THE WAR IN 1916
"THEY SHALL NOT PASS!"--Early in 1916 the Germans began a furious
attack on the strong French position at Verdun. This point was a highly
important one for the French, because if it were captured by the enemy,
he could make flank attacks upon their adjoining lines and perhaps
compel a general retreat. The Germans had long been massing materials
and men for the greatest military offensive which the world had ever
seen. Twenty thousand men were placed on each mile of the front for a
distance of twenty-five miles, while hundreds of thousands more were
held in reserve. Thousands of guns of all sizes were brought up for the
attack. Under the command of the German crown prince, the German people
and the whole world were to be shown that the German army was still
invincible.
Beginning on February 21, the titanic struggle around Verdun continued
until July, when the attacks and counter-attacks were gradually
suspended. In the early attacks the French were driven in from advanced
positions, and then the Germans charged the heavily protected woodlands
and hills. In massed formation they advanced in the face of artillery,
machine-gun, and rifle fire of the heaviest character. The first waves
were mown down like grain; but other troops, and still others climbed
over the bodies of their dead comrades. Never since the world began had
such slaughter been seen.
During the intervals between the infantry attacks the French troops were
subjected to an unprecedented artillery fire. Suffering under a strain
such as armies had never hitherto known, the French patriots yet held
true to their watchword,--"They shall not pass." General Pétain
(pā-tăn´), in a stirring address, said to his entrenched heroes,
"Courage, we'll get them!" ("_Courage, on les aura!_"), and this phrase
became the Verdun battle-cry. Try as the Germans would, from every
possible point, they could not break through the living wall of
Frenchmen. A little ground was won here and there, but before the end of
the year nearly all had been retaken by the French. At a frightful cost
the German crown prince and his military advisers had put their fighting
machine to the test, and it had failed. A half million men, killed,
wounded, or prisoners, were lost to the Germans before they ceased their
attacks at this point.
THE BATTLE OF THE SOMME.--In July, 1916, while the Verdun struggle was
still undetermined, the French and British troops began an advance on
the German line along the river Somme (som). Exceedingly heavy artillery
attacks first battered down the enemy defenses, and then the infantry
went "over the top." During the long course of the Battle of the Somme
(July 1 to November 17) the Allies advanced on a front of twenty miles
to a maximum depth of about nine miles. Slowly, and at great expense of
ammunition and men on both sides, the Allied progress had been won. They
had failed to break through the German line, but they had shown how it
might gradually be pushed back. And they had relieved the important
position of Verdun from further severe attacks, because German forces
were needed to the westward.
In the course of this battle, on September 15, the British first used
their most original military machines--the "tanks." Thereafter these
armored cruisers of the land were to play an increasingly important part
along the western front.
INCREASED USE OF AIRCRAFT.--Aircraft, too, were every day becoming
more valuable. In the first year of the war airplanes were used mainly
for observation purposes: to find the location of enemy forts, trenches,
troops, and batteries; and to direct the fire of the aviator's own
batteries. Hundreds of photographs were taken by the airmen, rapidly
developed, and within thirty minutes the staff officers could be seen
studying them with microscopes to determine what changes had taken place
within the enemy's lines. Anchored balloons, too, were used for similar
purposes.
Airplane construction and use developed more rapidly than any other
feature in the war. After the observation machines, came the
battle-planes, whose first purpose was to clear the way and protect the
observation planes. Later, heavy machines for bombing expeditions were
constructed; and squadrons of airplanes now took part in every battle,
preceding the attacking party, and firing with machine-guns and bombs
upon the enemy's trenches or his massed troops back of the line.
[Illustration: Map]
THE RUSSIANS INVADE TURKEY IN ASIA.--In the early months of 1916
Russian troops met with success in an offensive in the part of Turkey
south of the Caucasus. This territory, known as Arme´nia, is inhabited
by a Christian population who for many years had been the victims of
Turkish persecutions; half a million were cruelly exterminated after
Turkey allied herself with Germany in 1914. The Russians advanced
steadily, inflicting serious defeats upon the Turkish forces. In
February they took possession of Erz´erum, a strongly fortified city of
Armenia. The capture of this point was of importance because it was a
step in the plan for coöperation with the British armies which were
pushing their way north from the region of the Persian Gulf. It had the
further important result of interrupting Turkish plans for an invasion
of Egypt by way of the Isthmus of Suez, as Turkey was compelled to
concentrate her power for the defense of her own territory.
