the influence of example and habit, in relation to it, will continue to
operate for some time to come. Indeed such is the fascinating nature of
the subject, that it will always be more or less popular; and as to the
habit of moving from place to place, it is, in some, so completely
fixed, that after they have passed through every part of the land of
promise, they will, for the sake of one more change, return to the
seaboard again. In a national point of view I am far from wishing to
discourage domestic emigration; and I am far too from thinking that it
does not frequently result in individual advantage.
It is essential to the preservation of our free and economical
institutions, that the seaboard should from time to time transplant a
part of its population to the interior. The existence of liberty in a
state ultimately depends, in no small degree, upon rural avocations, and
upon a particular climate and scenery. In some of our western states and
territories liberty will exist for a great length of time. Transplanted
from the seaboard, their citizens will acquire a new moral force, and
that force will be cherished by the local peculiarities of their
situation. These states will produce a happy balance between the
agricultural and commercial interests, and prove at once the check and
the political salvation of the maratime states.
{40} In proportion to the population of our maratime cities will be
their luxury, dissipation, and indifference to simple and rational modes
of government. No doubt the interests of commerce ought to be cherished;
not, however, so much because they are essential to our independence and
happiness, as because they encourage industry at home by furnishing a
foreign market for surplus produce. The other advantages of foreign
trade, both literary and commercial, are not inconsiderable; and they
ought to be appreciated:—but not without a due reference to the
contaminating influences of foreign manners and customs. With respect to
manners and customs, other nations, in their intercourse with us, are,
no doubt, gainers; but we, I am satisfied, experience from them much
injury. It may be added, that a certain extent of population in our sea
ports is essential to that degree of commercial enterprise, which will
set afloat our surplus capital; and therefore we ought to view the
spirit of emigration in relation to this particular.
I may improve this opportunity to make a few additional reflections upon
foreign commerce. The advocates of this interest, under the pretence of
attaching to it a consequence only equal to that of agriculture, have
laboured to prove that the former is even paramount to the latter,—that
the country is almost exclusively a commercial nation. One of these
advocates, in a speech delivered in Congress in January 1814, advances
such a principle. Much as I admire the sublime complexion of his
intellect, and the enlightened majesty of his heart, I must say that his
position is altogether exceptionable.—He observes, in the above
mentioned speech, that the _principal_ motive for adopting the
constitution of the general government was the protection and extension
of commerce. So far from this being the {41} case, the great and
principal conditions and objects of our national compact, were
individual security and the advancement of the true interests of the
country. It must have been well known, that a state of things might
exist which would render an abandonment of foreign commerce absolutely
necessary to the preservation of our liberties,—to the protection of
individual right, and even the very existence of the nation.
But I go much further. Our commercial interests are of far less
consequence than those of agriculture. The former are not essential to
our independence and comfort. They do not even exist until agriculture
has so far advanced as to furnish more than sufficient provisions for
the support of the whole community; not only for those who labour in
agriculture, but also for labourers in manufactures and other mechanical
employments; for those who are engaged in domestic commerce; for those
who are engaged in promoting intellectual improvement; and lastly, for
those who, owing to infancy, old age, disease and other causes are
unable to work. When this state of things commences, and not before,
foreign commerce begins its career. Here the people inquire what they
shall do with their surplus produce, and being unable to find a market
for it at home, endeavour to find for it a foreign market. Hence arise
foreign commercial relations. As to the luxuries which foreign commerce
produces, our constitution certainly never made provision for their
introduction.
It remains for me to notice the subject of domestic emigration, in
relation to the individual advantage which may arise from it.
The views of mankind with respect to the sources of true happiness are,
generally speaking, very erroneous. This effect arises principally from
inconsideration. {42} We see enough in the Divine Word in the book of
nature, and in the suggestions of conscience to convince us, that our
relation to a future state of existence is of wonderful import. The
first questions which we should ask ourselves are:—what was the design
of our creation? and what duties does this design inculcate? As far as
is consistent with these great views, man may innocently consult his
inclinations. Indeed they were given for the twofold purpose of rational
gratification, and to furnish him with an opportunity, when their
indulgence would be irrational, to display his virtue by self controul.
The more strictly we conform to that purity of heart and holiness of
life which the gospel inculcates, the more exalted will be our nature,
the higher our standard of happiness, and the more perfect our
preparation for the society of Heaven.
The present life is, no doubt, a season of probation. Here we are to
form a character for a future and permanent state of existence.
Consistently with the endeavour duly to improve our intellectual, moral,
and religious nature, it is important for man to exert himself to obtain
a comfortable support. Generally speaking, however, this should be the
limit of his views. It is most consistent with the uncertain tenure of
human life, and most congenial to the growth of virtue and the
production of happiness. A wish to acquire a great estate can be
sanctioned only by an equal desire to employ it in effecting charitable
purposes, and in aiding institutions which have in view individual and
public advantage. The desire of great wealth for other purposes is
criminal. It is dictated by a spirit of luxury, by pride, by
extravagance, by a spirit of vain competition, or, what is worse than
all, by avarice. As for leaving great estates to children, no wise or
kind parent will ever do it. Industry will, generally speaking, produce
a {43} competency; and economy will, in time, convert that competency
into wealth.
But I must speak more directly to the point.—From motives of patriotism
one may emigrate from the east to the west, especially to a frontier
state or territory; and he will, perhaps, find in this removal great
individual profit. The circumstances of men are various. Emigrations are
sometimes advantageous and sometimes otherwise;—advantageous in point of
health and in point of property. Many, however, lose both instead of
gaining either by a removal. There are many erroneous views entertained
upon this subject: and it is, principally, because men are governed, in
relation to it, more by feelings than by ideas. The subject interests
the imagination; and pleasing anticipations upon a new topic, always
afford more satisfaction, than the actual possession of that which is as
valuable as the object itself, the future possession of which is
anticipated. Many persons by emigration have become rich; but does it
follow that they might not have become so at home? Many too by moving
from place to place have become poor. Had they been stationary they
might at least have secured to themselves a competency. There are almost
innumerable advantages and disadvantages in relation to this subject,
and the balance must be stricken according to the circumstances of each
individual. Those whose object is to acquire a good living by their
industry, and who can obtain this at home, will act unwisely in changing
their situation. They cannot more fully gratify their views by a
removal: and by such a step they abandon what is necessary and certain
for what is at once unnecessary and precarious. They might, perhaps,
obtain abroad, with less labour, what they now obtain at home; but they
are not aware how essential industry is to their happiness. {44} It
gives a zest to food, and sleep, and social intercourse; and also
furnishes substantial rest;—a luxury of which the idle are ignorant.
Some have been so imprudent as to abandon the home of their infancy,
where the comforts of life could have been obtained by a good degree of
industry. What were the consequences? perhaps wealth;—but it was
unnecessary;—perhaps poverty, disease and premature death. Some too,
even in advanced life, and after spending their time in clearing a tract
of land, so as to render it fertile and easy of cultivation, have
sacrificed a comfortable and pleasant old age for new perils and labours
in the western wilds.
The great complaint of the people of the east is, that their
agricultural labours are great and their crops small. This declaration
is, in some degree, correct; but its truth arises, principally, from our
cultivating too much land. And yet we are ready to make great sacrifices
for the purpose of obtaining vast tracts in the west. It is admitted
that the land of the west is, generally speaking, more fertile than
ours; but it does not follow that it will always be so, or that ours may
not be rendered sufficiently fertile. New land is always most
productive. It has been enriching itself for ages. But its fertility
will, upon being cultivated, become less. We see the truth of these
remarks in the cultivation of our own new lands. But I will not conceal
the fact, that the western lands are naturally more fertile than those
of the east. Some of the former are almost inexhaustibly rich; but
others of them will, in time, become poor; and then will not be so
easily rendered fertile as those of the east. The eastern land too is
stronger, more durable, retains moisture longer, and of course more
easily preserves its fertility. This is particularly the case in its
comparison with the land of Kentucky. That State is exposed {45} to
great drouth. Its pan being limestone, and its soil consisting of loam,
but little rain is imbibed, and that little is soon lost through the
pores of the limestone, and by evaporation. To the great quantities of
limestone in Kentucky, its caves and petrefactions are to be attributed.
Moisture is absolutely necessary to vegetation. The richest land without
it is entirely unproductive. Upon this principle it is decidedly
injurious to deprive land of its small stones. They not only cause it to
retain moisture; but, by keeping it light, enable it to receive much
rain. They also render the earth warm, and admit into it the necessary
quantity of air. By depriving land of its stones the earth falls into a
solid mass, and the consequence is, that it imbibes but a small portion
of rain. The stones of our fields should be rolled in as soon as the
grain is sowed. On the surface they will be useless, and very
troublesome.
I have suggested, that we cultivate too much land to render agriculture
profitable. I speak in relation to the means which we employ for
fertilizing our land. Much may be done without the aid of manure; but
the use of this article is the most ready and efficient mode of
rendering the cultivation of the earth profitable. Instead, however, of
increasing this article by compost, we misapply that which is incident
to our farms. By spreading a small quantity of manure upon a large piece
of poor land, it is almost entirely lost; in as much as it remains in an
inactive state. There is not a sufficient quantity to give an impetus to
the cold and barren earth with which it is mixed. This is one great
cause of poor crops; and the great surface over which the labour of the
husbandman is spread is the principal ground of the excessive labour of
which he complains. Should the farmer plough {46} only as much land as
he could highly manure, his labour would be comparatively small, his
crops great, and his land constantly improving. By this mode of
proceeding the crops would not exhaust the land; and the quantity of
manure upon it, beyond what is necessary to the production of the crops,
would, by its fermentation, fertilize and render of the nature of
compost the whole cultivated surface. Such land may, with a trifling
expense, be kept very rich. Whilst this process is operating upon a part
of the poor lands of a farm, the residue of them may lie fallow, or be
fertilized by ploughing in such green crops as may be produced upon a
lean soil.
The extraordinary means of enriching land are numerous. A little
reflection upon the most common principles of philosophy will point them
out. The elements, acting upon each other, are constantly producing
effects, and the latter operate as causes in the production of effects
more remote. Different soils, and different manures, and different crops
must all be connected according to their respective and relative
natures.
The materials for making compost upon a farm are almost innumerable; and
leisure hours, which would otherwise be lost, may be employed in
collecting them. Another extraordinary mean of fertilizing the earth is
frequent ploughing. This work, especially when performed at particular
times, is highly useful. It separates the unproductive masses, and opens
the soil more fully to the impregnations of that vegetable nourishment
which is contained in rain, dew, and even the air itself. Ploughing land
when the dew is on the ground is very beneficial. I may add, that the
ploughing in of stubble as soon as the crops are off, is of much
consequence.
{47} Wet land should be drained, and, when practicable, land
comparatively high should be overflown. The soil of the former should,
in some cases, be spread upon the latter; and that of the latter applied
in the same way upon the former. Overflowing may sometimes be employed
conveniently and to much advantage.
I have said that moisture is absolutely necessary to vegetation. This
country is rather subject to drouth than otherwise; and hence,
principally, arises the occasional failure of our crops. One cause of
the great fertility of England is the frequent rains there. With us
there is more rain than in Great-Britain; but in the latter place it
falls, not in torrents as is sometimes the case with us, but in gentle
and more frequent showers. Wet seasons are never unfruitful.
Another mode of rendering land productive is by a change of crops.
Different plants require a different kind of nourishment, and a piece of
land may contain a greater quantity of one kind of vegetable food than
of another. All crops, in a greater or less degree, consume, in time,
their peculiar food; and of course require a change of situation. To
make this change, among the variety of crops on a farm, with judgment,
requires both theoretical and practical knowledge in husbandry.
A change of seed also is of consequence. Seed carried from the north to
the south, and likewise from the east to the west will do better than
that which comes from a milder climate. Sowing seed upon the ground
which produced it is highly disadvantageous. By a change of seed the
action of the soil upon it is more animated. Improvement of seed too in
agriculture is of consequence. That which is first ripe and most perfect
should be selected; {48} and the mode of preserving it requires
attention.
With respect to the raising of cattle too we act as unwisely as we do in
relation to the cultivation of our land. According to the limited
productions of our farms, our cattle are too numerous. We lose one half
of the food appropriated for them, by applying it to too great a number.
In many cases our cattle are not worth so much in the spring of the year
as they were in the preceding fall. Our swine, in particular, are kept
poor until the crops come in, and then it costs to fatten them three
times as much as they are worth: the consequence is that the farmer,
before another fall, complains of his want of corn.
Great improvements may be made in relation to the breed and feeding of
cattle. A change of stock is as important here as in agriculture. It may
also be observed, that present profit is too frequently consulted at the
expense of ultimate loss. The farmer sells all his best cattle to the
butcher, or kills them for his own use, before their real value is
suffered to develope itself, and to eventuate in the improvement of his
stock.
The agricultural societies established in New-England, and in other
states of the Union, within a few years, have produced much individual
and public benefit. That of Massachusetts is rendering her, with respect
to this subject, the rival of Great-Britain. New-Hampshire is doing
something in this way; and her legislature should immediately encourage
her agricultural interests.
As to the means of increasing our crops, much more might be offered; but
the nature of this work will not warrant it. Although many of our
farmers do well, all might do better; and it cannot be denied that many
of us are very negligent agriculturalists. How many of our lands are
{49} ploughed only once, and that very imperfectly!—How many of our
pastures are injured by the promiscuous range of swine, geese, and every
other creature on a farm! How many of our orchards are left for years
uncultivated and unpruned! How many of our mowing fields are, both in
the spring and fall, shamefully poached and grubbed by horses and sheep,
as well as horned cattle! How much neglect is there in the collection of
fodder, and how much waste in the application of it! With us there are
many errors to be corrected, and many improvements to be made. This
topic is important, interesting, and exhaustless; but I must dismiss it,
after making a very few additional remarks. As to our orchards, and the
grazing of our mowing fields in the spring, I trust that we shall
speedily abandon practices which are so disgraceful and so injurious.
The most vigorous roots of grass shoot first. Those our cattle crop. The
future growth is feeble; and grass, which springs after the season for
it, is always puny. With respect to our orchards, we seem to think that
they require no cultivation; that we have only to set down the trees,
and all will be well: but the nature of things should convince us of the
irrationality of our views upon this point. Trees require manuring and
cultivating as much as any other plant.
I return to the comparison between the east and the west. However high
may be the reputation of {50} the western lands, they are decidedly
inferior to ours, as a grazing country. Another advantage which we
possess over the west is, the superiority of our market. There is a much
greater disproportion between the prices, than between the crops of the
two sections of the country. Our crops are something less; but the
prices which we obtain for our produce are much higher than those of the
west. As to the prices too, of many articles, such as clothing and
groceries, the advantage is with us; the people of the west being
obliged to pay for the expense of transportation, and also the profits
of the western retailer.
In point of health, the air of the west is not so salubrious as that of
the east. The country being still covered with forests, its streams are
noxious; and being too, a level country, its evaporations are great.
These circumstances produce diseases of a peculiar and fatal nature. Our
mountains are entirely free from them.
With respect to religious privileges, morals, means of education, and
social intercourse, the west is at present, and will be for some time to
come, far inferior to the east.
As to relations and friends, which emigrants frequently leave behind
them, every one will judge for himself; but surely to a disinterested
and susceptible heart, this sacrifice is not inconsiderable. When
persons of this cast of character reflect upon the fleeting nature of
time, its vicissitudes, and the need which they frequently feel of the
society and solace of their friends, they will wish to spend with them
the days of their pilgrimage, to participate with them in the little
joys of life, and to commune together upon the hopes of a better world.
In concluding my reflections upon the subject of emigration, I may
observe that in no case is it necessary {51} for the people of the east
to emigrate to the western country. There is in the former an ample
field for labour; and the reward of this labour is sufficient for every
rational purpose of life. Whilst men complain of labour, they add to it
by speculating upon foreign means of enjoyment, when at the same time
they possess every source of happiness, excepting gratitude and
contentment. Many persons, by extravagance, become embarrassed, and then
censure the times, and complain of their lot instead of applying to
industry and economy for relief. Economy will perform wonders. Nothing
is more true than the adage that a penny saved is a penny earned. The
state of things, for several years past, has been teaching us a salutary
lesson upon this subject; and all can now live within their income
without wounding their pride. In economising, however, we must avoid
parsimony, which soon leads to avarice—the source of all crime, and all
littleness.
I have already written much; but, according to my journal, it is still
February, I have progressed only within sixty miles of the Heights of
Queenstown, and the storms of winter still rage.
In my course through the western parts of the state of New-York, I
generally travelled within forty miles of Lake Ontario. In this part of
the country many of the people entertain strange notions respecting
supernatural agencies. Solitude, whilst it strengthens the mind, and
fortifies the heart of the well informed, renders the ignorant timid and
superstitious. The whisper of their forests, and the echo of their
hills, alarm their unenlightened imaginations. Those inhabitants of the
west, of whom I am now speaking, believe in witchcraft, and often
suppose it the source of disease both in man and beast. Whilst on the
borders of Ontario, I stopped for a few moments at a log hut where there
was a man in a convulsion {52} fit. During the operation of the malady,
my attention was attracted by the conversation of two young women upon
the subject. One of them observed that if a garment of the man should be
taken off and thrown into the fire, the fit would leave him, and never
again return. The other assented to the idea; but the prescription was
not attended to. Perhaps they were afraid of being bewitched themselves.
It is a very common idea too, in the remote parts of New-York, that if a
man should shoot an owl with his rifle, it would be rendered so crooked
as never to throw ball true again.
I may here say a word of the backwoodsmen. They are hardy, active,
industrious, and in the employment of the axe, wonderfully strong and
dexterous. But, with respect to manners, some of them are no less rude
than the wilds which they inhabit.