important in the judgment of meats require practical experience and
close observation rather than chemical training. This is especially
true of meat products. The general appearance of the meat must largely
guide the purchaser. If, however, the meat has been treated with
preservatives and coloring matter its appearance is so changed as to
deceive him. The preservatives employed with meat products are boric
acid, borax, and sulphites. The methods for the detection of sulphites
are not suitable for household use.
_Detection of Boric Acid and Borax._—To detect boric acid (if borax has
been used the same reaction will be obtained), about a tablespoonful
of the chopped meat is thoroughly macerated with a little hot water,
pressed through a bag, and 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls of the liquid placed
in a sauce dish with 15 or 20 drops of strong hydrochloric acid for
each tablespoonful. The liquid is then filtered through filter paper,
and a piece of turmeric paper dipped into it and dried near a lamp or
stove. If boric acid or borax were used for preserving the sample, the
turmeric paper should be changed to a bright cherry-red color. If too
much hydrochloric acid has been employed a dirty brownish-red color is
obtained, which interferes with the color due to the presence of {358}
boric acid. When a drop of household ammonia is added to the colored
turmeric paper, it is turned a dark green, almost black color, if boric
acid is present. If the reddish color, however, was caused by the use
of too much hydrochloric acid this green color does not form.
_Caution._—The corrosive nature of hydrochloric acid must not be
forgotten. It must not be allowed to touch the flesh, clothes, or any
metal.
_Detection of Colors._—The detection of coloring matter in sausage is
often a difficult matter without the use of a compound microscope. It
may sometimes be separated, however, by macerating the meat with a
mixture of equal parts of glycerine and water to which a few drops of
acetic or hydrochloric acid have been added. After macerating for some
time the mixture is filtered and the coloring matter detected by means
of dyeing wool in the liquid thus obtained.
«Spices.»—Although ground spices are very frequently adulterated,
there are few methods that may be used by one who has not had chemical
training, and who is not skilled in the use of a compound microscope,
for the detection of the adulterants employed. The majority of the
substances used for the adulteration of spices are of a starchy
character. Unfortunately for our purposes, most of the common spices
also contain a considerable amount of starch. Cloves, mustard, and
cayenne, however, are practically free from starch, and the presence of
starch in the ground article is proof of adulteration.
_Detection of Starch in Cloves, Mustard, and Cayenne._—A half
teaspoonful of the spice in question is stirred into half a cupful
of boiling water, and the boiling continued for 2 or 3 minutes. The
mixture is then cooled. If of a dark color, it is diluted with a
sufficient amount of water to reduce the color to such an extent that
the reaction formed by starch and iodine may be clearly apparent if
starch be present. The amount of dilution can only be determined by
practice, but usually the liquid must be diluted with an equal volume
of water, or only 1/4 of a teaspoonful of the sample may be employed
originally. A single drop of tincture of iodine is now added. If
starch is present, a deep blue color, which in the presence of a large
amount of starch appears black, is formed. If no blue color appears,
the addition of the iodine tincture should be continued, drop by drop,
until the liquid shows by its color the presence of iodine in solution.
_Detection of Colors._—Spice substitutes are sometimes colored with
coal-tar colors. These products may be detected by the methods given.
«Vinegar.»—A person thoroughly familiar with vinegar can tell much
regarding the source of the article from its appearance, color, odor,
and taste.
If a glass be rinsed out with the sample of vinegar and allowed to
stand for a number of hours or overnight, the odor of the residue
remaining in the glass is quite different with different kinds of
vinegar. Thus, wine vinegar has the odor characteristic of wine, and
cider vinegar has a peculiar fruity odor. A small amount of practice
with this test enables one to distinguish with a high degree of
accuracy between wine and cider vinegars and the ordinary substitutes.
If a sample of vinegar be placed in a shallow dish on a warm stove
or boiling teakettle and heated to a temperature sufficient for
evaporation and not sufficient to burn the residue, the odor of the
warm residue is also characteristic of the different kinds of vinegar.
