"To thee, Latona's child, this chaplet fair
Doth Titus, leader of Rome's army, send;
The crown will well beseem thy glorious hair;
Do thou the donor from all ill defend."
Indeed it was in the city of Corinth that this favour has twice been
bestowed upon the Greeks, for it was in Corinth that Titus made the
proclamation of which we have spoken, and Nero again, in our own time,
in nearly the same manner, during the Isthmian games, declared the
Greeks free and independent, except that Titus proclaimed it by means
of a herald, while Nero mounted upon a platform in the market place
and made the announcement himself. However, this took place long
afterwards.
XIII. Titus now began a war against that most hateful and lawless of
despots, Nabis of Lacedæmon, but betrayed the confidence of the
Greeks; for when he had the opportunity of destroying him he would not
do so, but made terms with him, leaving Sparta in a shameful bondage.
Either he was afraid that if the war went on for any length of time
some new commander would be sent from Rome who would gain the credit
of it, or else he was jealous of the honours which were paid to
Philopœmen, who was by far the greatest warrior in Greece at that
period, and who surpassed himself in acts of bravery and strategy
during the campaign against Nabis. The homage which was paid
Philopœmen in all public assemblies by the Achæans vexed Flamininus,
who felt angry that a mere Arcadian, who had gained some credit as a
leader in obscure border warfare, should be treated with as much
respect as the Roman consul, who was acting as the protector of all
the peoples of Greece. The excuse which Titus himself made for
terminating the war was that he saw that the despot could not be
dethroned without causing great suffering to the other Spartans.
Though the Achæans passed many decrees in his honour he cared for none
of them except one gift which they bestowed upon him, which was as
follows. Many of the Romans who had been taken prisoners in the war
with Hannibal had been sold for slaves, and were in servitude in
different countries. In Greece there were twelve hundred of them, men
who were in any case much to be pitied for their misfortune, but
especially now, when as may be supposed, they met their sons,
brothers, and relations, who were free Roman soldiers, while they
themselves were slaves. Titus, though grieved at their lot, did not
take them forcibly from their owners, but the Achæans paid a ransom of
five minæ for each man, collected them into one body, and just as
Titus was about to set sail for home, presented them to him, so that
he left the scene of his glorious labours having received an
honourable reward, and one which well befitted so great and patriotic
a man, besides being the most glorious ornament of his triumph: for
these men of their own accord, like ordinary slaves who have been
emancipated, shaved their heads, put on felt skull caps,[35] and
followed in the train at his triumph.
XIV. A more splendid spectacle was afforded by the spoils of war, the
Greek helmets, Macedonian shields, and long sarissæ, or pikes used by
the phalanx, which were carried along in the procession. There was
also no inconsiderable sum of money, for Tuditanus tells us that in
this triumph there were displayed three thousand seven hundred and
thirteen pounds of gold coin, forty-three thousand two hundred and
seventy pounds of silver coin, and fourteen thousand five hundred and
fourteen gold coins of King Philip, besides the thousand talents which
he owed. These, however, the Romans, at the instance of Flamininus,
forgave him, and released his son who had been kept as a hostage for
their payment.
XV. When Antiochus entered Greece with a large naval and military
force, many of the Greek states joined him, especially the Ætolians,
who eagerly espoused his cause because of their old quarrel with Rome.
