Fl. Vespasianus Aug. (II), Titus Caesar. (A.D. 70 = a.u. 823 = Second of
Vespasian, from July 1st).
Fl. Vespasianus Aug. (III), M. Cocceius Nerva. (A.D. 71 = a.u. 824 =
Second of Vespasian).
Fl. Vespasianus Aug. (IV), Titus Caesar (II). (A.D. 72 = a.u. 825 = Third
of Vespasian).
Domitianus Caesar (II), M. Valerius Messalinus. (A.D. 73 = a.u. 826 =
Fourth of Vespasian).
Fl. Vespasianus Aug. (V), Titus Caesar (III). (A.D. 74 = a.u. 827 = Fifth
of Vespasian).
Fl. Vespasianus Aug. (VI), Titus Caesar (IV). (A.D. 75 = a.u. 828 = Sixth
of Vespasian).
Fl. Vespasianus (VII), Titus Caesar (V). (A.D. 76 = a.u. 829 = Seventh of
Vespasian). Fl. Vespasianus (VIII), Titus Caesar (VI). (A.D. 77 = a.u. 830
= Eighth of Vespasian).
L. Ceionius Commodus, D. Novius Priscus. (A.D. 78 = a.u. 831 = Ninth of
Vespasian).
Fl. Vespasianus (IX), Titus Caesar (VII). (A.D. 79 = a.u. 832 = First of
Titus, from June 23rd).
T. Vespasianus (VIII), Domitianus (VII). (A.D. 80 = a.u. 833 = Second of
Titus).
L. Fl. Silva Nonius Bassus, Asinius Pollio Verrucosus. (A.D. 81 = a.u. 834
= Third of Titus, to September 13th).
[Sidenote: A.D. 70 (a.u. 823)] [Sidenote:--1--] Such was the course of
events on the heels of which Vespasian was declared emperor by the senate
and Titus and Domitian were given the title of Caesars. The consular
office was assumed by Vespasian and Titus while the former was in Egypt
and the latter in Palestine. Vespasian had seen portents and dreams that
long beforehand indicated that he was destined to rule. As he was eating
dinner in the country, where most of his time was spent, a cow approached
him, knelt down, and put her head beneath his feet. Another time, when he
was taking food, a dog threw a human hand under the table. And a
conspicuous cypress tree, which had been uprooted and overthrown by a
violent wind, on the next day stood upright again by its own power and
continued to flourish. From a dream he learned that when Nero Caesar
should lose a tooth, he should be emperor: and this matter of the tooth
became a reality on the following day. Nero himself in his slumbers
thought he was bringing the chariot of Jupiter to Vespasian's house. These
occurrences, of course, needed interpretation. But in addition a Jew named
Josephus, who had previously been disliked by him and imprisoned, gave a
laugh and said: "You may imprison me now, but a year later when you become
emperor you will release me."
[Sidenote:--2--] Thus had Vespasian, like some others, been born for the
position. While he was as yet absent in Egypt Mucianus administered all
the details of government with the help of Domitian. Mucianus feeling that
he had himself given the sovereignty to Vespasian exulted greatly at these
facts above all,--that he was called "brother" by him, and that he had
authority to decide every question that he liked without the emperor's
express approval and could issue written orders by merely adding his
superior's name. For this purpose, too, he wore a finger ring that had
been sent him, which was intended to impress the imperial seal upon
documents requiring authorization. [Indeed, Domitian himself gave offices
and procuratorships to many persons, appointing prefect after prefect and
even consuls.] In fine, they behaved in every way so much like absolute
rulers that Vespasian once sent the following message to Domitian: "I
thank you, my child, for letting me hold office and that you have not yet
dethroned me."
Now Mucianus gathered into the public treasury from every possible quarter
vast sums of money, showing an entire readiness to relieve Vespasian of
the censure which such a proceeding caused. He was forever declaring that
money was the sinews of sovereignty; and in accordance with this belief he
was constantly urging Vespasian to obtain funds from every quarter, and
for his own part he continued from the outset to collect revenue, thus
providing a large amount of money for the empire and acquiring a large
amount himself.
[Sidenote:--3--] In Germany various uprisings against the Romans took
place which are not worth mentioning for my purposes, but there was one
incident that must cause us surprise. A certain Julius Sabinus, one of the
foremost of the Lingones, collected by his own efforts a separate force
and took the name of Caesar, declaring that he was a descendant of Julius
Caesar. He was defeated in several engagements, whereupon he fled to a
field and plunged into a subterranean vault beneath a monument, which he
first burned to the ground. His pursuers thought he had perished in the
conflagration, but as a matter of fact he hid himself there with his wife
for nine years and had two male children by her. The troubles in Germany
were settled by Cerialis in the course of a number of battles, in one of
which so great a multitude of Romans and barbarians both were slain that
the river flowing near by was held back by the bodies of the fallen.