Thus, the residue from cider vinegar has the odor of baked apples
and the flavor is acid and somewhat astringent in taste, and that
from wine vinegar is equally characteristic. The residue obtained by
evaporating vinegar made from sugar-house products and from spirit and
wood vinegar colored by means of caramel has the peculiar bitter taste
characteristic of caramel.
If the residue be heated until it begins to burn, the odor of the
burning product also varies with different kinds of vinegar. Thus, the
residue from cider vinegar has the odor of scorched apples, while that
of vinegars made from sugar-house wastes and of distilled and wood
vinegars colored with a large amount of caramel has the odor of burnt
sugar. In noting these characteristics, however, it must be borne in
mind that, in order to make them conform to these tests, distilled and
wood vinegars often receive the addition of apple jelly.
The cheaper forms of vinegar, especially distilled and wood vinegar,
are commonly colored with caramel, which can be detected by the method
given.
«FOOD COLORANTS.»
(Most, if not all, of these colorants are injurious and should
therefore be used with extreme caution.)
«Sausage Color.»—To dye sausage red, certain tar dyestuffs are
employed, {359} especially the azo dyes, preference being given to the
so-called genuine red. For this purpose about 100 parts of dyestuff
are dissolved in 1,000 to 2,000 parts of hot water; when the solution
is complete, add a likewise hot solution of 45 to 50 parts of boracic
acid, whereupon the mixture should be stirred well for some time; then
filter, allow to cool, and preserve in tightly closing bottles. It is
absolutely necessary in using aniline colors to add a disinfectant to
the dyestuff solution, the object of which is, in case the sausage
should commence to decompose, to prevent the decomposition azo dyestuff
by the disengaged hydrogen. Instead of boracic acid, formalin may be
used as a disinfectant. Of this formalin, 38 per cent, add about 25 to
30 parts to the cooled and filtered dyestuff solution. This sausage
color is used by adding about 1 1/2 to 2 tablespoonfuls of it to the
preserving salt measured out for 100 kilos of sausage mass, stirring
well. The sausage turns neither gray nor yellow on storing.
«Cheese Color.»—I.—To produce a suitable, pretty yellow color, boil
100 parts of orlean or annatto with 75 parts of potassium carbonate in
1 1/2 to 2 liters of water, allow to cool, and filter after settling,
whereupon 15 to 18 parts of boracic acid are added to give keeping
qualities to the solution. According to another method, digest about
200 parts of orlean, 200 parts of potassium carbonate, and 100 parts
of turmeric for 10 to 12 days in 1,500 to 2,000 parts of 60 per cent
alcohol, filter, and keep in bottles. To 100,000 parts of milk to be
made into cheese add 1 1/2 to 2 small spoonfuls of this dye, which
imparts to the cheese a permanent and natural yellow appearance.
II.—To obtain a handsome yellow color for cheese, such as is demanded
for certain sorts, boil together 100 parts of annatto and 75 parts of
potassium carbonate in from 1,500 to 2,000 parts of pure water; let it
cool, stand it aside for a time, and filter, adding finally from 12 to
15 parts of boracic acid as a preservative. For coloring butter, there
is in the trade a mixture of bicarbonate of soda with 12 per cent to 15
per cent of sodium chloride, to which is added from 1 1/2 per cent to
2 per cent of powdered turmeric.
«Butter Color.»—For the coloring of butter there is in the market under
the name of butter powder a mixture of sodium bicarbonate with 12 to
15 per cent of sodium chloride and 1 1/2 to 2 per cent of powdered
turmeric; also a mixture of sodium bicarbonate, 1,500 parts; saffron
surrogate, 8 parts; and salicylic acid, 2 parts. For the preparation
of liquid butter color use a uniform solution of olive oil, 1,500
parts; powdered turmeric, 300 parts; orlean, 200 parts. The orlean
is applied on a plate of glass or tin in a thin layer and allowed to
dry perfectly, whereupon it is ground very fine and intimately mixed
with the powdered turmeric. This mixture is stirred into the oil with
digestion for several hours in the water bath. When a uniform, liquid
mass has resulted, it is filtered hot through a linen filter with wide
meshes. After cooling, the filtrate is filled into bottles. Fifty to
60 drops of this liquid color to 1 1/2 kilos of butter impart to the
latter a handsome golden yellow shade.