They gave out as a pretext for beginning the war, that they intended
to restore freedom to the Greeks, who required nothing of the sort,
being free already. This, however, was merely said because it was the
most plausible excuse for their conduct, for which they could not
assign any creditable reason. The Romans were much alarmed at the
importance of this insurrection. They sent Manius Acilius as consul
and commander-in-chief to conduct the war, and dispatched Titus
Flamininus on a diplomatic mission to the cities of Greece. The mere
sight of him confirmed the wavering loyalty of some of these states,
while his personal influence induced many which had taken the first
steps towards revolt, to return to their allegiance. Some few,
however, were hopelessly lost to the Roman cause, having been
previously won over by the Ætolians; yet, vexed and exasperated as he
was by their conduct, he took care, after the victory had been won,
that even these should not be destroyed. Antiochus, it is well known,
was defeated at Thermopylæ, and at once set sail for Asia Minor, while
the consul Manius besieged some of the Ætolian strongholds himself,
and arranged for others to be taken by King Philip of Macedon. But
when the towns in Dolopia, Magnesia, and Aperantia were being
despoiled by Philip, and the consul Manius had taken Heraklea and was
besieging Naupaktus, an Ætolian fortress, Flamininus, pitying the
Greeks, left Peloponnesus and sailed to the consul at Naupaktus. At
first he reproached him with conquering Antiochus, and then allowing
Philip to reap all the advantages of his victory, and with wasting
time in besieging one city out of pique, while the Macedonians were
adding tribes and kingdoms to their empire. After this, as the
besieged, when they saw him, called upon him by name from the walls,
and stretched out their hands to him with tears and entreaties, he
made no answer to them but turned away and wept. Afterwards, however,
he reasoned with Manius, and persuaded him to put aside his
resentment, and to grant the Ætolians a truce, and time to send an
embassy to Rome to arrange reasonable terms of peace.
XVI. He was given most trouble of all by the petitions of the
Chalkidians to Manius for peace. These people were especially
obnoxious to the Romans because Antiochus, at the commencement of the
war, had married the daughter of a citizen of Chalkis. The match was
both unseasonable in point of time, and unequal in respect of age, as
he was an elderly man when he fell in love with the girl, who was the
daughter of one Kleoptolemus, and is said to have been of exceeding
beauty. This marriage caused the Chalkidians to become eager partizans
of King Antiochus, and even to offer him their city for his
headquarters during the war. After his defeat he retreated at once to
Chalkis, and then, taking his bride, his treasure, and his friends
with him, set sail for Asia. Manius at once marched upon Chalkis in a
rage, but Flaminius accompanied him, and by his entreaties at length
calmed and pacified him. The people of Chalkis, after this narrow
escape, dedicated the largest and most magnificent of all their public
buildings to Titus, the inscriptions on which may be read even at the
present day. "The people dedicate this gymnasium to Herakles and to
Titus." And on the other side of the road we read "The people dedicate
the Delphinium to Apollo and to Titus." Moreover even in our own times
a priest of Titus is chosen by show of hands, who offers sacrifice to
him. After the libations they sing a specially-written poem, too long
for quotation from which we extract the following verses:--
"Sing, maidens, sing,
Of Rome's good faith that keeps its oath,
And gentle Titus full of truth,
Our city's saviour, Titus and Apollo sing."
XVII. He also received honours from the Greeks at large, and that
which gives reality to honours, great goodwill from all for his kindly
disposition. For though indeed he had some slight differences with
Philopœmen, and again with Diophanes when chief of the Achæan league,
he was not rancorous, and never acted under the impulse of anger, but
soon laid aside his displeasure. He was harsh to no one, but was
thought by most men to be clever and witty, and the pleasantest of
companions. When the Achæans were endeavouring to gain for themselves
the island of Zakynthus, he discouraged their enterprise by saying
that if they proceeded so far from Peloponnesus they would be in the
same danger as the tortoise when he stretches his head out beyond his
shell.
When Philip first met him to discuss terms of peace, and observed that
Titus had come with a large suite, while he was alone, Titus answered,
"You by your own act have made yourself lonely, by having killed all
your friends and relations." Once at Rome Deinokrates the Messenian
got drunk and danced in women's clothes, and on the next day begged
Titus to assist him in his design of detaching Messenia from the
Achæan league. Titus answered that he would consider the matter, but
that he wondered that a man engaged in such important designs should
sing and dance over his wine. When the ambassadors of Antiochus were
telling the Achæans the number of the king's army and were enumerating
the various forces of which it was composed under various
designations, Titus remarked that when dining with his host he had
been surprised at the variety of meats, and had expressed his wonder
as to how he had been able to obtain so many different kinds; but his
host informed him that it was all nothing more than pork disguised by
various sauces and cooked in various ways. "So now," continued he,
"men of Achæa, do not be alarmed at the power of Antiochus when you
hear these catalogues of spearmen and lance-bearers and foot-guards;
for they are all nothing more than Syrians disguised with different
kind of arms."
