THE WAR IN 1917
THE WESTERN FRONT.--During the winter of 1916-1917 there was little
infantry warfare in France, although the heavy guns kept up their
cannonades. In the spring of 1917 the Allies planned a great drive on
the enemy positions in the valley of the Somme. But in March the Germans
began a general retirement to a more easily defended line--the so-called
Hindenburg line--on a front of one hundred miles, from Arras (ar-rahss´)
to Soissons (swah-sawn´)[3]. Completely destroying the villages,
churches, castles, vineyards, and orchards, they left a desolate waste
behind them. In this retreat the Germans gave up French territory to the
extent of thirteen hundred square miles.
The German retirement was closely followed by British and French troops.
Great courage was shown by Canadian troops in the taking of Vimy Ridge
on April 9. In the following month many attacks were made by the British
and French, which resulted in the taking of nearly 50,000 prisoners and
large quantities of munitions, and the breaking through the Hindenburg
line in one place. During the summer and fall the Allied attacks
continued to win small territorial gains. The artillery fire was very
heavy during all this time. During a period of three weeks the French
city of Rheims (reemz or rănss) alone, with its magnificent cathedral
almost in ruins, was bombarded with 65,000 large caliber German shells.
Two very important ridges, from which artillery could reach German
positions, were taken during the heavy fighting in November. The French
forced a retreat of the Germans over a thirteen-mile front and occupied
the ridge known as Chemin des Dames (shmăn dā dahm); while the Canadians
secured Passchendaele (pahss-ken-dĕl´ā) Ridge.
Late in the year the British introduced a new method of warfare. Instead
of beginning their attack with a great bombardment lasting many hours
and thus indicating to the enemy the approximate time and place of
attack, they sent over the front a large number of "tanks" which broke
through the barbed wire entanglements and opened the way for the
infantry. By this means the British successfully surprised the enemy in
the battle of Cambrai (cahn-brĕ´; November 20 to December 13).
Unfortunately they could not hold most of the land occupied,--which was
lost later in the battle,--but they did show the possibility of breaking
the old deadlock of trench righting. The new method was to be used by
both sides during the campaigns of the following year.
THE WAR IN THE AIR.--During this year warfare in the air continued to
advance. Guynemer (geen-mĕr´), the great French ace, who was lost on
September 11, had to his credit the destruction of fifty-four enemy
machines. The increase in the number of airplanes led to the grouping of
large numbers into regular formations (escadrilles), sometimes composed
of over a hundred planes. Each year showed a steady increase in the
effectiveness of this kind of warfare. In 1916 a total of 611 enemy
machines had been destroyed or damaged by the Allied forces. In 1917 the
French destroyed forty-three in twenty-four hours; and the British
brought down thirty-one enemy planes in one combat. In a single week in
1918 the Allies destroyed 339 German planes. On one day, October 9,
1918, three hundred and fifty airplanes were sent forth by the American
army in a single bombing expedition.
THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION.--In 1917 the Allied cause received a heavy
blow through the collapse of the Russian government. Long before the war
there had been parties in Russia which desired to do away with the
autocratic government of the Czar and substitute some sort of
representative system which would give to the people a voice in the
management of their affairs. These reforming parties did not agree among
themselves as to the kind of government they wished to set up; their
ideas extended from limited monarchy of the English type, all the way to
anarchy, which means no government at all. In 1905 the Czar met the
wishes of the reformers to the extent of establishing the Duma, a sort
of representative assembly or parliament, which should help in making
the laws. The Duma, however, was never given any real authority, and as
time passed those who believed in Russian democracy became more and more
dissatisfied.
During the war the Germans by means of bribery and plotting did all they
could to weaken the authority of the Russian government. There existed,
moreover, much corruption and disloyalty among high Russian officials.
As the war dragged on a shortage of food added to the general
discontent. By the early months of 1917, conditions were very bad
indeed, and dissatisfied crowds gathered in the streets of Petrograd.
Hunger and hardship had made them desperate, and they refused to
disperse until the government should do something to relieve the
situation. Regiments of soldiers were summoned to fire upon the crowd.
They refused to do so and finally joined the mob. Thus began the Russian
Revolution.
At a meeting of the revolutionists a group of soldiers and working men
was selected to call upon the Duma and ask that body to form a temporary
government. Another committee was sent to inform Nicholas II that he was
deposed. Messages were sent to the armies to notify the generals that
there was no longer a Russian Empire and that they were to take their
orders thereafter from the representatives of the Russian people. Within
a few days the revolution was complete. On March 15, the Czar signed a
paper giving up the throne of Russia. Moderate reformers were placed in
charge of the different departments of the government. The new
government was recognized by the United States, Great Britain, France,
and Italy. It looked as if the revolution had established a free
government for Russia and that thenceforth, as a democratic nation, she
would fight better than ever by the side of her allies. In all the
Russian provinces, elections were called for choosing delegates to an
assembly that should make a new constitution for Russia.
RUSSIA UNDER KERENSKY.--Meanwhile the extreme socialists began at once
to make trouble for the new government. These men for the most part
owned no property and wanted all wealth equally divided among the entire
population. They considered the new government as tyrannical as that of
the Czar had been. They also favored an immediate peace. Chief among the
moderate leaders during this period was Alexander Keren´sky. He saw the
necessity of keeping the revolution within bounds. For a while he was
strong enough to maintain a moderate government in spite of the
opposition of the extreme socialists. The Germans, meanwhile, through
spies and secret agents, had been spreading among the Russian soldiers
the idea that Germany was really their friend and that it was to their
interest to stop fighting and retreat. Kerensky personally visited the
battle front in Galicia, and for a time by means of his rousing speeches
to the soldiers kept up their fighting spirit. New advances were made,
the Germans and Austrians being driven back many miles. Lemberg itself
seemed about to fall once more into the hands of the Russians. But this
success was only temporary. Owing to the shortage of ammunition and the
rapid spread of peace sentiments among the troops, the Russian army
became disorganized and retreated from Galicia.
THE BOLSHEVIKI.--Bolsheviki (bōl-shĕv´e-kee) is the name given to the
extreme socialistic party in Russia. From the beginning they had opposed
the control of affairs by the moderate revolutionists under Kerensky. At
last, in the fall of 1917, helped by the depression caused by the German
advance and by the strikes and food riots which once more broke out in
the capital, they succeeded in winning over to their side the Petrograd
garrison and the navy, and drove Kerensky from the city (November 7).
Their revolt was led by two of the most extreme members of the party,
Lenine and Trotzky, who had at their disposal large sums of money
furnished by Germany.
No sooner were the Bolsheviki in control than they announced themselves
in favor of an immediate peace. They proclaimed that all the land should
at once be divided among the peasants. When the new representative
assembly met to make a constitution, it was found to be too moderate to
suit the Bolshevik leaders, who dispersed it before it could accomplish
anything. The rule of Lenine and Trotzky promised to be even more
tyrannical than anything that had preceded it in Russia.
[Illustration: EUROPEAN BATTLE FRONTS End of 1917]
Meanwhile the Bolsheviki had arranged for an armistice with Germany with
a view toward immediate negotiations for peace. This arrangement for the
cessation of military operations became effective December 7. In spite
of its provisions, however, the Germans, who had taken Riga (ree´ga) in
September, continued their advance into Russian territory. By the close
of 1917 peace negotiations were in progress between Russia and her
enemies. Russia under Bolshevik control had definitely deserted her
allies.
THE BRITISH IN MESOPOTAMIA.--It will be remembered that the Allied war
plans in 1916 had included the junction of Russian armies operating from
the Caucasus with British troops advancing north from the Persian Gulf.
After the disaster at Kut-el-Amara the British still held the territory
about the mouth of the Tigris. In January, 1917, they began a new
advance up the river in the direction of Bagdad. This time their efforts
proved successful. In February, Kut-el-Amara was retaken from the Turks,
and on March 11 the British entered the city of Bagdad. They also
continued their advance a considerable distance along the Bagdad Railway
and occupied much of the Euphrates valley.
Still more important victories would probably have resulted from this
campaign had it not been for the outbreak of the Russian revolution.
This had the effect of weakening Russian military coöperation, and
finally of removing Russia entirely from the war, leaving to Great
Britain alone the task of dealing with the Turkish armies in Asia. But
the British kept their hold on the city of Bagdad, thus checkmating the
German scheme of a Berlin-Bagdad railway and protecting India from any
offensive on this side.
THE PALESTINE CAMPAIGN.--The year 1917 witnessed still another
military success for the British in Asia. The Turks had made several
attempts to seize the Suez Canal and so inflict a serious blow against
the communications of the Allies with the Far East. To remove, if
possible, the danger of further threats against this vital spot, the
English at last decided upon an offensive in that region. Early in 1917,
the British advance began. During January and February important
positions on the Sinai peninsula were seized. This success was followed
by a slow progress north into Palestine. The resistance of the Turks was
powerful and the British met with serious reverses. The terrible heat of
the summer months further held up their operations. In the fall,
however, the advance was resumed and a number of towns in the Holy Land
fell into the hands of the British. In November, Jaffa, the seaport of
Jerusalem, was taken. All the Turkish positions around the Holy City
were carried by storm, and on December 10 Jerusalem surrendered to
General Allenby.
This successful campaign in Palestine had several important results. The
capture of Jerusalem after almost seven centuries of Turkish control led
to general rejoicing among the Allied nations. Large numbers of Jews
throughout the world, who had long looked forward to the reëstablishment
of a Jewish nation in Palestine, now felt that a long step had been
taken toward the realization of their hopes. From a military point of
view, however, the chief result of the British campaign in Palestine was
that it definitely freed the Suez Canal from further danger of a Turkish
attack.
THE OFFENSIVE AGAINST ITALY.--At the beginning of 1917 the Italian
forces were within eleven miles of their great objective, the city and
port of Trieste. During the late spring and summer the advance
continued. Austrian trenches were occupied and tens of thousands of
Austrian soldiers were captured. After two years of effort it seemed
that the Italians would obtain the city and incorporate its
population--very largely Italian--into the kingdom of Italy. But
conditions in Austria and Germany had greatly changed. The cessation of
war by Russia relieved the Central Powers of the necessity of keeping
large armies on the eastern front. Further, the campaign had been going
against Germany on the western front, and an easy victory in Italy might
quiet criticism at home.
An immense army of Austrians and Germans was gathered together to attack
the Italian forces. The Italians were spread out in a semicircle about
one hundred and fifty miles long stretching from near Trent to within a
few miles of Trieste. The Austrians controlled the upper passes in the
mountains, so that they could attack this long line where they would.
Thus the Italian military position was difficult to defend. The campaign
began with a surprise attack by picked German troops at a point where
the morale of one Italian division had previously been weakened by the
pretended fraternizing of Austrian troops.
The Austro-German drive (October-December, 1917) swiftly undid the work
of two years of most arduous endeavor. The Italians were forced back
from Gorizia and compelled to surrender mountain positions which had
been captured by them at enormous cost. Back across the boundary they
retreated, losing heavily in men and material. The enemy advanced into
the low country near Venice, and it seemed for a time that the city
would fall into their hands. But British and French assistance was sent
to Italy, the Italian army recovered its spirit, and a permanent check
was put to the enemy's advance before Venice was reached. Upon a much
shorter but more defensible line the Italians held the enemy at bay in
the mountains and along the river Piave (pyah´vā).
[Illustration: WAR ZONES]
UNRESTRICTED SUBMARINE WARFARE.--On January 31, 1917, the German
ambassador to the United States, Count von Bernstorff, announced to
President Wilson that Germany would begin unrestricted submarine warfare
the following day, in the waters around Great Britain and France,[4]
thus withdrawing the pledge given as a result of the sinking of the
"Sussex." Three days later the President handed Count von Bernstorff his
passports and recalled Ambassador Gerard´ from Berlin, thus severing
diplomatic relations with Germany.
During the next six months shipping was sunk at an average rate of
600,000 tons per month, three times as fast as before, and two or three
times faster than it was being replaced. The highwater mark was reached
in April, when 800,000 tons of shipping were destroyed. Unless this loss
could be greatly reduced the Allies for want of food and materials would
soon have to give up fighting.
But methods were quickly devised to combat the new danger. The patrols
were increased, ships voyaged under convoy of fast destroyers constantly
hovering about on the watch for submarines, and other protective
measures were taken, so that the submarine menace was soon much reduced.
By September, 1918, the sinkings were only about 150,000 tons a month,
while the production of ships, especially in the United States, has
increased to several times this amount.
Apparently Germany had waited until she had built a large number of
submarines, thinking that by the use of a great fleet of them in a
ruthless warfare on shipping she could force a peace within a few
months. In this expectation she was disappointed. The principal result
of the withdrawal of her pledge to this country was the entrance of the
United States into the war on the side of the Allies. Captain Persius,
an expert German naval critic, admitted in November, 1917, that the
German admiralty was grossly mistaken in its calculations and that
Germany had no reason for believing in the decisive influence of the
submarine war.
THE UNITED STATES DRIFTS TOWARD WAR.--The breaking off of diplomatic
relations is not a declaration of war. Nevertheless the events
immediately succeeding the withdrawal of Count von Bernstorff made a
declaration of war increasingly probable. The most important of these
were the publication of the Zimmerman note, the fact that several
American merchant ships were actually sunk by German submarines, and the
discovery that members of the German embassy and other German diplomatic
representatives had been concerned in plotting on United States soil
against the Allies, thus endangering our peaceful relations with them.
Not only so, but there was evidence that plots had been laid to destroy
American lives and property in this country and to stir up internal
disorders, such as strikes and riots.
THE ZIMMERMAN NOTE.--On the last day of February, the Secretary of
State published a note that had come into his possession which was
addressed by Dr. Zimmerman, the German foreign minister, to the German
minister in Mexico. The note stated that Germany would soon begin a
ruthless submarine warfare and proposed, if the United States should
declare war on Germany, that Mexico should enter into an alliance with
Germany. Germany was to furnish money and Mexico was to reconquer New
Mexico, Texas, and Arizona. It was also hinted that Mexico should
suggest to Japan that the latter country should come into the agreement.
The interesting thing about the note is that it was dated January 19,
twelve days before Germany announced to us her plan for ruthless
submarine warfare, and during a time when our relations with Germany,
though under a great strain, were still peaceable.
ARMED NEUTRALITY.--About the time the Zimmerman note was published,
President Wilson asked Congress to authorize the arming of American
merchant ships for their own defense. A small minority in Congress by
their obstructive tactics prevented the passage of the desired
resolution before Congress expired on March 4. On March 12 the President
announced that this country had determined to place an armed guard on
all United States merchant vessels, which under international law might
defend themselves from attack, although Germany denied this right. There
is no evidence, however, that there was any encounter between these
armed ships and German vessels prior to the outbreak of the war.
THE PRESIDENT'S WAR MESSAGE.--When Russia deposed the Czar and
established a democratic government, in March, 1917, the last reason was
removed which might have held us back from a declaration of war. Many
believed that it would have been illogical for us to fight for democracy
side by side with one of the greatest of autocracies. President Wilson
called Congress in special session and on April 2 delivered his famous
war message, asking Congress to declare that a state of war existed
between the United States and Germany.
In the message he told of the various acts of Germany which had led up
to the verge of war, recited the steps which our government had taken to
bring Germany to realize the inevitable results of her crimes against
civilization, and concluded by asking Congress to declare war. The
President stated that the aims of the United States in the war are:
1. That the people of every nation may determine the form of government
under which they wish to live.
2. That the small nations may have the right to exist and be protected
against aggression.
3. That the future peace of the world may be guaranteed through the
formation of a league of nations.
4. That the world may be made safe for democracy.
THE DECLARATION OF WAR.--In accordance with the recommendation of the
President, Congress declared war against Germany on April 6, 1917. War
was not declared at this time against Germany's allies, Austria, Turkey,
and Bulgaria. A few days later, however, at the instance of Germany,
Austria and Turkey broke off diplomatic relations. On December 7, 1917,
the United States declared war on Austria-Hungary.
Following the declaration of war with Germany, steps were at once taken
to put the country in a position to give effective aid to our
associates, and the President from time to time has requested Congress
to grant authority to do those things that would enable us to take an
active part in the war.
OTHER COUNTRIES ENTER THE WAR.--After the United States entered the
war, many other countries, especially Brazil and some of the Spanish
American countries, either broke off relations with Germany or declared
war against her. Most of these countries had close commercial
relationships with the United States, which would have been seriously
interfered with had they remained neutral.
SPURLOS VERSENKT.--The decision of some of the South American
countries to side against Germany was probably hastened by a typical
piece of German bad faith. Argentina was at peace with Germany. In spite
of that fact, the German minister at Buenos Aires (the Argentine
capital) telegraphed to his government that if possible Argentine ships
should be spared, but if not, they should be sunk without leaving a
trace ("_spurlos versenkt_)." This would involve the drowning or
murdering of the crews, so that there would be no inconvenient protest
on the part of the Argentine government. It should be added that at the
request of the German minister, the Swedish minister at Buenos Aires
sent these dispatches in code as if they were his own private messages.
In this way the German minister was able to have them sent over cable
lines controlled by the Allies.
SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY.--1. What is a "tank"? What are small
tanks called? 2. Define socialism; Bolsheviki. 3. On a map of
Europe show Germany and her allies in black. Mark with black
lines other territory held or controlled by the Central
Powers at the close of 1917. 4. On a map of southern Europe
show Italy's farthest advance into Austrian territory in
1917. 5. Collect pictures of Rheims Cathedral, before and
after being bombarded by the Germans; also pictures of other
places destroyed by bombardments. Get pictures of different
sorts of tanks and airplanes, of destroyers and Eagle boats.
6. What was the object of the Germans in devastating the
country when they retreated to the Hindenburg line? 7. Why
did Germany think Mexico and Japan might join her in an
attack on the United States? 8. What was the date on which
the United States declared war on Germany? 9. Why did not the
United States declare war on Turkey or Bulgaria? 10. Make a
list of the countries of South America and Central America
that declared war on Germany.
REFERENCES.--_War Cyclopedia_ (C.P.I.); _The Study of the
Great War_ (C.P.I.); _War, Labor, and Peace_ (C.P.I.); _How
the War came to America_ (C.P.I.); _The War Message and the
Facts Behind It_ (C.P.I.); _New York Times History of the
European War_.
FOOTNOTES:
[3] The Hindenburg line was very nearly the same as the battle line of
Jan. 1, 1918, as shown on the map, page 145.
[4] Except that the United States, on certain conditions, might send one
ship a week to Falmouth.