of _Kan-tchoo-foo_, which is remarkable for nothing that I could learn
except for the great quantity of varnish trees the _Rhus vernix_ I
suppose, that are cultivated in the neighbourhood. In the course of the
journey we had picked up two varieties of the tea plant, taken out of
the ground and potted by our own gardener; and which, being in good
growing order, were intended to be sent to Bengal as soon as occasion
might serve after our arrival at Canton. Knowing we should be hurried
away, as usual, in the morning and wishing to procure a few young plants
of the varnish tree, I prevailed on our good friend _Van-ta-gin_ to
dispatch some person for that purpose, to add to those of the tea plant
and the _Camellia Sensanqua_. _Van_ made application to the men in
office at this place, with the best intention of serving us, but these
gentry, either conceiving that their compliance might be treason to the
state, or else, in the true spirit of the nation, determined to play a
trick upon the strangers, certainly procured the plants and sent them on
board in pots, just as we were departing the next morning. In a short
time they all began to droop, the leaves withered and, on examination,
it was found that not a single plant among them had the least portion of
a root, being nothing more than small branches of trees which, from the
nature of the wood, were not likely nor indeed ever intended to strike
root.
From _Kan-tchoo-foo_ the face of the country became more uniform and
suitable for the labours of agriculture; and, accordingly, we found a
very small portion of it unoccupied. Wheat about six inches above ground
and extensive plantations of the sugar cane fit for cutting, were the
chief articles under cultivation: and the farther we advanced to the
southward, the more abundant and extended were those of the latter. The
canes were remarkably juicy and their joints from six to nine inches in
length. To express the juice from them and convert it into a consistent
mass, temporary mills were erected in different places among the
plantations. The process was very simple. A pair of cylinders, sometimes
of stone but more generally of hard wood, placed vertically, were put in
motion by oxen or buffalos and from the foot of these the expressed
juice was conveyed, by a tube carried under the floor, into a boiler
that was sunk in the ground at the end of the apartment; where it was
boiled to a proper degree of consistence the expressed canes serving as
fuel. Though unacquainted with the process of refining sugar, the
natural tendency that the syrup possesses of forming itself into
crystals in cooling had suggested to them the means of obtaining very
fine and pure sugar-candy which, in the market of Canton, is sold in a
pulverized state as white as the best refined sugar. The coarse syrup,
usually called treacle or molasses, and the dregs, are not employed, as
in the West India islands, in the distillation of rum, but are sometimes
thrown into the still with fermented rice, in order to procure a better
kind of _Seau-tchoo_ or _burnt_ wine; the chief use, however, of the
molasses is to preserve fruits and other vegetable productions; and
particularly the roots of ginger, a conserve of which the Chinese are
remarkably fond.
The bed of the river having, in the lapse of ages, settled to the depth
of twenty, thirty, or even forty feet below the general level of the
country, it became necessary to employ some artificial means of
obtaining the water for the purpose, of irrigation. The contrivance made
use of to raise it to the height of the banks was simple and ingenious;
and from hence it was conveyed in small channels to every part of the
cane plantations. Of the useful machine employed for this purposes
consisting of a bamboo wheel which I understand has been adopted in
America, a view and section may be seen among the plates accompanying
Sir George Staunton's authentic account of the embassy. I shall
therefore content myself with observing in this place that, the axis
excepted, it is entirely constructed of bamboo, without the assistance
of a single nail or piece of iron; that the expence of making it is a
mere trifle; that in its operations it requires no attendance, and that
it will lift, to the height of forty feet, one hundred and fifty tons of
water in the course of twenty-four hours[58]. Every plantation near this
part of the river had its wheel and some of them two; and the water
raised by them was sometimes conveyed at once into the plots of canes
and some times into reservoirs, out of which it was afterwards pumped,
as occasion might require, by the chain-pump and carried to those places
where it might be wanted along small channels coated with clay.
[58] The water-wheels still used in Syria differ only from
those of China, by having loose buckets suspended at the circumference,
instead of fixed tubes. "The wheels of Hama," says Volney, "are
thirty-two feet in diameter. Troughs are fastened to the circumference,
and so disposed as to fall in the river, and when they reach the vertex
of the wheel, discharge the water into a reservoir."
The women of this province were more robust than ordinary and well
suited, by their strength and muscular powers, to endure the hard labour
and drudgery of the field, which seemed to be their chief employment.
