it is recommended especially for the crude {522} petroleum obtained
from the Beaumont oil fields, the composition of which has already been
given. As crude petroleums from different sources vary greatly in their
composition, it is impracticable to give a formula that can be used
with all crude oils. Nevertheless, crude petroleum from other sources
than the Beaumont wells may be emulsified by modifying the formula
given above. In order to determine what modification of this formula is
necessary for the emulsification of a given oil, the following method
may be used:
Dissolve 1/2 pound of soap in 1/2 gallon of hot water; to 1
measure of this soap solution add 4 measures of the crude petroleum to
be tested and shake well in a stoppered bottle or flask for several
minutes.
If, after dilution, there is a separation of a layer of pure oil
within half an hour the emulsion is imperfect, and a modification of
the formula will be required. To accomplish this the proportion of oil
should be varied until a good result is obtained.
«Petroleum for Spinning.»—In order to be able to wash out the petroleum
or render it “saponifiable,” the following process is recommended:
Heat the mineral oil with 5 to 10 per cent of olein, add the proper
amount of alcoholic lye and continue heating until the solvent (water
alcohol) evaporates. A practical way is to introduce an aqueous lye at
230° F. in small portions and to heat until the froth disappears. For
clearness it is necessary merely to evaporate all the water. In the
same manner, more olein may be added as desired if the admixture of
lye is kept down so that not too much soap is formed or the petroleum
becomes too thick. After cooling, a uniform gelatinous mass results.
This is liquefied mechanically, during or after the cooling, by passing
it through fine sieves. Soap is so finely and intimately distributed in
the petroleum that the finest particles of oil are isolated by soap, as
it were. When a quantity of oil is intimately stirred into the water an
emulsion results so that the different parts cannot be distinguished.
The same process takes place in washing, the soap contained in the oil
swelling between the fibers and the oil particles upon mixture with
water, isolating the oil and lifting it from the fiber.
«Deodorized Petroleum.»—Petroleum may be deodorized by shaking it
first with 100 parts of chlorinated lime for every 4,500 parts, adding
a little hydrochloric acid, then transferring the liquid to a vessel
containing lime, and again shaking until all the chlorine is removed.
After standing, the petroleum is decanted.
«Petroleum Briquettes.»—Mix with 1,000 parts of petroleum oil 150 parts
of ground soap, 150 parts of rosin, and 300 parts of caustic soda
lye. Heat this mixture while stirring. When solidification commences,
which will be in about 40 minutes, the operation must be watched. If
the mixture tends to overflow, pour into the receiver a few drops of
soda, and continue to stir until the solidification is complete. When
the operation is ended, flow the matter into molds for making the
briquettes, and place them for 10 or 15 minutes in a stove; then they
may be allowed to cool. The briquettes can be employed a few hours
after they are made.
To the three elements constituting the mixture it is useful to add per
1,000 parts by weight of the briquettes to be obtained, 120 parts of
sawdust and 120 parts of clay or sand, to render the briquettes more
solid.
Experiments in the heating of these briquettes have demonstrated that
they will furnish three times as much heat as briquettes of ordinary
charcoal, without leaving any residue.
PETROLEUM EMULSION: See Insecticides.
PETROLEUM JELLIES: See Lubricants.
PETROLEUM SOAP: See Soap.
PEWTER: See Alloys.
PEWTER, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
«PEWTER, AGEING:»
If it is desired to impart to modern articles of pewter the appearance
of antique objects, plunge the pieces for several moments into a
solution of alum to which several drops of hydrochloric or sulphuric
acid have been added.
«PICTURES, GLOW.»
These can be easily produced by drawing the outlines of a picture,
writing, etc., on a piece of white paper with a solution of 40 parts of
saltpeter and 20 parts of gum arabic in 40 parts of warm water, using
a writing pen for this purpose. All the lines must connect and one of
them {523} must run to the edge of the paper, where it should be marked
with a fine lead-pencil line. When a burning match is held to this
spot, the line immediately glows on, spreading over the whole design,
and the design formerly invisible finally appears entirely singed. This
little trick is not dangerous.
«PHOSPHATE SUBSTITUTE.»