«INFANT FOODS:»
Infants’ (Malted) Food.—
I.—Powdered malt 1 ounce
Oatmeal (finest ground) 2 ounces
Sugar of milk 4 ounces
Baked flour 1 pound
Mix thoroughly.
II.—Infantine is a German infant food which is stated to contain egg
albumen, 5.5 per cent; fat, 0.08 per cent; water, 4.22 per cent;
carbohydrates, 86.58 per cent (of which 54.08 per cent is soluble in
water); and ash, 2.81 per cent (consisting of calcium, 10.11 per cent;
potassium, 2.64 per cent; sodium, 25.27 per cent; chlorine, 36.65 per
cent; sulphuric acid, 3.13 per cent; and phosphoric acid, 18.51 per
cent).
«MEAT PRESERVATIVES.»
(Most of these are considered injurious by the United States Department
of Agriculture and should therefore be used with extreme caution.)
«The Preservation of Meats.»—Decomposition of the meat sets in as
soon as the blood ceases to pulse in the veins, and it is therefore
necessary to properly preserve it until the time of its consumption.
The nature of preservation must be governed by circumstances such as
the kind and quality of the article to be preserved, length of time
and climatic condition, etc. While salt, vinegar, and alcohol merit
recognition on the strength of a long-continued usage as preservatives,
modern usage favors boric acid and borax, and solutions containing
salicylic acid and sulphuric acid are common, {360} and have been the
subject of severe criticism.
Many other methods of preservation have been tried with variable
degrees of success; and of the more thoroughly tested ones the
following probably include all of those deserving more than passing
mention or consideration.
1. The exclusion of external, atmospheric electricity, which has been
observed to materially reduce the decaying of meat, milk, butter, beer,
etc.
2. The retention of occluded electric currents. Meats from various
animals packed into the same packages, and surrounded by a conducting
medium, such as salt and water, liberate electricity.
3. The removal of the nerve centers. Carcasses with the brains and
spinal cord left therein will be found more prone to decomposition than
those wherefrom these organs have been removed.
4. Desiccation. Dried beef is an excellent example of this method
of preservation. Other methods coming under this heading are the
application of spices with ethereal oils, various herbs, coriander seed
extracted with vinegar, etc.
5. Reduction of temperature, i. e., cold storage.
6. Expulsion of air from the meat and the containers. Appert’s,
Willaumez’s, Redwood’s, and Prof. A. Vogel’s methods are representative
for this category of preservation. Phenyl paper, Dr. Busch’s,
Georges’s, and Medlock and Baily’s processes are equally well known.
7. The application of gases. Here may be mentioned Dr. Gamgee’s and
Bert and Reynoso’s processes, applying carbon dioxide and other
compressed gases, respectively.
Air-drying, powdering of meat, smoking, pickling, sugar or vinegar
curing are too well known to receive any further attention here.
Whatever process may be employed, preference should be given to
that which will secure the principal objects sought for, the most
satisfactory being at the same time not deleterious to health, and of
an easily applicable and inexpensive nature.
«To Preserve Beef, etc., in Hot Weather.»—Put the meat into a hot
oven and let it remain until the surface is browned all over, thus
coagulating the albumen of the surface and inclosing the body of the
meat in an impermeable envelope of cooked flesh. Pour some melted lard
or suet into a jar of sufficient size, and roll the latter around until
the sides are evenly coated to the depth of half an inch with the
material. Put in the meat, taking care that it does not touch the sides
of the jar (thus scraping away the envelope of grease), and fill up
with more suet or lard, being careful to completely cover and envelop
the meat. Thus prepared, the meat will remain absolutely fresh for a
long time, even in the hottest weather. When required for use the outer
portion may be left on or removed. The same fat may be used over and
over again by melting and retaining in the melted state a few moments
each time, by which means not only all solid portions of the meat which
have been retained fall to the bottom, but all septic microbes are
destroyed.