Domitian stood in fear of his father because of what he did and still more
because of what he intended, for his plans were on no small scale. He
happened to be spending most of his time near the Alban Mount, devoting
himself to his passion for Domitia, the daughter of Corbulo. Her he took
away from her husband, Lucius Lamia Aelianus, and at this time he had her
for one of his mistresses, but later he actually married her.
[Sidenote:--4--] Titus, who was assigned to take charge of the war with
the Jews, [undertook to win them over by certain conferences and offers;
as they would not yield, he proceeded to direct hostilities. The first
battles he fought were rather close; finally he prevailed and took up the
siege of Jerusalem. This town had three walls including that surrounding
the temple. The Romans accordingly heaped up mounds against the
fortifications and brought their engines to bear: then collecting in a
dense force they repulsed all sallying parties and with their slings and
arrows kept back all the defenders of the wall. Many persons that had been
sent by some of the barbarian kings they kept prisoners. The Jews who came
to the assistance of their countrymen were many of them from the immediate
region and many from kindred districts, not only in this same Roman empire
but from beyond the Euphrates, and they, too, kept directing missiles and
stones with considerable force on account of the higher ground, some being
flung from the hand and some hurled by means of engines. They likewise
made night and day sallies as often as occasion offered, set fire to the
engines, slew numerous combatants, and by digging out under the wall took
away earth from beneath the mound. As for the rams, they lassoed some of
them and broke the ends off, others they seized and pulled up with hooks,
while by means of thick boards well fastened together and strengthened
with iron, which they let down against the face of the wall, they turned
aside the assaults of the remainder. The Romans' chief cause of discomfort
was the lack of water; their supply was of poor quality and had to be
brought from a distance.
The Jews found their underground passages a source of strength. They had
these affairs dug from within the city out under the walls to distant
points in the country, and going out through them they would attack
parties in search of water and harass scattered detachments. Consequently
Titus stopped them all up.]
[Sidenote:--5--] In the course of these operations many on both sides were
wounded and killed. Titus himself was struck on the left shoulder by a
stone, and as a result of this accident the arm was always weaker. After a
time the Romans managed to scale the outside circle, and, pitching their
camps between the two encompassing lines of fortification, assaulted the
second wall. Here, however, they found the conditions confronting them to
be different. When all the inhabitants had retired behind the second wall,
its defence proved an easier matter because the circuit to be guarded was
so much less. Titus, accordingly, made anew a proclamation offering them
immunity. They, however, even under these circumstances held out. And the
captives and deserters from the enemy so far as they could do so
unobserved spoiled the Roman water supply and slew many men that they
could cut off from the main force, so that Titus refused to receive any of
them. Meantime some of the Romans, too, growing disheartened, as often
happens in a prolonged siege, and furthermore suspecting that the city was
really, even as report declared, impregnable, went over to the other side.
The Jews although they were short of food treated them kindly, in order to
be able to exhibit deserters to their own ranks.
[Sidenote:--6--] Though a breach in the wall was effected by engines,
still the capture did not immediately follow; the defenders killed great
numbers that tried to crowd through the opening. Next they set fire to
some of the buildings near by, expecting in this way to check the onward
progress of the Romans, even should the latter make themselves masters of
the entire circuit. In this way they damaged the wall and unintentionally
burned down the barrier encompassing their sacred precinct. The entrance
to the temple was now laid open to the Romans. The soldiers on account of
their superstition would not immediately rush in, but at last, as Titus
forced them, they made their way inside. Then the Jews carried on a
defence much more vigorous than before, as if they had discovered a rare
and unexpected privilege in falling near the temple, while fighting to
save it. The populace was stationed in the outer court, the senators on
the steps, and the priests in the hall of worship itself. And though they
were but a handful fighting against a far superior force they were not
subdued until a section of the temple was fired. Then they went to meet
death willingly, some letting themselves be pierced by the swords of the
Romans, some slaughtering one another, others committing suicide, and
others leaping into the blaze. It looked to everybody, and most of all to
them, apparently, [that so far from being ruin, it was victory and
salvation and happiness to perish along with the temple]. [Sidenote:--7--]
Even under these conditions many captives were taken, among them Bargiora,
[Footnote: Properly Simon Bar-Giora (patronymic).] the commander of the
enemy: he was the only one punished in the course of the triumphal
celebration.