An artificial phosphate is thus prepared: Melt in an oven a mixture of
100 parts of phosphorite, ground coarsely, 70 parts of acid sulphate of
soda; 20 parts of carbonate of lime; 22 parts of sand, and 607 parts
of charcoal. Run the molten matter into a receiver filled with water;
on cooling it will become granular. Rake out the granular mass from
the water, and after drying, grind to a fine powder. The phosphate
can be kept for a long time without losing its quality, for it is
neither caustic nor hygroscopic. Wagner has, in collaboration with
Dorsch, conducted fertilizing experiments for determining its value,
as compared with superphosphate or with Thomas slag. The phosphate
decomposes more rapidly in the soil than Thomas slag, and so far as the
experiments have gone, it appears that the phosphoric acid of the new
phosphate exercises almost as rapid an action as the phosphoric acid of
the superphosphate soluble in water.
«PHOSPHORESCENT MASS.»
See also Luminous Bodies and Paints.
Mix 2 parts of dehydrated sodium carbonate, 0.5 parts of sodium
chloride, and 0.2 parts of manganic sulphate with 100 parts of
strontium carbonate and 30 parts of sulphur and heat 3 hours to a white
heat with exclusion of air.
PHOSPHOR BRONZE: See Alloys, under Bronzes.
«PHOSPHORUS SUBSTITUTE.»
G. Graveri recommends persulfocyanic acid = H_〈2〉(CN)_〈2〉S_〈3〉 as
meeting all the requirements of phosphorus on matches. It resists
shock and friction, it is readily friable, and will mix with other
substances; moreover, it is non-poisonous and cheaper than phosphorus.
«Photography»
«DEVELOPERS AND DEVELOPING OF PLATES.»
No light is perfectly safe or non-actinic, even that coming through a
combined ruby and orange window or lamp. Therefore use great care in
developing.
A light may be tested this way: Place a dry plate in the plate holder
in total darkness, draw the slide sufficiently to expose one-half of
the plate, and allow the light from the window or lamp, 12 to 18 inches
distant, to fall on this exposed half for 3 or 4 minutes. Then develop
the plate the usual length of time in total darkness. If the light is
safe, there will be no darkening of the exposed part. If not safe, the
remedy is obvious.
The developing room must be a perfectly dark room, save for the light
from a ruby- or orange-colored window (or combination of these two
colors). Have plenty of pure running water and good ventilation.
Plates should always be kept in a dry room. The dark room is seldom a
safe place for storage, because it is apt to be damp.
Various developing agents give different results. Pyrogallic acid in
combination with carbonate of sodium or carbonate of potassium gives
strong, vigorous negatives. Eikonogen and metol yield soft, delicate
negatives. Hydrochinon added to eikonogen or metol produces more
contrast or greater strength.
It is essential to have a bottle of bromide of potassium solution, 10
per cent, in the dark room. (One ounce of bromide of potassium, water
to 10 ounces.) Overtimed plates may be much improved by adding a few
drops of bromide solution to the developer as soon as the overtimed
condition is apparent (a plate is overtimed when the image appears
almost immediately, and then blackens all over).
Undertimed plates should be taken out of the developer and placed in
a tray of water where no light can reach them. If the detail in the
shadows begins to appear after half an hour or so, the plate can be
replaced in the developer and development brought to a finish.
Quick development, with strong solutions, means a lack of gradation or
half-tones.
A developer too warm or containing too much alkali (carbonate of sodium
or potassium) will yield flat, foggy negatives.
A developer too cold is retarded in its action, and causes thin
negatives.
Uniform temperature is necessary for uniform results.
If development is continued too long, the negative will be too dense.
In warm weather, the developer should be diluted; in cold weather, it
should be stronger. {524}
The negative should not be exposed to white light until fixation is
complete.
The negative should be left fully 5 minutes longer in the fixing bath
than is necessary to dissolve out the white bromide of silver.
In hot weather a chrome alum fixing bath should be used to prevent
frilling.
Always use a fresh hypo or fixing bath. Hypo is cheap.
Plates and plate holders must be kept free from dust, or pinholes will
result.
After the negative is fixed, an hour’s washing is none too much.
The plate should be dried quickly in warm weather else the film will
become dense and coarse-grained.
Do not expect clean, faultless negatives to come out of dirty
developing and fixing solutions and trays.