«Meat Preservatives.»—I.—_Barmenite Corning Agent_: For every 100
parts, by weight, take 25.2 parts, by weight, of saltpeter; 46.8 parts,
by weight, sodium chloride; 25.7 parts, by weight, cane sugar; 0.8
parts, by weight, plaster of Paris or gypsum; 0.1 part, by weight, of
some moistening material, and a trace of magnesia.
II.—_Carniform, A_: For every 100 parts, by weight, take 3.5 parts,
by weight, sodium diphosphate; 3.1 parts, by weight, water of
crystallization; 68.4 parts, by weight, sodium chloride; 24.9 parts,
by weight, saltpeter; together with traces of calcium phosphate,
magnesia, and sulphuric acid.
III.—_Carniform, B_: For every 100 parts, by weight, take 22.6
parts, by weight, sodium diphosphate; 17.3 parts, by weight, water
of crystallization; 59.7 parts, by weight, saltpeter; 0.6 parts, by
weight, calcium phosphate; with traces of sulphuric acid and magnesia.
IV.—_“Cervelatwurst” (spice powder)_: For 100 parts, by weight,
take 0.7 parts, by weight, of moistening; 3.5 parts, by weight,
spices—mostly pepper; 89 parts, by weight, sodium chloride; 5 parts, by
weight, saltpeter; 0.7 parts, by weight, gypsum; and traces of magnesia.
V.—_Cervelatwurst Salt_ (_spice powder_): For 100 parts, by weight,
take 7.5 parts, by weight, spices—mostly pepper; 1.6 parts, by weight,
moistener; 81.6 parts, by weight, sodium chloride; 2.5 parts, by
weight, saltpeter; 6.2 parts, by weight, cane sugar; and traces of
magnesia.
VI.—_Rubrolin Sausage_ (_spice powder_): For 100 parts by weight, take
53.5 parts, by weight, sal ammoniac, and 45.2 parts, by weight, of
saltpeter.
VII.—_Servator Special Milk and Butter Preserving Salt_: 80.3 per cent
of crystallized boracic acid; 10.7 per cent {361} sodium chloride;
and 9.5 per cent of benzoic acid. (Its use is, however, prohibited in
Germany.)
VIII.—_Wittenberg Pickling Salt_: For 100 parts, by weight, take 58.6
parts, by weight, sodium chloride; 40.5 parts, by weight, saltpeter;
0.5 parts, by weight, gypsum; traces of moisture and magnesia.
IX.—_Securo_: For a quart take 3.8 parts, by weight, aluminum oxide,
and 8 parts, by weight, acetic acid; basic acetate of alumina, 62
parts, by weight; sulphuric acid, 0.8 parts, by weight; sodium oxide,
with substantially traces of lime and magnesia.
X.—_Michels Cassala Salt_: This is partially disintegrated. 30.74 per
cent sodium chloride; 15.4 per cent sodium phosphate; 23.3 per cent
potassio-sodic tartrate; 16.9 per cent water of crystallization; 1.2
per cent aluminum oxide; and 2.1 per cent acetic acid as basic acetate
of alumina; 8.4 per cent sugar; 0.98 per cent benzoic acid; 0.5 per
cent sulphuric acid; and traces of lime.
XI.—_Corning Salt_: Sodium nitrate, 50 parts; powdered boracic acid, 45
parts; salicylic acid, 5 parts.
XII.—_Preservative Salt_: Potassium nitrate, 70 parts; sodium
bicarbonate, 15 parts; sodium chloride, 15 parts.
XIII.—_Another Corning Salt_: Potassium nitrate, 50 parts; sodium
chloride, 20 parts; powdered boracic acid, 20 parts; sugar, 10 parts.