Thus was Jerusalem destroyed on the very day of Saturn, which even now the
Jews reverence most. To commemorate the event it was ordered that the
conquered, while still preserving their own ancestral customs should
annually pay a tribute of two denarii to Capitoline Jupiter. As a reward
for this success both generals received the title of imperator, but
neither had that of _Iudaicus_, although all the other privileges
(including arches bearing trophies) that were proper after so great a
victory were voted to them.
[Sidenote:--8--] Hard upon Vespasian's entrance into Alexandria the Nile
overflowed, and rose in one day a palm higher than usual; indeed, such an
occurrence, it was said, had taken place only once before. Vespasian
himself healed two persons who had come to him because of a vision seen in
dreams. One of them, who had a weak hand, he cured by treading upon that
member, and the other one, who was blind, by spitting upon his eyes. His
divine power herein shown gave him great repute, yet the Alexandrians, far
from enjoying his society, detested him heartily; not only in private but
in public they were forever making fun of and abusing him. They had
expected to receive some great reward from him because they had taken the
first steps in making him emperor, but instead of securing anything they
had additional contributions levied upon them. Large were the sums he
gathered from them, for he omitted not a single source of revenue, no, not
even the first that might offer itself, though its character were
reprehensible, but he sought money from everybody alike, of secular or
religious profession. As for taxes, he renewed many that had been
abolished and increased those that were usual [and introduced still other
new ones]. And he adopted this same course later in the rest of the
subject territory, [in Italy] and in Rome itself. Hence the Alexandrians
[both for the reasons mentioned and because most of the royal possessions
had been sold were vexed and] threw out various derogatory remarks about
him, one of them being: "You want six obols more." Vespasian,
consequently, although the most affable of men, became indignant and gave
orders that the six obols per man should be levied, and thought seriously
about taking vengeance upon them. [The words themselves contained an
insult, and of their many undignified and anapaestic rhythms there was not
a single one but aroused his anger.] Titus, however, begged them off and
Vespasian accordingly spared them. Yet they would not let him alone, and
in some assembly they all together shouted at Titus these very words: "We
forgive him. He doesn't understand being Caesar."
So they continued to be foolhardy, took their thorough fill of that
license which is always working to their detriment, and abused the good
nature of the emperor. [Sidenote:--9--] Vespasian soon ceased to notice
them. He sent a despatch to Rome rescinding the disfranchisement of such
persons as had been condemned for so-called acts of maiestas by Nero and
succeeding rulers. His action included living and dead alike, and he
moreover stopped the indictments made upon such complaints.--The
astrologers he banished from Rome, yet he consulted all of them who were
distinguished, and through the influence of Barbillus, a man of that
profession, allowed the Ephesians to celebrate some sacred games. This was
a privilege he granted to no other city.
He soon had Egypt subdued and sent from there a large supply of grain to
Rome. He had left his son Titus at Jerusalem to sack the town, and awaited
its capture that he might return to Rome in his son's company. But, as
time dragged in the conduct of the siege, he left Titus in Palestine and
took passage himself on a merchantman; he sailed in this manner as far as
Lycia, and from that country partly by overland journeys and partly by
seafaring he came to Brundusium.
After this he came to Rome, meeting Mucianus and other prominent men at
Brundusium and Domitian at Beneventum. In consequence of the consciousness
of his own designs and of what he had already done, Domitian was ill at
ease, and moreover he occasionally feigned madness. He spent most of his
time on the Alban estate and did many ridiculous things, one of them being
to impale flies on pencils. Even though this incident be unworthy of the
dignity of history, yet because it shows his character so well and
particularly in view of the fact that he continued the same practice after
he became emperor, I have been obliged to record it. Hence that answer was
not without wit which some one made to a person who enquired what Domitian
was doing. "He is living in retirement," he said, "without so much as a
fly to keep him company." [Sidenote:--10--] Vespasian though he humbled
this upstart's pride greeted all the rest not like an emperor but like a
private person, for he remembered his previous experience.
On reaching Rome he bestowed gifts upon both soldiers and populace; he
made repairs in the sacred precincts and upon those public works which
showed signs of wear and tear; such as had already crumbled to decay he
restored; and when they were completed he inscribed upon them not his own
name but the names of the persons who had originally reared them.
He immediately began to construct the temple on the Capitoline, being
himself the first to carry away some of the soil; and, as a matter of
course, he urged the other most prominent men to do this same thing in
order that the rest of the populace might have no excuse for shirking this
service.
The property of his opponents who had fallen in one conflict or another he
delivered to their children or to other kin of theirs; furthermore, he
destroyed contracts of long standing representing sums due and owing to
the public treasury.
