Those who wish to know what Titus Quintius Flamininus, whom we have
selected as a parallel to Philopœmen, was like, may see his brazen
statue in Rome, which stands beside the great statue of Apollo from
Carthage, opposite to the Circus, with a Greek inscription upon it.
His temper is said to have been warm, both in love and in anger,
though he was ever moderate and placable in inflicting punishment,
while he was never weary in conferring favours, and was always eager
to help those upon whom he had bestowed some benefit, preserving and
protecting them as though they were the most precious of his
possessions. Being ambitious and eager to distinguish himself, he
wished to take the leading part in everything, and consequently
preferred those who hoped to receive to those who were able to confer
favours, because the former were his assistants and the latter his
rivals in the struggle for honour.
He received a military training, being born at a time when Rome was
engaged in most important wars, and when young men learned how to act
as officers not by theory but by actual service in the field. He first
served as military tribune under the consul Marcellus in the war with
Hannibal. Marcellus perished in an ambuscade, but Titus was made
governor of Tarentum after its recapture, and of the surrounding
territory. In this government, he won as great a reputation for
justice as for courage, so that when the Romans sent colonists to the
two cities of Narnia and Cossa, he was appointed to lead them and act
as founder of the colonies.
II. This so elated him that he at once aspired to the consulship,
passing over all the usual steps of Ædile, Tribune, or Prætor, by
which young men generally rose to that office. When the day of
election arrived, he appeared with a strong following of devoted
partisans from those two towns. When the tribunes of the people,
Fulvius and Manius, came forward and protested against a young man
taking the highest office in the state by storm, contrary to the laws,
and being as it were uninitiated in the very elements of the
constitution, the Senate referred the matter to the votes of the
people, who elected him consul together with Sextus Ælius, although he
was not yet thirty years old. In casting lots for provinces the war
with Philip of Macedon fell to his share, greatly to the advantage of
the Romans, because in that war they needed a general who would deal
with the enemy not entirely by main force, but also win them over by
persuasion and diplomacy. The kingdom of Macedonia was amply
sufficient for Philip, if he only fought once with the Romans; but to
maintain the cost of a long war, to supply his troops, and afford him
necessary resources, the co-operation of Greece was essential to him.
Unless therefore Greece could be detached from his alliance, the war
could not be decided by a single battle. Greece at this time had been
brought but little into contact with the Romans, who then for the
first time interfered in her politics. Unless, therefore, the Roman
general had been a man of high character, willing to act by diplomacy
rather than by war, and combining affability of address with a strict
sense of justice, the Greeks would have been unwilling to throw off
their allegiance to their former masters in order to place themselves
under the new and untried dominion of Rome. Of these honourable traits
in Titus's character many instances will be found in his acts.
III. He learned that his predecessors, Sulpicius[32] and Publius[33],
had both invaded Macedonia when the season was far advanced, had begun
warlike operations too late, and had failed because Philip occupied
the strong places in the country and harassed them by constant attacks
upon their communications and foraging parties. Flamininus did not
wish to follow their example, and, after wasting a year at home in
the enjoyment of the consular dignity, and in taking part in the
politics of Rome, to set out late in the year to begin his campaign,
although by this means he might have extended his command over two
years, by acting as consul in the first, and carrying on the war as
proconsul during the second. He preferred to throw the weight of his
power as consul into the conduct of the war, cared not to display the
insignia of his office at Rome, but obtained from the Senate the
appointment of his brother Lucius to the command of the fleet which
was to co-operate with him, took as the nucleus of his army three
thousand of the strongest of those veterans who under Scipio had
beaten Hasdrubal in Spain and Hannibal in Africa, and safely crossed
over with them into Epirus. Here he found Publius, with his army,
watching that of Philip, which held the passes near the river Apsus,
but unable to effect anything on account of the enemy being so
strongly posted. After taking over the army from Publius, whom he
superseded in its command, he reconnoitred the position. Its strength
is as great as that of the vale of Tempe, although it wants the lovely
meadows and groves of trees for which the latter is celebrated. The
river Apsus runs in a deep ravine between vast and lofty mountains,
like the Peneus in appearance and swiftness, and beside it, at the
foot of the mountains, runs one narrow and rocky path, along which it
is difficult for an army to proceed even if unmolested, and utterly
impossible if it be held by an enemy.
IV. Titus was advised by some to turn Philip's flank, marching through
the Dassaretid country along the Lykus, which would offer no such
difficulties; but he feared to march far from the coast lest, like his
predecessors, he should become entangled in a country which could
furnish no supplies, be unable to force Philip to fight, and be
obliged to retreat to the sea again from want of the means of
subsistence. He determined to force his way through the mountains in
front, and as these were held by Philip with his main body, the
phalanx, his flanks being secured by archers and light armed troops,
skirmishes took place between him and the Romans daily, with
considerable loss on both sides, but without any result, until some of
the natives of the country informed him of a path, neglected by the
enemy, by which they undertook to lead his army, and on the third day
at the latest to place it upon the heights. As a guarantee of their
good faith they referred the Romans to Charops, the chief of the
Epirot tribes, who was friendly to the Romans, and co-operated with
them secretly, being afraid of Philip. Titus trusting in this man's
word sent one of the military tribunes with four thousand infantry and
three hundred cavalry. They were guided by these peasants, who were
strictly guarded, and marched by night, resting by day in woods and
sheltered places: for the moon was full. Titus, after he had
despatched this force, rested his army, only skirmishing slightly with
the enemy lest they should entertain any suspicion, until the day upon
which the turning party was expected to appear on the summit of the
mountain range. On that morning he got his whole force under arms,
light and heavy armed alike, and dividing it into three parts himself
led one body in column up to the attack of the narrowest part of the
pass beside the river, while the Macedonians shot at him from above
and disputed every inequality of the ground, while on his right and
left the other detachments likewise vigorously attacked the position.
The sun rose while they were thus engaged, and a light cloud of smoke,
not distinct, but like a mountain mist, rose from the captured
heights. It was unnoticed by the enemy, being behind their backs, but
kept the Romans, while they fought, in a state of hopeful excitement
and suspense. When however it grew thicker and blacker, and rising in
a cloud proved itself without doubt to be the looked-for signal, they
rushed forward with a shout and drove the enemy into their innermost
places of refuge, while those on the rocks above echoed their warlike
clamour.
V. A headlong flight now took place, but the enemy lost only two
thousand men, for the difficulties of the ground made it hard to
pursue. The Romans, however, made themselves masters of their baggage,
tents, and slaves, and marched through Epirus in such an orderly and
well-disciplined fashion that, although the soldiers were far from
their ships, had not had their monthly allowance of provisions served
out to them, and were not often near a market, they nevertheless
abstained from plundering a country which was abounding in riches.
Indeed Titus had learned that Philip passed through Thessaly like a
fugitive, driving the inhabitants of the city to fly to the mountains
for refuge, burning the cities and giving all the property which could
not be carried away to his soldiers as plunder.
As Philip therefore had given up the country to the Romans, Titus
besought his soldiers to march through it taking as much care of it as
if it were their own. This good discipline was not long in bearing
fruit; for as soon as the Romans entered Thessaly the cities
surrendered themselves to Titus, while the Greeks beyond Thermopylæ
were excited and eager for him to come to them, and in Peloponnesus
the Achæan league threw off allegiance to Philip, and agreed to wage
war against him in conjunction with the Romans. The Opuntian Lokrians
also sent for Titus and delivered themselves up to him, although they
had been pressed by the Ætolians, who were allies of the Romans, to
allow them to take charge of their city. It is said that king Pyrrhus,
when from a mountain watch-tower he first saw the Roman army drawn up
in regular order, said:--"These barbarians have nothing barbarous in
their military discipline." And in truth all those who met Titus were
compelled to echo these words. They heard from the Macedonians that
the leader of a barbarian army was coming to destroy everything and to
reduce everyone to slavery: and then meeting a young and pleasant
looking man, who was a thorough Greek in language and address, and a
man of really noble character, they were marvellously fascinated by
him, and on leaving him filled their cities with his praises, saying
that at length they had found a champion for the liberties of Greece.
After he had proposed to Philip, as terms of peace, that he should
withdraw his garrisons and leave Greece independent, which Philip
refused to do, then even those who had previously been on the side of
Philip admitted that the Romans had not come to fight against the
Greeks, but to fight with the Greeks against the Macedonians.
VI. The whole of Greece came to terms with him without a struggle,
Thebes being the first city to send a deputation to welcome him as he
peacefully marched through Bœotia. It was Brachyllus who had kept the
Thebans loyal to Philip, but now they desired to show their admiration
and esteem for Flamininus, being, as they imagined, on terms of amity
with both parties. Titus received them with great courtesy, and walked
gently forwards with them, conversing with them and asking them
questions, until his soldiers, who were marching some distance behind,
came up with him. Then he walked into the city in the company of the
Thebans, not altogether to their satisfaction, although they did not
like to attempt to keep him out, as he was accompanied by a good many
soldiers. Yet, as if the town were not entirely at his mercy, he made
them a speech, urging them to side with the Romans, while King Attalus
spoke to the same effect, encouraging the Thebans to rally to the
Roman cause. Attalus, indeed, over-exerted himself in his speech,
considering his great age, and in consequence of a sudden dizziness or
faintness fell down in a fit. He was shortly afterwards conveyed by
sea to Asia Minor, and died there. However, the Bœotians accepted the
Roman alliance.
VII. Philip now sent an embassy to Rome; and Flamininus also sent
thither to beg the Senate to allow him to retain his office of consul,
in case they should continue the war, or if they decided otherwise, to
permit him to have the honour of concluding a peace with Philip; for
his ambitious spirit could not endure to be superseded by another
commander. His friends succeeded in obtaining the rejection of
Philip's demands, and his own continuance in office. As soon as he
received this intelligence, he started, full of hope, to attack Philip
in Thessaly, with an army of more than twenty-six thousand men, of
which the Ætolians supplied six thousand infantry and four hundred
cavalry. The army of Philip was of nearly equal numbers, and they
began to march towards one another until they both drew near the city
of Skotussa, where they determined to fight a decisive battle. When
the two armies found themselves so near each other they felt no fear,
as one might have expected, but each was confident of victory. The
Romans were eager for the honour of overcoming the Macedonians, who
had gained such glory under Alexander the Great; while the
Macedonians, admitting the Romans to be very different soldiers to the
Persians, swelled with pride at the thought that if they could conquer
them, they would prove their king Philip to be even more invincible
than Alexander himself. Titus also encouraged his soldiers to quit
them like men, pointing out that they were about to fight in Greece, a
noble theatre in which to display deeds of daring, and against worthy
antagonists; while Philip, either by chance, or not noticing what he
was doing in his haste, mounted upon a large sepulchre outside his
camp, and from it began to make the usual speech to his men to
encourage them for the coming struggle, but at length observing the
evil omen was much disheartened by it, broke off in confusion, and
would not fight that day.
VIII. On the following morning about dawn, as the night had been warm
and damp, the whole plain was covered with fog, and a thick mist
poured down from the neighbouring hills; which rendered it impossible
to distinguish any object. The parties which were sent out by each
army to reconnoitre fell in with one another and fought near the place
called Kynoskephalæ, that is, Dogs' Heads, which is so named because a
number of small hills near together have something of this appearance.
In the combat, as usually happens in such rough ground, each side
alternately had the advantage, and as each gave way they were
reinforced from the respective camps. Now the fog lifted, and the two
commanders resolved upon a general engagement. Philip's right wing, on
which the phalanx charged down-hill with all its weight, was
victorious, the Romans being unable to stand before that hedge of
spears, or break through that closely-locked array of shields. But on
the left the Macedonians were unable to maintain their line, because
of the inequalities of the ground, and Titus, seeing that his left was
hopelessly routed, rode quickly to his own right, and suddenly
attacked the enemy, who, because of the uneven nature of the ground,
were unable to form their phalanx with its deep ranks, in which lies
the peculiar strength of that order of battle, while the soldiers of
which it is composed are armed in an unwieldy fashion which renders
them helpless in a hand-to-hand fight. For the Macedonian phalanx[34]
is like some huge beast of invincible strength so long as it remains
one body, close locked together in serried ranks; but when broken up
it loses even the advantage of each individual soldier's strength,
because of the fashion in which they are armed, as they can only act
together, not separately. When this body was routed some of the Romans
pursued the fugitives, while others charged the victorious Macedonians
in flank, soon forcing them to break up their array and fly in
confusion, throwing away their arms. There fell no less than eight
thousand of them, and five thousand were taken prisoners. The Ætolian
cavalry were blamed for letting Philip escape, because they betook
themselves to plundering the camp of the Macedonians even before the
Romans ceased their pursuit, so that on their return they found that
nothing had been left for them.
IX. From this there arose quarrels between the Ætolians and the
Romans; and afterwards they exasperated Titus by taking to themselves
the credit of the victory, and being the first to spread abroad that
report among the Greeks so that they received all the honours due to
victors, and were mentioned first in all the poems and ballads
written about the battle. Of these, that which was most in vogue was
the following:--
"Unwept, unburied, on this mountain high,
Stranger, Thessalians thirty thousand lie;
They fell before Ætolia's sons in war.
And Romans, brought by Titus from afar.
Æmathia weeps their loss. Bold Philip too,
Flies like a deer, and knows not what to do."
This was written by Alkæus to insult Philip, exaggerating the number
of the slain; but when it came to be repeated many times and by many
men, it vexed Titus more than Philip. The latter indeed parodied it in
the following lines.
"Unshaped, unpolished, stands a gibbet strong,
Upon this hill to hang Alkæus on."
But Titus, who felt that the eyes of Greece were upon him, was
wonderfully vexed by these incidents. For this reason he conducted the
operations which followed without in the least degree consulting the
Ætolians. They were angry at this neglect, and when Titus began
negotiations with Philip, and received an embassy from him to treat
for peace, they spread it abroad throughout Greece that Titus was
being bribed by Philip into making peace, when he had it in his power
to utterly cut off and destroy that power which first destroyed the
independence of Greece. Philip himself however put an end to this
suspicion, by placing himself and all his resources in the hands of
Titus and the people of Rome. So now Titus brought the war to a close.
He restored Philip to his kingdom of Macedonia, but forbade him to
interfere in the affairs of Greece. He also imposed upon him a fine of
a thousand talents, took away all but ten of his ships of war, and
sent one of his two sons, Demetrius, to Rome as a hostage for the
fulfilment of these conditions. In their making terms with Philip
Titus showed himself wise and provident: for Hannibal the
Carthaginian, who was at that time an exile, was already at the court
of King Antiochus, urging him to follow up his good fortune and
increase his empire. Antiochus had already been so successful as to
have gained the surname of 'the Great,' and was now aiming at
universal dominion. He especially intended to attack the Romans, and
unless Titus had foreseen this, and granted favourable terms of peace,
Philip would have been his ally, the two most powerful kings of the
age would have been arrayed against the Romans, and a struggle no less
important than that of Rome against Hannibal would have begun. As it
was, Titus interposed this peace between the two wars, finishing the
one before he began the other; by which means he took from one of the
kings his last, and from the other his first hope.
X. The ten commissioners, whom the Senate despatched to assist Titus
in settling the affairs of Greece, advised him to leave it free and
independent, only keeping garrisons in Corinth, Chalkis, and
Demetrias, for safety against Antiochus. Upon this the Ætolians threw
off all disguise, openly urged these cities to revolt, and called upon
Titus to loose the chains of Greece, as Philip was wont to call these
three cities. They asked the Greeks whether they were pleased at their
present bonds, which were heavier, though smoother than before; and
whether they still thought Titus to be their benefactor because he had
removed the fetters from the feet of Greece and fastened them round
her throat. Titus was much grieved at these imputations, and at length
by his representations induced the Senate to desist from its design of
placing garrisons in these three cities, in order that the liberty
which he was about to bestow upon Greece might be unclogged by any
conditions.
When the Isthmian games were being celebrated, a great number of
people were assembled in the arena witnessing the gymnastic contests,
as was natural now that wars had ceased throughout Greece, and the
people could attend their national festivals in safety. Proclamation
was now suddenly made by the sound of a trumpet that every man should
keep silence; and a herald coming forward into the midst of the
assembly announced that the Senate of Rome, and Titus Quintius their
consul and general, having overcome King Philip and the Macedonians,
did now henceforth give liberty to the Corinthians, Lokrians,
Phokians, Eubœans, Achæans of Phthia, Magnetes, Thessalians, and
Perrhæbians, with exemption from garrisons and tribute, and
permission to govern themselves by their hereditary laws. At first all
did not clearly hear the proclamation, and there was a disorderly
tumult in the assembly, as men wondered at the words, asked one
another their meaning, and called upon the herald to repeat them. But
when silence had again been obtained, and the herald, exerting his
voice to the utmost, repeated the proclamation, such a shout was
raised that it was heard as far as the sea coast, and all the
spectators rose from their seats, caring nothing more for the games,
but rushing with one accord to greet, with transports of delight, the
saviour and protector of Greece. On this occasion was observed what is
often mentioned as an example of the power of human voices; some
crows, which were flying over the racecourse at that moment, fell down
among the people. The reason of this is that the air is broken and cut
asunder by the vehemence and strength of the voices, so as not to have
its natural power to support the birds, which, fell down just as if
they were flying through a place where there was no air at all; unless
indeed it was the violence of the cry that struck the birds like a
shot, and so caused them to fall down dead. It may be also that the
air is driven round in whirlpools by such shouts, as we observe
happens in violent disturbances of the sea.
XI. As for Titus, unless he had escaped betimes when the assembly
broke up and rushed towards him, it is thought that he could not have
survived the pressure of so great a multitude. The crowd surrounded
his tent, shouting and applauding until nightfall, when they
dispersed: but as they went, if they met any of their kin, their
friends, or fellow-citizens, they kissed and embraced them for joy,
and then supped and made merry together. We may well think that they
had no other talk at the table but of the great and terrible wars
which Greece had fought for her liberty, and that nevertheless she
never had obtained so perfect and delightful a state of freedom as
that which had been won for her by other men's labours, almost without
any blood of her own being spilt. It is indeed rare to find bravery
and wisdom combined in any man, but it is even rarer to find a
perfectly just man. Agesilaus and Lysander, Nikias and Alkibiades
knew well how to wage war and win battles both by land and by sea, but
they never could make their victories yield any honourable benefit to
others, or true glory to themselves. Indeed with the exception of
Marathon and Salamis, Platæa and Thermopylæ, and the campaigns of
Kimon on the Eurymedon and in Cyprus, all the other battles of Greece
have been fought against herself, to bring about her slavery, and
every trophy has been a misfortune, and a monument of shame rather
than glory, arising chiefly from the rivalry between the leading
cities. Yet a strange nation, from which it was inconceivable that
Greece should receive any benefit, with scarcely any glimmering
embers, as it were, of a common origin, had nevertheless, with great
risk and hard fighting, rescued Greece from her harsh tyrants and
oppressors.
XII. These were the thoughts which occupied men's minds: and the
events which took place were all in conformity with the proclamation.
Titus had at the same time sent Lentulus to Asia Minor to free the
Bargylians, and Stertinius to Thrace to remove the garrisons of Philip
from the towns and islands in that quarter, while Publius Villius set
sail to treat with Antiochus about the freedom of the Greeks in his
dominions. Titus himself proceeded to Chalkis, and thence he took ship
for Magnesia, where he removed the foreign garrisons from the cities
and re-established a democratic constitution in them. After this he
was elected President of the Nemean games at Argos, where he made
admirable arrangements for the conduct of the festival, and made a
herald repeat his proclamation to the Greeks assembled there. He now
made a progress through the cities of Greece, in which he established
tranquillity and good laws, encouraged them to regard each other with
good will, put an end to faction, and brought back exiles, taking no
less pride in acting as counsellor and mediator to the Greeks than he
did in having conquered the Macedonians, so that liberty seemed to be
the least of the benefits which he had bestowed on the Greeks.
It is said that when at Athens Lykurgus the orator had rescued
Xenokratos the philosopher from the tax-gatherers who were taking him
to prison for non-payment of the tax upon resident aliens, and had
them punished for their insolent conduct towards him, Xenokrates,
afterwards meeting the sons of Lykurgus, said, "My children, I am
making your father an honourable return for his kindness, he has the
praises of the whole people for what he did for me." Flamininus and
the Romans, however, not only obtained the praise of the Greeks in
return for the benefits which they had conferred upon them, but also
gained the trust and confidence of all mankind by their noble acts.
Not only cities, but even kings who had been wronged by other kings
came to them for redress, so that in a short space of time, with the
assistance, no doubt, of the divine favour, all the world became
subject to them. Flamininus especially prided himself on having
liberated the Greeks, and when he dedicated at Delphi silver shields
and his own Roman buckler, he wrote upon them the following verses:--
"To you, the Twins, delighting in the chase,
Great Zeus's sons, of Sparta's royal race,
This offering gives the Roman Titus, he
Who set the children of fair Hellas free."