XIV.—_Maciline_ (_offered as condiment and binding agent for
sausages_): A mixture of wheat flour and potato flour dyed intensely
yellow with an azo dyestuff and impregnated with oil of mace.
XV.—Borax 80 parts
Boric acid 17 parts
Sodium chloride 3 parts
Reduce the ingredients to a powder and mix thoroughly.
XVI.—Sodium sulphite, powdered 80 parts
Sodium sulphate, powdered 20 parts
XVII.—Sodium chloride 80 parts
Borax 8 parts
Potassium nitrate 12 parts
Reduce to a powder and mix.
XVIII.—Sodium nitrate 50 parts
Salicylic acid 5 parts
Boric acid 45 parts
XIX.—Potassium nitrate 70 parts
Sodium bicarbonate 15 parts
Sodium chloride 15 parts
XX.—Potassium nitrate 50 parts
Sodium chloride 20 parts
Boric acid 20 parts
Sugar 10 parts
«A German Method of Preserving Meat.»—Entire unboweled cattle or large,
suitably severed pieces are sprinkled with acetic acid and then packed
and transported in sawdust impregnated with cooking salt and sterilized.
«Extract of Meat Containing Albumen.»—In the ordinary production
of meat extract, the albumen is more or less lost, partly through
precipitation by the acids or the acid salts of the meat extract,
partly through salting out by the salts of the extract, and partly
by coagulation at a higher temperature. A subsequent addition of
albumen is impracticable because the albumen is likewise precipitated,
insolubly, by the acids and salts contained in the extract. This
precipitation can be prevented, according to a French patent, by
neutralizing the extract before mixing with albumen, by the aid of
sodium bicarbonate. The drying of the mixture is accomplished in a
carbonic acid atmosphere. The preparation dissolves in cold or hot
water into a white, milky liquid and exhibits the smell and taste of
meat extract, if the albumen added was tasteless. The taste which the
extract loses by the neutralization returns in its original strength
after the mixture with albumen. In this manner a meat preparation
is obtained which contains larger quantities of albumen and is more
nutritious and palatable than other preparations.
«Foot-Powders and Solutions»
The following foot-powders have been recommended as dusting powders:
I.—Boric acid 2 ounces
Zinc oleate 1 ounce
Talcum 3 ounces
II.—Oleate of zinc (powdered) 1/2 ounce
Boric acid 1 ounce
French chalk 5 ounces
Starch 1 1/2 ounces
{362}
III.—Dried alum 1 drachm
Salicylic acid 1/2 drachm
Wheat starch 4 drachms
Powdered talc 1 1/2 ounces
IV.—Formaldehyde solution 1 part
Thymol 1/10 part
Zinc oxide 35 parts
Powdered starch 65 parts
V.—Salicylic acid 7 drachms
Boric acid 2 ounces, 440 grains
Talcum 38 ounces
Slippery elm bark 1 ounce
Orris root 1 ounce
VI.—Talc 12 ounces
Boric acid 10 ounces
Zinc oleate 1 ounce
Salicylic acid 1 ounce
Oil of eucalyptus 2 drachms
VII.—Salicylic acid 7 drachms
Boric acid 3 ounces
Talcum 38 ounces
Slippery elm, powdered 1 ounce
Orris, powdered 1 ounce
«Salicylated Talcum.»—
I.—Salicylic acid 1 drachm
Talcum 6 ounces
Lycopodium 6 drachms
Starch 3 ounces
Zinc oxide 1 ounce
Perfume, quantity sufficient.
II.—Tannoform 1 drachm
Talcum 2 drachms
Lycopodium 30 grains
Use as a dusting powder.
«Solutions for Perspiring Feet.»—
I.—Balsam Peru 15 minims
Formic acid 1 drachm
Chloral hydrate 1 drachm
Alcohol to make 3 ounces.
Apply by means of absorbent cotton.