Though he invariably expended in munificent fashion all that was requisite
for the public welfare and arranged the festivals on a most sumptuous
scale, his own living was very far from costly, and he sanctioned no
greater outlay than was absolutely necessary. Therefore even in the
taverns he allowed nothing cooked to be sold except pulse. Thus he made it
quite plainly evident that he was amassing riches not for his own
enjoyment but for the needs of the people.
Vespasian got laughed at every time that he would say, when spending
money: "I am making this outlay from my own purse."
He was neither of noble family nor rich.
The general routine of life that he followed was this. He lived but little
in the palace, spending most of his time in the so-called Sallustian
Gardens. There he received anybody who desired to see him, not only
senators but people in general. With his intimate friends he would
converse also before dawn while lying in bed; others could greet him on
the streets. The doors of the royal residence were open all day long and
no guard was stationed at them. He was a regular visitor in the senate,
whose members he consulted in regard to all projects, and he frequently
tried cases in the Forum. Whatever measures he was prevented by old age
from reading aloud, as well as any communications that he sent to the
senate when absent, he usually caused to be read by his sons, showing
honor by this course to the legislative body. Every day he had many of the
senators and others join him at table, and he himself often dined at the
houses of his intimate friends. [Sidenote:--11--] In general, his
forethought for public interests caused him to be regarded as a real
emperor. In his ordinary existence he was sociable and lived on a footing
of equality with his subjects. He joked in unconventional manner and
rather liked jokes upon himself. In case any anonymous documents were
posted,--as happens to every emperor,--containing statements insulting to
himself, he showed no signs of disturbance but posted in turn a suitable
reply.
One day Phoebus approached him to make an apology. It seemed that once,
during Nero's reign, Vespasian when in the theatre in Greece had frowned
at the misconduct of the emperor (of which he was a witness), whereupon
Phoebus had angrily bidden him "Go!" And upon Vespasian's enquiring "Where
to?" the other had responded "to the devil." [Footnote: This sentiment is
expressed in the Greek by "to the crows."] Now when Phoebus apologized for
this speech the monarch did him no harm, in fact vouchsafed him no answer
at all, save a curt "Go to the devil yourself!"--Again, when Vologaesus
forwarded a letter to the emperor addressed as follows: "Arsaces, King of
Kings, to Flavius Vespasian, Greeting," the recipient did not rebuke him
but wrote a reply couched in the same terms and added none of his imperial
titles.
[Sidenote:--12--] Helvidius Priscus, the son-in-law of Thrasea, had been
brought up in the doctrines of the Stoics and imitated Thrasea's
bluntness, though there was no occasion for it. He was at this time
praetor and instead of doing aught to increase the honor due to the
emperor he would not cease reviling him. Therefore the tribunes once
arrested him and gave him in charge of their assistants, at which
procedure Vespasian was overcome by emotion and went out of the
senate-house in tears, uttering this single exclamation only: "A son
shall be my successor or no one at all."
[Sidenote: A.D. 71 (a.u. 824)] After Jerusalem had been captured Titus
returned to Italy and celebrated a triumph, both he and his father riding
in a chariot. Domitian, now in his consulship, also took part in the
festivities, mounted upon a charger. Vespasian next established in Rome
teachers of both Latin and Greek learning, who drew their pay from the
public treasury.
[Sidenote:--12--] It became strikingly clear that Vespasian hated
Helvidius Priscus not so much for personal affronts or on account of the
friends that the man had abused as because he was a turbulent fellow that
cultivated the favor of the rabble, was forever denouncing royalty and
praising democracy. Helvidius's behavior, moreover, was consistent with
his principles; he banded various men together, as if it were the function
of philosophy to insult those in power, to stir up the multitudes, to
overthrow the established order of things, and to incite people to
revolution. He was a son-in-law of Thrasea and affected to emulate the
latter's conduct: his failure to do so was striking. Thrasea lived in
Nero's time and disliked the tyrant. Even so, however, he never spoke or
behaved toward him in any insulting way: he merely refused to share in his
practices. But Helvidius had a grudge against Vespasian and would not let
him alone either in private or in public. By what he did he invited death
and for his meddlesome interference he was destined ultimately to pay the
penalty.
Mucianus desired to be honored by all and beyond all, so
that he was displeased not merely if a man insulted him but even if any
one failed to extol him greatly. Hence, just as he was never tired of
honoring those who assisted him to even the slightest extent, so his
hatred was most cruel for all who did not so conduct themselves.