This sort of labour, however, might be the cause, rather than the
consequence, of their extraordinary strength and masculine form. The
habitual use of hard labour, to which the women are here brought up,
fits them best to become the wives of the peasantry in the neighbouring
provinces; and accordingly, when a Chinese farmer is desirous of
purchasing a working wife he makes his offers in _Kiang-see_. It was
here that we saw a woman yoked literally by traces to a plough, whilst
the husband or master had the lighter task of holding it by one hand and
drilling in the seed with the other. The exertion of labour together
with the constant exposure to the weather, in a climate situated under
the twenty-fifth to the twenty-ninth parallel of latitude, have
contributed to render more coarse and forbidding the features of the
fair sex of _Kiang-see_, in the formation of which, indeed, Nature had
not been too bountiful. Like the women of the Malay nation, with whom
they most probably are derived from one common stock, they fixed their
strong black hair close to the head by two metal skewers. Their dress,
in other respects, was the same as that of the men, and like these they
wore straw sandals on their feet. Thus far, by avoiding the pain
attendant on fashionable feet, and enjoying the free use of their limbs,
they might be said to have the advantage of the city ladies. It was,
indeed, observed that even such as were not employed in the labours of
the field, but kept constantly at home for domestic purposes, were, in
this province, equally exempted from the barbarous fashion of cramping
the feet.
On the 9th we again entered a narrow defile and here with difficulty the
vessels were forced along against a strong current; and over the pebbly
bottom, against which they were constantly striking. At _Nan-gan-foo_,
where we arrived in the evening, the river ceases to be navigable.
Indeed the whole of the three last days' navigation might, with
propriety, in England be called only a trout stream; upon which no
nation on earth, except the Chinese, would have conceived the idea of
floating any kind of craft; they have however adapted, in an admirable
manner, the form and construction of their vessels to the nature and
depth of the navigation; towards the upper part of the present river
they drew only, when moderately laden, about six inches of water. They
were from fifty to seventy feet in length, narrow and flat-bottomed, a
little curved, so that they took the ground only in the middle point.
Yet, in several places, the water was so shallow that they could not be
dragged over until a channel had been made, by removing the stones and
gravel with iron rakes. The length of this river, from its source at
_Nan-gan-foo_ to the _Po-yang_ lake, is nearly three hundred English
miles. The banks in the low part of the province of _Kiang-see_
consisted of a deep soil of black earth, supported on clay of a dark
red or brown colour; denoting the presence of iron. The mountains were
chiefly of red sand-stone; and the soil of the hills, producing the
_Camellia_, was a brown loam mixed with particles of mica.
We had now before us another land-journey, over the steep and lofty
mountain of _Me-lin_, whose summit is the boundary between the two
provinces of _Kiang-see_ and _Quan-tung_; on the south side of which
commences the river _Pei-kiang-ho_ that flows by the port of Canton; and
whose mouth is familiarly known in Europe by the name of the _Bocca
Tigris_. The ascent of this mountain, which some undertook on horseback
and others in chairs, was made by a well-paved road, carried in a
zig-zag manner over the very highest point, where a pass was cut to a
considerable depth through a granite rock; a work that had evidently not
been accomplished with any moderate degree of labour or expence. In the
middle of the pass was a military post, much stronger than ordinary, and
it was defended or, more correctly speaking, it was supplied with two
old pieces of cannon, that had been cast, in all probability, near two
hundred years ago, perhaps by the Jesuits who first taught them an art
which they seem already to have forgotten or neglected.
The view from the summit towards the southward, over the province of
Canton, was as rich and enchanting as that on the opposite side was
dreary and barren. In descending the gradual slope of about twelve
miles, before the mountain had blended with the general surface of the
country, there was a constant succession of dwellings; so that this
whole distance might almost be considered as one continued street. Half
of the buildings consisted, however, of places of convenience to which
passengers might retire to obey the calls of nature, and the doors, or
rather the openings into such erections, were always invitingly fronting
the street. To each single dwelling, whether alone or joined with
others, was annexed a fabric of this description. Each was constructed
upon a large terrace cistern, lined with such materials that no
absorption could take place; and straw and other dry rubbish are thrown
in by the owners, from time to time, to prevent evaporation. In one of
the streets of Canton is a row of buildings of this kind which, in so
warm a climate, is a dreadful nuisance; but the consideration of
preserving that kind of manure, which by the Chinese is considered as
superior for forcing vegetation to all others, has got the better of
both decency and prudence.
All the passengers we met upon this road were laden with jars of oil
expressed from the Camellia. In the course of eighteen miles, which is
about the distance from the summit of _Me-lin_ to the city of
_Nan-sheun-foo_, we passed at least a thousand persons on their way to
_Nan-gan-foo_, each bearing ten or twelve gallons of oil and among these
were a number of women.
Having now traversed five of the provinces of China, that are considered
among the most populous and productive in the empire, a general sketch
may be drawn, by taking a retrospective view, of the state of
agriculture and the condition of the people; of their habitations,
dress, diet and means of subsistence; and some conclusion drawn as to
the population of the country.
[Illustration: _W. Alexander del^t T. Medland sculp^t_
_A Village and Cottages_]
[Illustration: _W. Alexander del^t T. Medland sculp^t_
_Dwelling of a Mandarin or Officer of State_
_Pub. May 2, 1804, by Mess^rs. Cadell, & Davies, Strand, London._]
It was a remark too singular to escape notice that, except in the
neighbourhood of the _Po-yang_ lake, the peasantry of the province in
which the capital stands were more miserable, their houses more mean and
wretched, and their lands in a worse state of cultivation, than in any
other part of the route--a remark which also agrees with the accounts
given by the Dutch embassy of that part of _Pe-tche-lee_, on the
south-west side of the capital, through which they passed. Four mud
walls covered over with a thatch of reeds, or the straw of millet, or
the stems of holcus, compose their habitations; and they are most
commonly surrounded with clay walls, or with a fence made of the strong
stems of the _Holcus Sorghum_. A partition of matting divides the hovel
into two apartments; each of which has a small opening in the wall to
admit the air and light; but one door generally serves as an entrance,
the closure of which is frequently nothing more than a strong mat. A
blue cotton jacket and a pair of trowsers, a straw hat and shoes of the
same material, constitute the dress of the majority of the people.
Matting of reeds or bamboo, a cylindrical pillow of wood covered with
leather, a kind of rug or felt blanket made of the hairy wool of the
broad-tailed sheep, not spun and woven but beat together as in the
process for making hats, and sometimes a mattress stuffed with wool,
hair, or straw, constitute their bedding. Two or three jars, a few
basons of earthen-ware of the coarsest kind, a large iron pot, a
frying-pan and a portable stove, are the chief articles of furniture.
Chairs and tables are not necessary; both men and women sit on their
heels; and in this posture they surround the great iron pot, with each a
bason in his hands, when they take their meals. The poverty of their
food was sufficiently indicated by their meagre appearance. It consists
chiefly of boiled rice, millet, or other grain, with the addition of
onions or garlic, and mixed sometimes with a few other vegetables that,
by way of relish, are fried in rancid oil, extracted from a variety of
plants, such as the _Seffamum_, _Brassica orientalis_, _Cytisus Cadjan_,
a species of _Dolichos_, and, among others, from the same species of
_Ricinus_ or _Palma-Christi_, from which the Castor is drawn, and used
only in Europe as a powerful purgative. Its drastic qualities may
probably be diminished by applying less pressure in extracting the oil,
or by habit, or by using it fresh, as it does not appear that the
Chinese suffer any inconvenience in its application to culinary
purposes. As well as I could understand, the seeds were first bruised
and then boiled in water, and the oil that floated on the surface was
skimmed off. Our Florence oil they affected not to admire having, as
they said, no taste. The Chinese, like the inhabitants of the South of
Europe, seem to attach a higher value on oils, in proportion as age has
given to them a higher degree of rancidity.
Fish of any kind, in this part of the country, is a great rarity; few
are caught in the rivers of _Pe-tche-lee_. We met with none in the whole
province, except at _Tien-sing_ and in the capital, whose market, no
doubt, like that of London, draws to its center the choice products of a
very extensive circuit. Salt and dried fish, it is true, are brought
from the southward as articles of commerce, but the poor peasantry
cannot afford to purchase them for general use. They obtain them only
sometimes by bartering millet or vegetables in exchange. A morsel of
pork to relish their rice is almost the only kind of meat that the poor
can afford to taste. They have little milk and neither butter, nor
cheese, nor bread; articles of nourishment to which, with potatoes, the
peasantry of Europe owe their chief support. Boiled rice, indeed, and
not bread, is considered as an article of the first necessity, the staff
of life in China. Hence the monosyllable _fan_, which signifies boiled
rice, enters into every compound that implies eating; thus _tche-fan_,
the name of a meal in general, is to eat rice; breakfast is called the
_tsao-fan_ or morning rice, and supper the _ouan-fan_ or evening rice.
Their principal and indeed their best beverage is bad tea, boiled over
and over again as long as any bitter remains in the leaves, taken
without milk or sugar, or any other ingredient except, in cold weather,
a little ginger. In this weak state the only purpose it seems to answer
is that of carrying down the sediment of muddy water that abounds in all
the flat provinces of China, which the leaves of tea (as I fancy those
of any other plant would) are found to do. These poor creatures,
however, are instructed by popular opinion to ascribe to it many
extraordinary qualities[59].
[59] The simple boiling of the water indeed contributes greatly
to the quick deposition of earthy particles, which may have been one
cause of the universal practice of drinking every thing warm in China.
They were surprised to see our soldiers and servants drinking the water
of the Pei-ho cold, and told them it was very bad for the stomach and
bowels. This complaint, in fact, attacked almost all the inferior part
of the embassy, which Doctor Gillan did not hesitate to ascribe to the
great impurity of the water. But the Chinese argued the point with the
Doctor with regard to taking it cold, asking him why all the fluids of
the body were warm, if nature had intended us to drink water and other
liquids in a cold state! They seemed to have forgotten that all the
warm-blooded animals, except man, must necessarily drink cold water.
It would require a more familiar acquaintance with the people and a
longer residence among them, than was allowed to us, to explain the true
reason of such real poverty among the peasantry in the vicinity of the
capital. Perhaps, indeed, it may be owing, in a great degree, to the
proximity of the court, which in all countries has the effect of drawing
together a crowd of people to consume the products of the soil, without
contributing any portion of labour towards their production. The
encouragement that is here given to idleness and dissipation is but too
apt to entice the young peasantry in the neighbourhood from their
houses, and thus rob the country of its best hands. The soil, likewise,
near the capital is barren and sandy, producing few supplies beyond the
wants of the several tenants; and all other necessaries of life not
raised by them must be purchased extravagantly dear. It is, indeed,
surprizing how this immense city, said to contain three millions of
inhabitants, is contrived to be supplied at any rate, considering the
very sterile and unproductive state of the country for many miles around
it. It might not, however, be a matter of less astonishment to a
Chinese, nor less difficult for him to conceive, in what manner our own
capital receives its daily supplies, especially after he had observed
that there is not a single road, by which London can be approached,
that is not carried over vast tracts of uncultivated commons and waste
grounds.
The vallies of Tartary furnish beeves and broad-tailed sheep for Pekin,
and grain is brought by water from every part of the country, of which
the government takes the precaution to lay up in store a sufficient
quantity for a twelvemonth's consumption. Of animal food, pork is mostly
consumed. Few peasants are without their breed of hogs; these animals,
indeed, are likewise kept in large cities, where they become public
nuisances. Bad beef in Pekin sells for about six-pence the pound; mutton
and pork eight-pence; lean fowls and ducks from two to three shillings;
eggs are generally about one penny each; small loaves of bread that are
boiled in steam, without yeast or leaven, are about four-pence a pound;
rice sells usually at three-halfpence or two-pence the pound; wheat
flour at two-pence halfpenny or three-pence; fine tea from twelve to
thirty shillings a pound; that of the former price, at least such as was
procured clandestinely for us, not drinkable, and the latter not near so
good as that of about six shillings in London[60]. There are, indeed,
plenty of tea-houses in and near the capital, where the labouring people
may purchase their cup of tea for two small copper coin (not quite a
farthing) but it is miserably bad. A tolerable horse and a man-slave are
usually about the same price, being from fifteen to twenty ounces of
silver. The article of dress worn by the common people is not very
expensive. The peasantry are invariably clad in cotton; and this article
is the produce of most of the provinces. The complete dress of a peasant
is about fifteen shillings; of a common tradesman three pounds; an
officer of government's common dress ten pounds; of ceremony about
thirty pounds; and if enriched with embroidery and gold and silver
tissue, between two and three hundred pounds: a pair of black satin
boots twenty shillings; and a cap or bonnet about the same sum. The
price of labour, however, and particularly in Pekin, bears no sort of
proportion to the price of provisions. A mechanic in this city thinks
himself well paid if he gets a shilling a-day. A common weaver, joiner,
or other tradesman earns a bare subsistence for his family; and the best
servants may be hired for an ounce of silver a-month. Many are glad to
give their services in exchange for their subsistence, without any
consideration in hard money. Tobacco being an indispensable article for
all ranks of every age and sex bears of course a high price in the
capital. It is singular enough, that this plant should have found its
way into every part of the world, among savage as well as civilized
nations, even into the deserts of Africa, where it was found in constant
use among the Booshuanas, a people, till very lately, totally unknown;
and it is equally singular, that an herb of so disagreeable a taste
should, by habit, obtain an ascendency so far over the appetite, as not
easily to be relinquished.
[60] As these teas however were purchased by Chinese, I have no doubt
they reserved to themselves a very large profit on the commission, for
it is scarcely possible that this article, the growth and produce of the
middle provinces, should bear a price so far beyond what the very best
sells for in London.
The climate of the northern provinces is unfavourable to the poor
peasantry. The summers are so warm that they go nearly naked and the
winters so severe that, what with their poor and scanty fare, their want
of fuel, clothing, and even shelter, thousands are said to perish from
cold and hunger. In such a condition the ties of nature sometimes yield
to self-preservation, and children are sold to save both the parent and
offspring from perishing for want; and infants become a prey to hopeless
indigence. We have seen in the notes taken by the gentleman in the Dutch
embassy, how low the temperature is at Pekin in the winter months; and
they have no coals nearer than the mountains of Tartary, which are all
brought on the backs of dromedaries; of course, they are extravagantly
dear. In fact, they are scarcely ever burned pure, but are crumbled to
dust and mixed up with earth, in which state they give out a very strong
heat, but no flame, and are suitable enough for their small close
stoves.