
«Hints on Preparation of Syrups.»—Keep the extracts in a cool, dark
place. Never add flavoring extracts to hot syrup. It will cause them
to evaporate, and weaken the flavor. Keep all the mixing utensils
scrupulously clean. Never mix fruit syrups, nor let them stand in the
same vessels in which sarsaparilla, ginger, and similar extract flavors
are mixed and kept. If possible, always use distilled water in making
syrup. Never allow a syrup containing acid to come in contact with any
metal except pure block tin. Clean the syrup jars each time before
refilling. Keep all packages of concentrated syrups and crushed fruits
tightly corked. Mix only a small quantity of crushed fruit in the bowl
at a time, so as to have it always fresh.
«How to Make Simple Syrups—Hot Process.»—Put 25 pounds granulated sugar
in a large pail, or kettle, and pour on and stir hot water enough
to make 4 gallons, more or less depending on how thick the syrup is
desired. Then strain while hot through fine cheese cloth.
«Cold Process.»—By agitation. Sugar, 25 pounds; water, 2 gallons. Put
the sugar in a container, add the water, and agitate with a wooden
paddle until the sugar is dissolved. An earthenware jar with a cover
and a faucet at the bottom makes a very convenient container.
«Cold Process.»—By percolation. A good, easy way to keep syrup on hand
all the time: Have made a galvanized iron percolator, 2 feet long, 8
inches across top, and 4 inches at base, with a 4-inch wire sieve in
bottom. Finish the bottom in shape of a funnel. Put a syrup faucet in a
barrel, and set on a box, so that the syrup can be drawn into a gallon
measure. Bore a hole in the barrel head, and insert the percolator.
Fill three-fourths full of sugar, and fill with water. As fast as the
syrup runs into the barrel fill the percolator, always putting in
plenty of sugar. By this method 20 to 25 gallons heavy syrup can be
made in a day.
«Rock-Candy Syrup.»—Sugar, 32 pounds; water, 2 gallons. Put the sugar
and water in a suitable container, set on stove, and keep stirring
until the mixture boils up once. Strain and allow to cool. When cool
there will be on top a crust, or film, of crystallized sugar. Strain
again to remove this film, and the product will be what is commonly
known as rock-candy syrup. This may be reduced with one-fifth of its
bulk of water when wanted for use.
«COLORS FOR SYRUPS:»
«Caramel.»—Place 3 pounds of crushed sugar in a kettle with 1 pint of
water, and heat. The sugar will at first dissolve, but as the water
evaporates a solid mass will be formed. This must be broken up.
Continue to heat, with constant stirring, until the mass has again
become liquefied. Keep on a slow fire until the mass becomes very
dark; then remove the kettle from the fire and pour in slowly 3 pints
of boiling water. Set the kettle back on the fire and permit contents
to boil for a short time, then remove, and cool. Add simple syrup to
produce any required consistency.
«Blue.»—
I.—Indigo carmine 1 part
Water 20 parts
Indigo carmine may usually be obtained commercially;
II.—Tincture of indigo also makes a harmless blue. {703}
«Sap Blue.»—
Dark blue 3 parts
Grape sugar 1 part
Water 6 parts
«Green.»—The addition of indigo-carmine solution to any yellow solution
will give various shades of green. Indigo carmine added to a mixture
of tincture of crocus and glycerine will give a fine green color. A
solution of commercial chlorophyll yields grass-green shades.
«Pink.»—
I.—Carmine 1 part
Liquor potassæ 6 parts
Rose water to make 48 parts
Mix. If the color is too high, dilute with distilled water until the
required tint is obtained.
II.—Soak red-apple parings in California brandy. The addition of rose
leaves makes a fine flavoring as well as coloring agent.
«Red.»—
Carmine, No. 40 1 part
Strong ammonia water 4 parts
Distilled water to make 24 parts
Rub up the carmine and ammonia water and to the solution add the
water under trituration. If, in standing, this shows a tendency to
separate, a drop or two of water of ammonia will correct the trouble.
This statement should be put on the label of the bottle as the volatile
ammonia soon escapes even in glass-stoppered vials. Various shades
of red may be obtained by using fruit juices, such as black cherry,
raspberry, etc., and also the tinctures of sudbear, alkanet, red
saunders, erythroxylon, etc.
«Orange.»—
Tincture of red sandalwood 1 part
Ethereal tincture of Orlean, q. s.
Add the orlean tincture to the sandalwood gradually until the desired
tint is obtained. A red color added to a yellow one gives an orange
color.
«Purple.»—A mixture of tincture of indigo, or a solution of indigo
carmine, added to cochineal red gives a fine purple.
«Yellow.»—Various shades of yellow may be obtained by the maceration
of saffron or turmeric in alcohol until a strong tincture is obtained.
Dilute with water until the desired tint is reached.
SYRUP, TABLE: See Tables.
«Tables»
«ALCOHOL DILUTION.»
The following table gives the percentage, by weight, of alcohol of 95
per cent and of distilled water to make 1 liter (about 1 quart), or 1
kilogram (2.2 pounds), of alcohol of various dilutions.
TABLE FOR THE DILUTION OF ALCOHOL.