«Pyro and Soda Developer.»—
I.—Pure water 30 ounces
Sulphite soda, crystals 5 ounces
Carbonate soda, crystals 2 1/2 ounces
II.—Pure water 24 ounces
Oxalic acid 15 grains
Pyrogallic acid 1 ounce
To develop, take of
Solution No. I. 1 ounce
Solution No. II. 1/2 ounce
Pure water 3 ounces
More water may be used in warm weather and less in cool weather.
If solution No. I is made by hydrometer test, use equal parts of the
following:
Sulphite soda testing, 80°.
Carbonate soda testing, 40°.
One ounce of this mixture will be equivalent to 1 ounce of solution No.
I.
«Pyro and Potassium Developer.»—
I.—Pure water 32 ounces
Sulphite soda, crystals 8 ounces
Carbonate potassium, dry 1 ounce
II.—Pure water 24 ounces
Oxalic acid 15 ounces
Pyrogallic acid 1 ounce
To develop, take of
Solution No. I. 1 ounce
Solution No. II. 1/2 ounce
Pure water 3 ounces
When the plate is fully developed, if the lights are too thin, use less
water in the developer; if too dense, use more water.
«Pyro and Metol Developer.»—Good for short exposures:
I.—Pure water 57 ounces
Sulphite soda, crystals 2 1/2 ounces
Metol 1 ounce
II.—Pure water 57 ounces
Sulphite soda, crystals 2 1/2 ounces
Pyrogallic acid 1/4 ounce
III.—Pure water 57 ounces
Carbonate potassium 2 1/2 ounces
To develop, take of
Pure water 3 ounces
Solution No. I. 1 ounce
Solution No. II. 1 ounce
Solution No. III. 1 ounce
This developer may be used repeatedly by adding a little fresh
developer as required.
Keep the used developer in a separate bottle.
«Rodinal Developer.»—One part rodinal to 30 parts pure water.
Use repeatedly, adding fresh as required.
«Bromo-Hydrochinon Developer.»—For producing great contrast and
intensity, also for developing over-exposed plates.
I.—Distilled or ice water 25 ounces
Sulphite of soda, crystals 3 ounces
Hydrochinon 1/2 ounce
Bromide of potassium 1/4 ounce
Dissolve by warming, and let cool before use.
II.—Water 25 ounces
Carbonate of soda, crystals 6 ounces
Mix Nos. I and II, equal parts, for use.
«Eikonogen Hydrochinon Developer.»—
I.—Distilled or pure well water 32 ounces
Sodium sulphite, crystals 4 ounces
Eikonogen 240 grains
Hydrochinon 60 grains
II.—Water 32 ounces
Carbonate of potash 4 ounces
To develop, take
No. I. 2 ounces
No. II. 1 ounce
†Water 1 ounce
────────────────────────────
† For double-coated plates use 5 ounces of water.
{525}
By hydrometer:
I.—Sodium sulphite, solution to test 30 34 ounces
Eikonogen 240 grains
Hydrochinon 60 grains
II.—Carbonate of potash solution to test 50
To develop, take
No. I. 2 ounces
No. II. 1 ounce
‡Water 1 ounce
────────────────────────────
‡ For double-coated plates use 5 ounces of water.
«Hydrochinon Developer.»—
I.—Hydrochinon 1 ounce
Sulphite of soda, crystals 5 ounces
Bromide of potassium 10 grains
Water (ice or distilled) 55 ounces
II.—Caustic potash 180 grains
Water 10 ounces
To develop:
Take of I, 4 ounces; II, 1/2 ounce. After use pour into a separate
bottle. This can be used repeatedly, and with uniformity of results, by
the addition of 1 drachm of I and 10 drops of II to every 8 ounces of
old developer.
In using this developer it is important to notice the temperature of
the room, as a slight variation in this respect causes a very marked
difference in the time it takes to develop, much more so than with
pyro. The temperature of room should be from 70° to 75° F.
«Metol Developer.»—
I.—Water 8 ounces
Metol 100 grains
Sulphite of soda, crystals 1 ounce
II.—Water 10 ounces
Potassium carbonate 1 ounce
Take equal parts of I and II and 6 parts of water. If more contrast is
needed, take equal parts of I and II and 3 parts of water, with 5 drops
to the ounce of a 1/10 solution of bromide of potassium.
«Metol and Hydrochinon Developer.—»
I.—Pure hot water 80 ounces
Metol 1 ounce
Hydrochinon 1/8 ounce
Sulphite soda, crystals 6 ounces
II.—Pure water 80 ounces
Carbonate soda, crystals 5 ounces
To develop, take of
Pure water 2 ounces
Solution No. I 1 ounce
Solution No. II 1 ounce
«Metol-Bicarbonate Developer.»—Thoroughly dissolve
Metol 1 ounce
In water 60 ounces
Then add
Sulphite of soda, crystals 6 ounces
Bicarbonate of soda 3 ounces
To prepare with hydrometer, mix
Sulphite of soda solution, testing 75 30 ounces
Bicarbonate of soda solution, testing 50 30 ounces
Metol 1 ounce
Dissolved in 12 ounces water.
«Ferrous-Oxalate Developer.»—For transparencies and opals.
I.—Oxalate of potash 8 ounces
Water 30 ounces
Citric acid 60 grains
Citrate of ammonia solution 2 ounces
II.—Sulphate of iron 4 ounces
Water 32 ounces
Sulphuric acid 16 drops
III.—Citrate of ammonia solution saturated.
Dissolve 1 ounce citric acid in 5 ounces distilled water, add liquor
ammonia until a slip of litmus paper just loses the red color, then add
water to make the whole measure 8 ounces.
Add 1 ounce of II to 2 of I, and 1/2 ounce of water, and 3 to 6 drops
of 10 per cent solution bromide potassium.
To develop, first rinse developing dish with water, lay film or plate
down, and flow with sufficient developer to well cover. Careful
attention must be given to its action, and when detail is just showing
in the face, or half-tone lights in a view, pour off developer, and
well wash the film before placing in the fixing bath.
«Tolidol Developer.»—Standard formula for dry plates and films:
Water 16 ounces
Tolidol 24 grains
Sodium sulphite 72 (144) grains
Sodium carbonate 96 (240) grains
The figures in parenthesis are for crystals. It will be seen that in
every case {526} the weight of sulphite required in crystals is double
that of dry sulphite, while the weight of carbonate crystals is 2 1/2
times as much as dry carbonate.
For tank development Dr. John M. Nicol recommends the standard formula
diluted with 6 times the amount of water, and the addition of 1 drop of
retarder to every ounce after dilution.
To obtain very strong negatives:
Water 16 ounces
Tolidol 50 to 65 grains
Sodium sulphite 80 (160) grains
Sodium carbonate 120 (300) grains
On some brands of plates the addition of a little retarder will be
necessary.
If stock solutions are preferred, they may be made as follows:
_Solution A_
Water 32 ounces
Tolidol 1 ounce
Sodium sulphite 1 (2) ounce
_Solution B_
Water 32 ounces
Sodium sulphite 2 (4) ounces
_Solution C_
Water 32 ounces
Sodium carbonate 4 (10) ounces
If preferred, stock solutions _B_ and _C_ can be made by hydrometer,
instead of by weight as above. The solutions will then show:
_Solution B_
Sodium sulphite 40
_Solution C_
Sodium carbonate 75
Or if potassium carbonate is preferred instead of sodium:
_Solution C_
Potassium carbonate 60
For standard formula for dry plates and films, mix
Solution _A_ 1 part
Solution _B_ 1 part
Solution _C_ 1 part
Water 7 parts
For strong negatives (for aristo-platino):
Solution _A_ 1 1/2 to 2 parts
Solution _B_ 1 part
Solution _C_ 1 part
Water 4 to 4 1/2 parts
For tank development:
Solution _A_ 1 part
Solution _B_ 1 part
Solution _C_ 1 part
Water 35 parts
For developing paper:
Solution _A_ 2 parts
Solution _B_ 2 parts
Solution _C_ 1 part
The reading of the hydrometer for stock solutions is the same whether
dried chemicals or crystals are used. No water is used.
«Pyrocatechin-Phosphate Developer.»—
_Solution A_
Crystallized sulphite of soda 386 grains
Pyrocatechin 77 grains
Water 8 ounces
_Solution B_
Ordinary crystal phosphate of sodium 725 grains
Caustic soda (purified in sticks) 77 grains
Water 8 ounces
Mix 1 part of _A_ with 1 part of _B_ and from 1 to 3 parts of water. If
the exposure is not absolutely normal we recommend to add to the above
developer a few drops of a solution of bromide of potassium (1.10).
«Pyrocatechin Developer» (One Solution).—Dissolve in the following
range:
Sulphite of soda crystallized 25 1/2 drachms
Caustic soda (purified in sticks) 3 1/2 drachms
Distilled water 14 ounces
Pyrocatechin 308 grains
The pyrocatechin must not be added until the sulphite and caustic soda
are entirely dissolved. For use the concentrated developer is to be
diluted with from 10 to 20 times as much water. The normal proportion
is 1 part of developer in 15 parts of water.
«Vogel’s Pyrocatechin Combined Developer and Fixing Solution.»—
Sulphite of soda crystallized 468 grains
Water 2 5/8 ounces
Caustic potash (purified in sticks) 108 grains
Pyrocatechin 108 grains
Mix for a formally fixing plate of 5 x 7 inches.
Developer 3 drachms
Fixing soda solution (1:5) 5 1/2 drachms
Water 1 ounce
The process of developing and fixing with this solution is accomplished
in a {527} few minutes. The picture first appears usually, strengthens
very quickly, and shortly after the fixing is entirely done.
«Ellon’s Pyrocatechin Developer.»—Pyrocatechin, 2 per cent solution (2
grams pyrocatechin in 100 cubic centimeters of water).
Carbonate of potassium, 10 per cent solution (10 grams carbonate in 100
cubic centimeters of water).
For use take equal parts and add water as desired.
«Imperial Standard Pyro Developer.»—
I.—Metabisulphite of potassium 120 grains
Pyrogallic acid 55 grains
Bromide of potassium 20 grains
Metol 45 grains
Water 20 ounces
II.—Carbonate of soda 4 ounces
Water 20 ounces
For use mix equal parts I and II.
«Bardwell’s Pyro-Acetone Developer.»—
Water 4 ounces
Sulphite of sodium (saturated solution) 4 drachms
Acetone 2 drachms
Pyro 10 grams
«Hauff’s Adurol Developer.»—One solution.
Water 10 ounces
Sulphide of sodium, crystals 4 ounces
Carbonate of potassium 3 ounces
Adurol 1/2 ounce
For studio work and snap shots take 1 part with 3 parts water.
For time exposures out-door take 1 part with 5 parts water.
«Glycin Developer.»—
I.—Hot water 10 ounces
Sulphite of sodium, crystals 1 1/4 ounces
Carbonate of sodium 1/4 ounce
Glycin 1/2 ounce
Add to water in order given
II.—Water 10 ounces
Carbonate of potash 1 1/4 ounces
For normal exposure take I, 1 ounce; II, 2 ounces; water, 1 ounce.
«Imogen Developer.»—
I.—Hot water 9 ounces
Sulphite of sodium, crystals 385 grains
Imogen 123 grains
II.—Hot water 4 1/2 ounces
Carbonate of sodium 2 ounces
For use take 2 ounces of I and 1 ounce of II.
«Diogen Developer.»—
Water 9 ounces
Sulphite of sodium 3 1/2 ounces
Diogen 7 drachms
Carbonate of potassium 4 1/2 ounces
For normal exposure take 4 drachms of this solution; dilute with 2
ounces, 1 drachm of water, and add 2 drops bromide of potassium, 10 per
cent solution.
«Ortol Developer.»—Formula by Pentlarge.
I.—Water 1 ounce
Metabisulphite of potassium 4 grains
Ortol 8 grains
II.—Water 1 ounce
Sulphite of sodium 48 grains
Carbonate of potassium 16 grains
Carbonate of sodium 32 grains
For use take equal parts I and II, and an equal bulk of water.
«Metacarbol Developer.»—
Metacarbol 25 grains
Sulphite of soda, crystals 100 grains
Caustic soda 50 grains
Water 10 ounces
Dissolve the metacarbol in water, then add the sulphite, and when
dissolved add the caustic soda and filter.
«DEVELOPING POWDERS.»
By weight
I.—Pyrogallol 0.3 parts
Sodium bisulphite 1.2 parts
Sodium carbonate 1.2 parts
II.—Eikonogen 1.1 parts
Sodium sulphite 2.4 parts
Potassium carbonate 1.5 parts
III.—Hydroquinone 0.6 parts
Sodium sulphite 3.4 parts
Potassium bromide 0.3 parts
Sodium carbonate 7.0 parts
These three formulas each yield one powder. The powders should be put
up in oiled paper, and carefully inclosed, besides, in a wrapper of
black paper. For use, one powder is dissolved in about 60 parts of
distilled water.
«DEVELOPING PAPERS.»
Light.—The paper can be safely handled 8 feet from the source of light,
{528} which may be Welsbach gas light, covered with post-office paper,
incandescent light, ordinary gas light, kerosene light, or reduced
daylight, the latter produced by covering a window with one or more
thicknesses of orange post-office paper, as necessitated by strength of
light.
Expose by holding the printing frame close to gas, lamp, or
incandescent light, or to subdued daylight. Artificial light is
recommended in preference to daylight because of uniformity, and it
being in consequence easier to judge the proper length of time to
expose.
Exposure.—The amount of exposure required varies with the strength of
the light; it takes about the same time with an ordinary gas burner
and an incandescent light; a Welsbach gas light requires only about
one-half as much time as the ordinary gas burner, and a kerosene
light of ordinary size about three times as much as an ordinary gas
burner. If daylight is to be used the window should be covered with
post-office paper, in which a sub-window about 1 foot square for making
the exposure may be made. Cover this window first with a piece of white
tissue paper, then with a piece of black cloth or post-office paper to
exclude the white light when not wanted. Make exposure according to
strength of light at from 1 to 2 feet away from the tissue paper. Keep
the printing frame when artificial light is used constantly in motion
during exposure.
Timing the Exposure.—The time necessary for exposing is regulated
by density of negative and strength of light. The further away the
negative is from the source of light at the time of exposure the
weaker the light; hence, in order to secure uniformity in exposure it
is desirable always to make the exposure at a given distance from the
light used. With a negative of medium density exposed 1 foot from an
ordinary gas burner, from 1 to 10 minutes’ exposure is required.
A test to ascertain the length of exposure should be made. Once the
proper amount of exposure is ascertained with a given light, the amount
of exposure required can be easily approximated by making subsequent
exposures at the same distance from the same light; the only difference
that it would then be necessary to make would be to allow for variation
in density of different negatives.
Fixing.—Allow the prints to remain in the fixing solution 10 to 20
minutes, when they should be removed to a tray containing clear water.
Washing.—Wash 1 hour in running water, or in 10 or 12 changes of clear
water, allowing prints to soak 2 to 3 minutes in each change.
«Pyrocatechin Formula.»—
_Solution A_
Pyrocatechin 2 parts
Sulphite of soda, crystals 2.5 parts
Water 100 parts
_Solution B_
Carbonate of soda 10 parts
Water 100 parts
Before using mix 20 parts of Solution A, and 1/2 part of Solution B.
«Metol Quinol.»—
Water 10 ounces
Metol 7 grains
Sodium sulphite, crystals, pure 1/2 ounce
Hydroquinone 30 grains
Sodium carbonate, dessicated (or 400 grains of
crystallized carbonate). 200 grains
Ten per cent bromide of potassium solution, about 10 drops
«Amidol Formula.»—
Water 4 ounces
Sodium sulphite, crystals, pure 200 grains
Amidol, about 20 grains
Ten per cent bromide of potassium solution, about 5 drops
If the blacks are greenish, add more amidol; if whites are grayish, add
more bromide of potassium.
«Hypo-Acid Fixing Bath.»—
Hypo 16 ounces
Water 64 ounces
Then add the following hardening solution:
Water 5 ounces
Sodium sulphite, crystals 1/2 ounce
Commercial acetic acid (containing 25 per cent pure acid) 3 ounces
Powdered alum 1/2 ounce
«Amidol Developer.»—
Amidol 2 grains
Sodium sulphite 30 grains
Potassium bromide 1 grain
Water 1 ounce
{529}