XVIII. After the pacification of Greece and the end of the war with
Antiochus, Flamininus was elected censor, which is the highest office
at Rome, and is as it were the goal of political life. His colleague
was Marcellus, the son of him that was five times consul. They ejected
from the Senate four men of no reputation, and admitted into it all
the candidates who were of free birth, being forced to do so by the
tribune of the people Terentius Culeo, who by his invectives against
the patricians had induced the people to pass a decree to that effect.
The two most prominent men in Rome at this time were Scipio Africanus
and Marcus Cato. Of these Titus appointed Scipio to be President of
the Senate, as being the first man in the state, but he quarrelled
with Cato for the following reason. Titus had a brother, Lucius
Flamininus, who was very unlike himself in disposition, being
licentious in his pleasures and careless of his reputation. He had a
favourite whom he always took with him even when he was in command of
an army or governor of a province. This boy once at a wine party said
that he was so greatly attached to Lucius, that he left a show of
gladiators before he had seen a man killed, to please him. Lucius,
delighted at this proof of affection, said, "That is easily remedied;
I will gratify your wish." He ordered a condemned criminal to be
brought, sent for the executioner, and bade him strike off the man's
head in the banquetting chamber. Valerius of Antium says that Lucius
did this to please a female, not a male favourite. But Livy says that
in Cato's own speech on the subject we are told that Lucius, to
gratify his favourite, slew with his own hand a Gaulish deserter who
came with his wife and children to the door, and whom he had himself
invited into the banquetting chamber. It is probable that Cato added
these particulars to exaggerate the horror of the story, for Cicero
the Orator, who gives the story in his book 'On Old Age,' and many
other writers, say that the man was not a deserter, but a criminal,
and condemned to death.
XIX. In consequence of this, Cato, when censor, removed Lucius from
the Senate, although he was of consular rank, and although his
degradation affected his brother as well as himself. Both of them now
presented themselves before the people poorly clad and in tears, and
appeared to be making a very reasonable demand in begging Cato to
state the grounds upon which he had cast such ignominy upon an
honourable family. Cato, however, not in the least affected by this,
came forward with his colleague and publicly demanded of Titus whether
he was acquainted with what happened at the banquet. When Titus
answered that he knew nothing of it, Cato related the circumstances,
challenging Lucius to contradict him if he spoke untruly. As Lucius
remained silent, the people saw that his degradation had been
deserved, and Cato retired in triumph. Titus, vexed at what had
befallen his brother, now joined the party of Cato's enemies, objected
to all purchases, lettings, and sales by the Senate of public property
which had been made by Cato, and carried his point so far as to have
them all declared void. Thus he, I cannot say justly, became the
violent opponent of a legally constituted official and an excellent
citizen, for the sake of a man who, though his brother, was a
worthless character and had only met with his deserts. Nevertheless,
on one occasion, when the Roman people were witnessing some spectacle
in the theatre, the Senate, as is customary, sitting in the best place
in great state, they were filled with compassion on seeing Lucius
Flamininus sitting on the back benches in a mean dress, and the people
became so excited that they could not restrain their cries to him to
resume his former seat, until at length he did so, and was welcomed by
the other consulars.
XX. The ambitious character of Titus gained him much glory, while he
was in the prime of life, in the wars of which we have made mention:
for after his consulship he again served in the army as military
tribune; but when he retired from public life, being an elderly man,
he often incurred the blame of his countrymen from his desire to
distinguish himself. For instance, his conduct in regard to Hannibal
made him much disliked at Rome. Hannibal after his escape from
Carthage, joined king Antiochus, but when Antiochus, after his defeat
in Phrygia, was glad to accept terms of peace from the Romans, he
again became an exile, and after many wanderings, at length settled at
the court of Prusias, king of Bithynia. Every one at Rome knew that he
was there, but no one wished to meddle with him because of his age and
weakness, as he appeared to be deserted by fortune. However, Titus was
sent to Prusias on an embassy about certain other matters, and seeing
Hannibal there took offence at his being alive, and would not accede
to the prayers and entreaties of Prusias on behalf of his suppliant.