II.—Boric acid 15 grains
Sodium borate 6 drachms
Salicylic acid 6 drachms
Glycerine 1 1/2 ounces
Alcohol to make 3 ounces.
For local application.
FOOTSORES ON CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas.
«FORMALDEHYDE:»
See also Disinfectants, Foods, and Milk.
«Commercial Formaldehyde.»—This extremely poisonous preservative is
obtained by passing the vapors of wood spirit, in the presence of air,
over copper heated to redness. The essential parts of the apparatus
employed are a metal chamber into which a feed-tube enters, and from
which 4 parallel copper tubes or oxidizers discharge by a common
exit tube. This chamber is fitted with inspection apertures, through
which the course of the process may be watched and controlled. The
wood spirit, stored in a reservoir, falls into a mixer where it is
volatilized and intimately mixed with air from a chamber which is
connected with a force pump. The gases after traversing the oxidizer
are led into a condensing coil, and the crude formaldehyde is
discharged into the receiver beneath.
The small amount of uncondensed gas is then led through a series of
two washers. The “formol” thus obtained is a mixture of water, methyl
alcohol, and 30 to 40 per cent of formaldehyde. It is rectified in a
still, by which the free methyl alcohol is removed and pure formol
obtained, containing 40 per cent of formaldehyde, chiefly in the form
of the acetal. Rectification must not be pushed too far, otherwise
the formaldehyde may become polymerized into trioxmethylene. When
once oxidation starts, the heat generated is sufficient to keep the
oxidizers red hot, so that the process works practically automatically.
«Determination of the Presence of Formaldehyde in Solutions.»—Lemme
makes use, for this purpose, of the fact that formaldehyde, in neutral
solutions of sodium sulphite, forms normal bisulphite salts, setting
free a corresponding quantity of sodium hydrate, that may be titrated
with sulphuric acid and phenolphthalein. The sodium sulphite solution
has an alkaline reaction toward phenolphthalein, and must be exactly
neutralized with sodium bisulphite. Then to 100 cubic centimeters of
this solution of 250 grams of sodium sulphite (Na_〈2〉SO_〈3〉 + 7 H_〈2〉O)
in 750 grams water, add 5 cubic centimeters of the suspected
formaldehyde solution. A strong red color is instantly produced.
Titrate with normal sulphuric acid until the color disappears. As the
exact disappearance of the color is not easily determined, a margin of
from 0.1 to 0.2 cubic centimeters may be allowed without the exactness
of the reaction being injured, since 1 cubic centimeter of normal acid
answers to only 0.03 grams of formaldehyde.
FORMALIN FOR GRAIN SMUT: See Grain. {363}
«FRAMES: THEIR PROTECTION FROM FLIES.»
Since there is great risk of damaging the gilt when trying to remove
flyspecks with spirits of wine, it has been found serviceable to
cover gilding with a copal varnish. This hardens and will stand rough
treatment, and may be renewed wherever removed.
FRAME CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
FRAME POLISHES: See Polishes.
FRAMING, PASSE-PARTOUT: See Passe-Partout.
FRECKLE LOTIONS: See Cosmetics.
FREEZING MIXTURES: See also Refrigeration and Refrigerants.
«Freezing Preventives»
«Liquid for Cooling Automobile Engines.»—In order to prevent freezing
of the jacket water, when the engine is not in operation in cold
weather, solutions are used, notably of glycerine and of calcium
chloride (CaCl_〈2〉). The proportions for the former solution are equal
parts of water and glycerine, by weight; for the latter, approximately
1/2 gallon of water to 8 pounds of CaCl_〈2〉, or a saturated solution
at 60° F. This solution (CaCl_〈2〉 + 6 H_〈2〉O) is then mixed with equal
parts of water, gallon for gallon. Many persons complain that CaCl_〈2〉
corrodes the metal parts, but this warning need do no more than urge
the automobilist to use only the chemically pure salt, carefully
avoiding the “chloride of lime” (CaOCl_〈2〉).
A practical manufacturing chemist of wide experience gives this: