MAHDIST OCCUPATION OF THE SOUTHERN PROVINCES.
The Mahdist Expedition to Equatoria--The Fate of the Remnant of
Emin's Garrison--The Campaign against the Shilluks--Tokar
re-captured--Death of Osman Wad Adam--Dissensions in
Dongola--The Fall of Khaled.
Karamalla, from whom Osman Wad Adam had taken away all his Bazingers and
female slaves, and who was now in a state of poverty in Omdurman, had,
whilst Emir of the Bahr el Ghazal Province, advanced to the vicinity of
the White Nile, and had worried Emin Pasha. Fortunately for the latter,
Karamalla had been recalled; and the Bahr el Ghazal Province having been
abandoned, no news had been received from Equatoria for a long time, and
those merchants who were engaged in the grain trade brought little
information from any of the countries south of Fashoda. The Khalifa, who
was always turning over in his mind how he could increase his revenue,
had heard of the richness of these countries in ivory and slaves, and,
in consequence, had decided to organise an expedition to attack and take
possession of them; but, as the undertaking was a risky one and success
doubtful, he hesitated to involve in it his relatives or his tribe; he
therefore nominated Omar Saleh, who had been educated amongst the
Taaisha tribe, as chief of the expedition, which was composed for the
most part of tribes of the Nile valley,--Jaalin and Danagla. Three
steamers were now manned, as well as eight sailing-vessels filled with
cargo, consisting principally of Manchester goods, beads, etc.; and Omar
Saleh was given a force of some rifles and five hundred spearmen. The
Khalifa sent letters to Emin Pasha, including one which I was obliged to
sign, in which I called upon him to surrender; George Stambuli, who had
formerly been Emin Pasha's private agent in Khartum, was also obliged to
write a letter. At this time, the Shilluks were in considerable force;
and as they did not owe allegiance to the Khalifa, Omar Saleh was
instructed to pass by Fashoda as quickly as possible, and only to defend
himself in case of attack. The expedition quitted Omdurman in July,
1890, passed Fashoda without difficulty; and after that Omar had no
further opportunity of reporting on his position. It was not till a year
had elapsed, and the Khalifa was beginning to get uneasy, and was
considering how he could procure information, that a steamer arrived
with some ivory and a quantity of slaves, the captain of which gave a
full account of the progress and position of the expedition. The
Egyptian garrison of Reggaf had surrendered, and some of the officers of
that place had been sent to Duffilé, with orders to seize Emin Pasha,
whose soldiers had mutinied, and hand him over to Omar Saleh. After the
departure of the party from Reggaf, a rumour had been circulated amongst
the Mahdists that they had been deceived by the officers, and that it
was the intention of the latter, on their arrival at Duffilé, to join
with the garrison of that place and attack Omar Saleh; he therefore
seized the officers and men who had remained behind, threw them into
chains, and distributed their property and slaves amongst his followers.
The officers who had gone to Duffilé had really intended to capture
Emin, who had in the meantime left with Stanley; and, hearing of what
had happened to their wives and property, they now collected the
soldiers who, on Emin's departure had created a sort of military
republic, and with them marched towards Reggaf. The Mahdists, getting
information of this, met them on the road; and a fight ensued, in which
Omar Saleh was victorious. The officers were killed; but most of the men
succeeded in beating a retreat towards Duffilé followed by the Mahdists,
who attacked the position, but were driven off and forced to retire. In
spite of this victory, great dissensions prevailed amongst the men;
and, eventually, they dispersed in bands throughout the province, in
order to gain their own livelihood. The Khalifa, rejoicing at Omar
Saleh's success, and his cupidity excited by the exaggerated accounts of
Wad Badai, who had arrived on the steamer, now gave instructions for
another expedition to be equipped, with which he despatched Hassib Wad
Ahmed and Elias Wad Kanuna, and took advantage of the occasion to rid
himself of many characters which were obnoxious to him. From that date,
Reggaf became a colony for the deportation of convicts, and of persons
whose presence in Omdurman was considered dangerous to the state.
Several persons who had been accused of theft, and incarcerated in the
Saier, were handed over to Wad Kanuna, who, at the same time, had all
persons suspected of leading an immoral life seized, thrown into chains,
and sent up to Reggaf; the opportunity was made the most of by several
of the Emirs and other influential people to rid themselves of any
persons whom they thought dangerous or disagreeable to them. The two
chiefs also took advantage of the occasion to visit all the villages on
the river bank between Omdurman and Kawa, and ruthlessly seize the
people, under the pretext that they belonged to this category, and had
been sentenced by the Khalifa to transportation; they could only regain
their freedom by the payment of a considerable sum of money to the two
Emirs, who continued their depredations until they reached the Shilluk
and Dinka country, the inhabitants of which they feared too much to
attempt such outrages on them.
From merchants who had gone to Fashoda in the years 1889 and 1890 to
obtain grain, we had heard a good deal about the people who lived in
these countries. The districts in close proximity to the river were
mostly inhabited by the Shilluks and Dinkas, who, untrammelled by the
despotic tyranny of the Khalifa, lived a quiet and undisturbed life in
the midst of their families. They were ruled over by a descendant of the
Mek (King) of the old Shilluk royal family, who had certain restrictive
rights over his subjects, and, with his own interest always to the
fore, permitted commercial relations with the Mahdists, avoiding at the
same time any actual allegiance to the Khalifa, to whom he did not pay
tribute. Wad Badai, who had had sufficient opportunities of seeing the
wealth of the country between Fashoda and Reggaf, now gave it as his
opinion that the Khalifa would considerably profit by its acquisition.
At this time, Zeki Tummal was at Gallabat with his army, which, owing to
famine, had considerably decreased in numbers, though he had done his
best to maintain it at the expense of the local population; he had,
moreover, made constant raids on the Amhara country. But now the
condition of the district had become so poor that he had great
difficulties in finding sufficient supplies for his men, with whom he
was unusually strict, punishing them most rigorously for the most
trivial offences; and on this account he was not only unpopular amongst
them, but also amongst his Emirs. He now received instructions from the
Khalifa to proceed to the Shilluk country; and, marching to Kawa, where
he embarked, he went direct to Fashoda. The King of the Shilluks, being
under the impression that Zeki's steamers were on their way to Reggaf,
was much surprised when the Emir suddenly landed; the Mek fled, was
pursued, captured, and, having refused to disclose the hiding-place of
the money he had received in exchange for the grain, was promptly
executed. The Shilluks, however, who are the finest and bravest of the
Sudanese Black tribes, collected both north and south of Fashoda, and
defended their liberty and their homes with magnificent courage and
resolution; but Zeki's men, used to constant fighting, and armed with
Remington rifles, were almost invariably victorious. It was not,
however, until after many bloody fights, in which the Shilluks, armed
only with their lances, frequently broke the squares and inflicted
considerable loss on the soldiers, that they had at last to admit they
were beaten. They dispersed, with their families, throughout the
country, but were pursued in all directions by Zeki, who captured large
numbers of them. The men he invariably put to the sword; but the women,
young girls, and children were embarked on the steamers, and despatched
to Omdurman. Here the Khalifa ordered the young boys to be taken charge
of by his mulazemin, by whom they were to be brought up, whilst most of
the girls he kept for himself, or distributed amongst his followers and
special adherents. The remainder were sent to the Beit el Mal, where
they were publicly sold; but thousands of these poor creatures succumbed
to fatigue, want, and the change of climate. Unused to life in this
squalid city, these wild Blacks were huddled together in wretched
quarters, and eventually found homes amongst the poorest class of the
population. It was no uncommon occurrence for a girl to be sold as a
slave at the rate of from eight to twenty dollars (Omdurman currency).
When Zeki left Gallabat, the Emir Ahmed Wad Ali took his place, and his
brother Hamed Wad Ali was nominated Emir of Kassala. Avaricious to a
degree, he mercilessly robbed the people of their property and cattle,
with the result that the eastern Arab tribes, such as the Hadendoa,
Halenga, Beni Amer, etc., who had really captured Kassala for the Mahdi,
now revolted, and, wandering eastwards in the direction of Massawa,
placed themselves under the protection of the Italians. Thus it was that
this once thickly populated country became almost denuded of
inhabitants. Amongst others, the once powerful Shukria tribe, which had
suffered terribly during the famine year, was now almost extinct; whilst
the fertile district of Kassala was almost completely deserted, and the
garrison there had the greatest difficulty in maintaining itself.
The Khalifa, alarmed at the progress of the Italians from Massawa, now
looked upon Kassala as the mainstay of his authority in these districts.
He was furious with his cousin, Hamed Wad Ali, whom he accused of having
ruined the country, and recalled him to Omdurman, where he was ordered
to attend prayers in the mosque five times daily; and he replaced him at
Kassala by Abu Girga, who had hitherto been with Osman Digna.
Osman Digna, who had been made responsible for the government of the
Eastern Sudan, had been successful in subjugating most of the Arab
tribes; and, through them, he had for several years been a menace to
Suakin. He had had several engagements with the Government troops; and,
on one occasion, Sir Herbert Kitchener, the present Sirdar of the
Egyptian Army, had been severely wounded whilst making an attack on his
camp at Handub. Eventually, the Government sent an expedition which
drove him out of the position he had taken up to besiege Suakin; and he
now made his headquarters at Tokar, where he remained for some years,
making constant incursions in the vicinity of Suakin, and harrying the
friendly tribes of which the Amarar was the principal; but, tired of
this constant fighting, and irritated by Osman's undue severity, the
local tribes began to desert the cause, and not a few of them became
actually hostile to the Khalifa's authority. Informed of this state of
things Abdullahi, more anxious to defend his newly acquired realm than
to occupy himself in propagating the Mahdist doctrine, instructed Osman
Digna not to go too far, and sent Mohammed Wad Khaled to him with this
message. The latter, after the confiscation of his property at Bara, had
been kept for more than a year in chains in Kordofan; he had then been
brought to Omdurman, had received the Khalifa's pardon, and had received
back a small portion of his property. For years, he had said his prayers
daily in the mosque under the Khalifa's eye, and had apparently broken
off all relations with his relatives, whom he accused of unfairness and
ingratitude; but, as usual, his astuteness had not failed him: he was
well aware of the Khalifa's hostility to all the Mahdi's relatives, and
that was the reason he so studiously avoided all contact with them;
hence his nomination as the Khalifa's personal representative with Osman
Digna. In this mission he was most successful; and, having completed it,
he was instructed to proceed to Abu Hamed, and report on the general
condition of the Ababda tribes, who were subject to the Egyptian
Government, but who were at the same time in close relationship with
the Mahdist tribes of the Berber Province. Khaled's mission, however,
did not have any lasting effect on Osman Digna; for, a few weeks after
his departure, the Egyptian troops, under Holled Smith Pasha, attacked
Tokar, and utterly routed Osman, who fled to the Atbara. The Khalifa,
who had been informed by Osman that he was about to be attacked, awaited
the result with the greatest anxiety; but he openly declared to his
followers that he had not the slightest doubt that victory was insured;
when, therefore, the news came of Osman's utter defeat and flight, he
was greatly upset. Councils of war were at once held, for it was feared
the Government troops would advance towards Kassala and Berber, both of
which places were only weakly held; consequently, instructions were
issued to the commanders of these places that, should the troops
advance, they should fall back on Metemmeh, where it was his intention
to make a fortified camp. Great, however, was his relief when he
received news that the Government had contented itself with the
re-capture of Tokar. The loss of this district was undoubtedly a very
heavy blow to him, and left open to the tribes friendly to the
Government the roads leading to both Kassala and Berber. A few months
later, Osman Digna, who had taken up a position on the high ground south
of Berber, with the remnant of his force, suffered greatly from want of
food, and was obliged to disperse his men over the country; he therefore
received orders to proceed to Berber with his Emirs, and, having
obtained new clothing, he and the newly nominated Emir of Berber, Zeki
Osman, were summoned to Omdurman. Here he was received in a friendly
manner by the Khalifa, who, convinced of his fidelity and
trustworthiness, consoled him about his defeat, and, after treating him
honourably for a few weeks, sent him back with some horses, camels, and
women to the Atbara, where he was instructed to make a camp and
agricultural settlement, and collect his scattered forces.
At this time, only Eastern Darfur remained subject to Osman Wad Adam.
The country had been almost depopulated by famine, and this Emir now
decided to advance against Dar Tama and Massalit; but, on the frontier,
he encountered such severe opposition that he began to think the
undertaking too dangerous. He was attacked in his zariba by the natives,
who, armed only with small spears, forced their way in; and he had to
thank his Remington rifles and the Sheikhs who were with him, for a
dearly earned victory; had he been attacked on the line of march, he
would almost certainly have been annihilated. His heavy losses
considerably delayed his march; and, ere he could obtain reinforcements,
a severe epidemic of typhoid fever broke out amongst his men, and he was
forced to retire; falling ill himself on the march, he died two days
after his arrival at Fasher. His loss was a great blow to the Khalifa,
who looked on his young cousin (he was barely twenty years of age) as a
courageous leader who paid careful attention to the wants of his men,
and had done much to increase the strength and number of the Mahdist
forces; he invariably sent to the Khalifa the fair share of the booty,
and disinterestedly divided the remainder amongst his people, keeping
only for himself what sufficed for his immediate wants. He was a
magnificent rider, was most popular with every one, and avoided leading
an effeminate and enervating existence; for long after his death he was
looked upon as a fine example of a bold and courageous Arab. He was
succeeded in the command of Darfur by another of the Khalifa's youthful
relatives, Mahmud Wad Ahmed, who was a great contrast to his
predecessor: he thought only of enriching himself; his sole pleasure
consisted in leading a life of debauchery with women of evil repute,
dancers, and singers, and he took a special delight in all their
unseemly ways. A mutiny soon broke out amongst his men, which was
suppressed with the utmost severity, and resulted in a considerable
weakening of his forces.
Yunes, who, since his despatch to Dongola, had always been considered
Nejumi's superior, now attached to his councils Arabi Wad Dafalla and
Mussaid; but, as each one was bent entirely on enriching himself as
rapidly as possible, differences soon broke out, for the country was
quite unable to sustain the strain of overburdened taxation. Mussaid and
Arabi complained to the Khalifa that Yunes allowed his Emirs to govern
the country entirely according to their own ideas, with the result that
prices were continually rising; and, in consequence of this report, he
was recalled from Dongola.
This province being adjacent to the Egyptian frontier, large numbers of
the inhabitants had emigrated to Egypt; and, as the Egyptian garrison at
Wadi Haifa was being constantly reinforced, the Khalifa, dreading an
attack, insisted on a more lenient treatment of the people. He therefore
appointed Khaled as Yunes's successor, as he was convinced that his
character and capabilities exactly suited him for this post, and
instructed him that he should tax the people in accordance with the
number of the sakias (water-wheels) and date-palms; but not being
entirely without suspicion of Khaled's behaviour, he ordered a
detachment of his own men, armed with rifles, to be placed under Arabi
Wad Dafalla, whilst the spearmen of his own tribe were made over to
Mussaid.
The natural outcome of these arrangements was renewed dissension.
Khaled, anxious to increase the revenue of the country without
augmenting taxation, began filling up vacant posts with men of his own
choice, whilst Arabi and Mussaid did their utmost to nominate their own
relatives and friends; failing to arrange matters with Khaled, they now
began to make the most exorbitant demands, with which he could not
possibly comply, and, from dissensions, they came to insults, and very
nearly to blows, the two parties being actually drawn up facing each
other with arms in their hands. Khaled's party was composed principally
of inhabitants of the Nile valley,--Jaalin and Danagla,--whilst that of
Arabi and Mussaid was composed of Jehadia and western Arabs. Message
after message was despatched to the Khalifa by both sides, whilst
actual conflict was prevented by intermediaries and peacefully disposed
persons. Abdullahi immediately sent Yunes to take the place of Arabi and
Mussaid, who were recalled; and, immediately after they had arrived, he
sent instructions to Khaled to appear before him in Omdurman, to be
present, he said, at the punishment of Arabi and Mussaid; but no sooner
had he reached the capital than he was arraigned in court with his
antagonists. The judges consisted of the Khalifa as President, and a
number of Kadis and devoted Emirs as members; Khaled was accused of
having spoken disparagingly of his master and relatives, by saying that
they had been the cause of the ruin of the country. The Khalifa's
brother Yakub was as usual at the bottom of this intrigue, and there is
no doubt the Khalifa himself regretted having given Khaled so
influential a position; he therefore gladly seized this opportunity of
getting rid of him. During the proceedings a letter arrived from Yunes
(who had beforehand received Yakub's private instructions) to the effect
that whilst the parties were mediating, Khaled had clandestinely
concealed six boxes of ammunition, which he intended to send to his
relatives in Omdurman. Before the arraignment, the Khalifa had privately
arranged the verdict, and of course no one dared to take the part of the
accused; he was found guilty, sentenced to imprisonment for an
indefinite period, and was hurried off to the Saier, where he was kept
in solitary confinement. Curiously enough, an explanation of the
Khalifa's action appeared in an Arabic newspaper published in Cairo, in
which an extract from the Italian paper "La Riforma" had been published
to the effect that Khaled had been in communication with the Egyptian
Government for the surrender of the province with which he had been
entrusted. In consequence of this, the Khalifa again assembled the
judges, showed them the newspaper as a proof of Khaled's treachery; and
he was at once condemned to be executed. The Khalifa, however, declared
that he was most anxious not to cause the death of one of the Mahdi's
relatives and a descendant of the Prophet, he therefore commuted the
sentence to imprisonment for life. His magnanimity on this occasion was
of course praised on all sides, whilst he himself rejoiced that he had
for ever ridden himself of the only one of the Mahdi's relatives of
whose knowledge and astuteness he was justly in considerable awe. He now
used Khaled's treachery as a handle by which to irritate the Ashraf in
general; and lost no opportunity of doing all he could to weaken their
cause, and reduce them to a position of impotence, with the result that
an insurrection eventually broke out in Omdurman, which ended in the
complete success of the plans which Abdullahi had long since prepared.