There was, it seems, a certain oracle which ends with this verse:--
"Libyssa's earth shall cover Hannibal."
Now Hannibal himself took this to mean Libya, and that he should be
buried at Carthage; but in Bithynia there is a shingly tract by the
seashore near which is a large village named Libyssa, in which
Hannibal was living. As he mistrusted the weakness of Prusias and
feared the Romans, he had previously to this arranged seven ways of
escape leading from his own room into different subterranean passages,
all of which led into the open air by concealed apertures. When then
he heard that Titus insisted upon his death he endeavoured to escape
by one of those passages, but finding every outlet watched by the
soldiers of Prusias he determined to die by his own hand. Some say
that he destroyed himself by winding his cloak round his neck, and
ordered a slave to place his knee in the small of his back and pull
the cloak violently until he choked; while some tell us that he
imitated Themistokles and Midas, by drinking bull's blood. Livy[36]
says that he prepared some poison which he kept by him ready for such
an emergency, and that as he was about to drink it he said:--"Let us
set the Roman people free from their terrible anxiety, since they
think it long to wait for the death of the old man whom they hate.
However, Titus will not gain a glorious victory, or one worthy of his
ancestors, who sent to bid Pyrrhus beware of poison, although he was
their enemy and actually at war with them."
XXI. Thus is Hannibal said to have perished. When the news was
brought to the Senate many thought that Titus had acted officiously
and cruelly in putting Hannibal to death, when he was living unharmed
and helpless, merely in order to obtain the credit of having killed
him. When they reflected upon the mildness and magnanimity of Scipio
Africanus they wondered yet more, for Scipio, after vanquishing the
terrible and unconquered Hannibal in Libya, did not drive him into
exile, or insist upon his countrymen delivering him up. He actually
met him on friendly terms before the battle, and when he made a treaty
with him after his victory he did not bear himself unseemly or insult
his rival's misfortune. It is related that they met again in Ephesus,
and that as they walked together Hannibal took the place of honour,
while Africanus walked contentedly beside him. Their conversation
turned upon great generals, and when Hannibal stated his opinion that
the best of generals was Alexander, next to him Pyrrhus, and next
himself, Scipio, with a quiet smile, asked him: "What would you have
said, if I had not conquered you?" "In that case, Scipio," answered
Hannibal, "I should not have reckoned myself third but first of
generals." The people remembering this cried shame upon Titus, for
having laid hands upon a man whom another had slain.[37] Some few,
however, praised the deed, thinking that Hannibal, as long as he
lived, was a fire which might easily be fanned into a destructive
conflagration. They pointed out that even when he was in the prime of
life it was not his bodily strength or personal prowess that made him
so terrible to the Romans, but his intellect and skill, together with
his inveterate hatred of Rome, none of which had been diminished by
age, but that his natural gifts remained the same, while also fortune
was wont to change, and so those who had any permanent cause of enmity
with another nation were ever encouraged by hopes of success to make
new attacks. Indeed subsequent events seemed to prove Titus right, as
Aristonikus, the son of the harp-player, in his admiration for
Eumenes, filled the whole of Asia with revolt and revolution, while
Mithridates, after his tremendous losses at the hands of Sulla and
Fimbria, again gathered together such great forces both by land and
sea to oppose Lucullus. Yet Hannibal did not fall so low as Caius
Marius. The former was to the last the friend of a king, and spent his
time in sailing in ships, riding on horseback, and in the study of how
to keep a military force efficient; whereas the Romans, who had
laughed Marius to scorn as he wandered a beggar in Africa, soon licked
the dust before him while he flogged and slaughtered them in Rome.
Thus no one of our present circumstances can be said to be either
important or trifling, great or small, in comparison with what is to
come, but we only cease to change when we cease to exist.
For this reason some say that Titus did not effect this of his own
free will, but that he was sent with Lucius Scipio as a colleague on
an embassy whose sole object was the death of Hannibal. Now, as after
these events we know of no other acts of Titus either as a warrior or
statesman, and as he died a peaceful death, it is time to begin our
comparison.