In April, Treb´izond, the most important city on the Turkish shore of
the Black Sea, surrendered to the invading Russian army. The Russians,
supported by fleets along the coast, had made the defense of the city
impossible. The fall of Trebizond was a very serious blow to the power
of Turkey in Asia Minor.
THE CAMPAIGN IN MESOPOTAMIA.--Part of the Allied plan in the east was
for the junction of Russian armies operating from the region of the
Caucasus with British troops from the land around the Persian Gulf.
While the Russians, as we have seen, were making a noteworthy success of
their part of this program, the British had not been so fortunate. Their
plan was to take possession of Mesopotamia, the valley of the
Tigris-Euphrates, and occupy its capital, the famous city of Bagdad.
General Townshend with an insufficient force had begun his march up the
Tigris River the year before and in March, 1915, had occupied the
stronghold of Kut-el-Ama´ra, about 100 miles below Bagdad. Here later he
was besieged by a Turkish army. A Russian army on the way from Erzerum
and an English relief force from the south failed to reach the place in
time, and April 29, 1916, General Townshend was forced by starvation to
surrender.
RUSSIAN SUCCESSES IN AUSTRIA.--During the summer months the Russians
under the command of one of their greatest leaders, General Bru´silov,
renewed their offensive against the border lands of Austria-Hungary. It
looked for a while as if the disasters of 1915 in this region were about
to be redeemed. On a wide front extending from the Prip´et marshes in
eastern Poland all the way to Bukowina (boo-ko-vee´nah), the Austrian
province southeast of Galicia, the Russian armies advanced. They invaded
Galicia and took hundreds of thousands of Austrian prisoners. Austria
was compelled to transfer troops from her Italian front. The year 1916
closed with the Russians in a decidedly more favorable military position
than they had occupied a year before.
ROUMANIA IN THE WAR.--Roumania had long looked forward to an extension
of her boundaries to include all the Roumanians of southeastern Europe.
Across the border, in southeastern Hungary, were more than two million
Roumanians living in the large region known as Transylvania. The
annexation of Transylvania was one of the greatest ambitions of
Roumanian leaders. In August, 1916, encouraged by the promises of
Russia, her powerful neighbor and protector, Roumania entered the war on
the side of the Allies.
On her western front Roumania could easily defend herself from invasion
because of strong mountain barriers. Her point of danger was the
Bulgarian boundary between the Danube and the Black Sea. Here she should
have concentrated her strength for defense against the Bulgarian forces
or even for an offensive into Bulgaria. Instead she sent most of her
armies west into Transylvania. Presently a strong force of Germans and
Bulgarians crossed the border into southeastern Roumania (the Dobrudja)
and marched north in a resistless offensive. Meanwhile the Roumanians in
Transylvania, far from their base of supplies, had advanced too fast for
safety. Moreover, they suffered from a shortage of ammunition, probably
caused by the failure of certain pro-German Russian officials to
coöperate with the Roumanians as they had promised. A large German army
attacked the Roumanian forces and drove them back with heavy losses to
their own borders. The boundaries were then crossed by the invaders and
the greater part of the country occupied. This disaster brought enormous
advantages to the enemy. The battle front of the Central Powers was
shortened by five hundred miles, the oil and wheat fields which
constitute the chief wealth of Roumania fell into their hands, and their
communications with Turkey were materially strengthened.
THE ITALIAN FRONT.--The winter of 1915-1916 was uncommonly severe in
the Alps; snow thirty feet deep lay on some of the passes, and military
operations were brought almost to a standstill. During the spring the
Austrians made preparations for a great offensive against Italy,
collecting over a third of a million of men and enormous stores of
provisions and munitions. During May and June, 1916, this Austrian force
drove back the Italians from their advanced positions in the Trentino
valley. It seemed that the enemy would enter the valley of the Po and
capture the cities of the most prosperous part of Italy. But the farther
the Austrian army advanced, the more difficult it was to bring supplies
up the narrow Alpine valleys. Meantime, on the eastern frontier the
Russians began their great drive into Austrian territory. There was
nothing for the Austrians to do but retire from the Trentino front. This
they did with the loss of one third of their force, and of great
quantities of war material.
The Italians now took the offensive, not only on the Trentino, but also
on their eastern frontier, where, the year before, they had begun an
advance toward the "unredeemed" territory around Trieste (map, page 50).
The Ison´zo River was crossed and after months of warfare the city and
fortresses of Gorizia (go-rît´sî-a) were occupied (August 9, 1916). From
this point the Italians continued slowly, overcoming great difficulties,
on their way toward Trieste.
THE BATTLE OF JUTLAND, MAY 31, 1916.--A minor division of the British
fleet under Admiral Beatty was scouting in the neighborhood of Jutland
(the peninsula of Denmark). The main German fleet came out to attack
it. The small British squadron, instead of withdrawing, gave battle to
the whole German high seas fleet. After the fighting had gone on for
several hours in fog and mist, the British grand fleet approached, but
night came on before a decision was reached. During the night the German
fleet retired back of the defenses of mines and shore batteries. In the
battle the British fleet had lost three battle cruisers and fifteen or
sixteen other vessels. The German losses were not completely published
but were certainly heavier. The Germans claimed a victory, and a general
holiday was ordered that all might celebrate. Nevertheless, the British
vessels were on the scene the next morning picking up survivors, while
the German fleet has not (up to the present writing) come out of harbor
in order that it might try to repeat its so-called victory.
SUBMARINE WARFARE.--During the year 1916 Germans continued with
increasing success their policy of sinking merchant vessels, neutral and
enemy. Out of a total of nearly 4,000,000 tons of shipping destroyed
from the beginning of the war to January 1, 1917, more than half was
lost during 1916. Occasional loss of life also caused much doubt on the
part of our government as to whether Germany was keeping her pledge to
safeguard the lives of noncombatants on torpedoed liners.
When a passenger steamer, the "Sussex," plying between England and
France, was torpedoed without warning (March 24, 1916), eighty of the
passengers were killed or injured, two of the latter being Americans.
Germany at first said that one of her submarines had torpedoed a vessel
in the vicinity, but not the "Sussex." The finding of fragments of a
German torpedo on the "Sussex" after it was brought into port
conclusively proved that the Germans were responsible, and that Germany
had broken her promise. President Wilson addressed a note to the German
government, stating that he would sever diplomatic relations with it
unless Germany should both declare and effect an abandonment of her
unlawful methods of submarine warfare. Thereupon the German government
gave a written pledge that merchant ships "shall not be sunk without
warning and without saving human lives, unless these ships attempt to
escape or offer resistance." This pledge was given on the condition that
the United States should demand that Great Britain observe certain
(disputed) rules of international law; but our government refused to
agree that Germany's respect for our neutral rights should be made to
depend on the conduct of other nations. President Wilson thus made clear
his intention to sever diplomatic relations if Germany's pledge should
be withdrawn or violated.
CONSCRIPTION IN GREAT BRITAIN.--The British government had kept up its
army by volunteering. The need of an army of five million could not
depend on this plan. A conscription bill therefore was passed making all
males between certain ages liable for military service. Ireland was
excepted from the provisions of this act.
SINN FEIN REBELLION.--Some of the more radical among the Irish Home
Rule party had formed an organization known as the Sinn Fein (shin fān),
an Irish phrase which means "for ourselves." Their aim was to make
Ireland an independent nation. The leaders of this group got into
correspondence with persons in Germany and were promised military
assistance if they would rebel against England. The rebellion broke out
April 24, 1916, without the promised help from Germany. For several days
the rebels held some of the principal buildings in Dublin. After much
bloodshed the rebellion was put down, and Sir Roger Casement, one of
those who had been in communication with Germany, was executed for
treason.
SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY.--1. On an outline map of Europe
indicate the countries engaged in the war at the end of 1916.
Indicate the date of the entrance of each and the side on
which it was fighting. 2. Collect pictures illustrative of
life in the Balkans and of the war in that region. 3. Locate
Armenia. What do you know of the race and religion of its
population? 4. Where is Bagdad? Why is it important for the
British Empire that the valley of the Tigris-Euphrates should
not fall into the possession of a strong hostile power? What
do you know of the history of this region in ancient times?
What may become of Mesopotamia at the close of the war? 5. In
regard to Roumania tell what you know of its race, language,
religion, and industries prior to the war. Compare this
country with Bulgaria in regard to the facts you have
mentioned.
REFERENCES.--_War Cyclopedia_ (C.P.I.); _Study of the Great
War_ (C.P.I.); McKinley, _Collected Materials for the Study
of the War; New York Times History of the European War_.