Mucianus made a great number of remarkable statements to Vespasian against
the Stoics, as, for instance, that they are full of empty boasting, and if
one of them lets his beard grow long, elevates his eyebrows, wears his
fustian cape thrown carelessly back and goes barefoot, he straightway
postulates wisdom, bravery, righteousness as his own. He gives himself
great airs, even though he may not understand (as the proverb says) either
letters or swimming. They view everybody with contempt and call the man of
good family a mollycoddle, the ill-born a dwarfed intellect, a handsome
person licentious, an ugly person comely, the rich man an apostle of
greed, and the poor man a servile groveler.
And Vespasian did immediately expel from Rome all the philosophers except
Musonius: Demetrius and Hostilianus he confined upon islands. Hostilianus
would not stop, to be sure,--he happened to be conversing with somebody
when he heard about the sentence of exile against him and merely inveighed
all the more strongly against monarchy,--yet he straightway withdrew.
Demetrius even now would not yield, and Vespasian bade it be told him:
"You are working every way to have me kill you, but I am not slaughtering
barking dogs."
[Sidenote:--13--] Before long many others who followed the so-called Stoic
system made themselves prominent, among whom was Demetrius the cynic.
These men, abusing the title of philosophy, kept teaching their disciples
publicly many pernicious doctrines, and in this way were gradually
corrupting [Footnote: Reading [Greek: hypodiephtheiron] (Dindorf).] some.
Under these circumstances Mucianus, influenced more by anger than by
fondness for speaking, uttered many charges against them and persuaded
Vespasian to expel all such persons from the city.
[Sidenote:--14--] This period saw also the demise of Vespasian's
concubine, Caenis. I have mentioned her because she was exceedingly
faithful and possessed naturally a most excellent memory. For instance,
her mistress Antonia, the mother of Claudius, had had her write secretly
to Tiberius about Sejanus and later had ordered the message erased, that
no trace of the same might be left. Thereupon she replied: "It is in vain,
mistress, that you have issued this command. All of this and whatever else
you dictate to me I always carry with me in my soul and it can never be
erased." This is one thing I have admired about her and a second is that
Vespasian should have been so much pleased with her. This fact gave her
the greatest influence, and she collected untold wealth, so that it was
even thought that she obtained money by her independent efforts. She
received vast sums from all sources and sold to some persons offices, to
others procuratorships, the command of campaigns, priesthoods, and to some
actually imperial decisions. For Vespasian killed no one to get his money
and took care to preserve large numbers of those who freely gave it. The
person who secured the funds was his concubine, but it was suspected that
Vespasian willingly allowed her to do as she did; and this belief was
strengthened by his other acts, a few of which, for the sake of
illustration, I shall relate. When certain persons voted to erect to him a
statue costing twenty-five myriads, he stretched out his hand and said:
"Give me the money; this [Footnote: i.e., the hollowed hand (compare
Suetonius Vespasian, chapter 23).] will serve as its pedestal."--And to
Titus, who was angry at the tax on urinating [Footnote: This refers to
conveniences in the public streets.], which was appointed along with the
rest, he replied, as he picked up some gold pieces that were the product
of it: "See, my child, if they smell at all."
[Sidenote: A.D. 75 (a.u. 828)] [Sidenote:--15--] In the sixth year of
Vespasian as magistrate and the fourth of Titus the precinct of Peace was
dedicated and the so-called Colossus was set up on the Sacred Way. It is
said to have been one hundred feet high, and to have had--according to one
account--the figure of Nero, according to others that of Titus. Vespasian
would often have beasts slain in the theatres. He did not particularly
enjoy gladiatorial combats of men, although Titus during the youthful
sports which were celebrated in his own land had once had a sham fight in
heavy armor with Alienus. The Parthians, who fell into a war with some
peoples, asked for an alliance with him, but he did not go to their aid,
saying that it was not proper for him to interfere in other persons'
business.
Berenice was at the height of her power and consequently came to Rome
along with her brother Agrippa. [Footnote: This Agrippa, known also as
Herodes II, was an intimate friend of the Jewish historian Josephus and a
companion of Titus at the siege of Jerusalem. It was before him, moreover,
that the apostle Paul made his defence in A.D. 60.] The latter was
accorded pretorial honors, while she dwelt in the Palace and cohabited
with Titus. She expected to be married to him and behaved in all respects
as if his wife. But when he perceived that the Romans were displeased at
the situation he sent her away; for various reports were in circulation.
At this time, too, certain sophists of the cynic school managed somehow to
slip into the city: first, Diogenes entered the theatre when it was full
of men and denounced them in a long, abusive speech, for which he was
flogged; after him Heras, who showed no greater disposition to be
obedient, gave vent to many senseless bawlings in the true cynic
(dog-like) manner,--and for this behavior was beheaded.
[Sidenote: A.D. 79 (a.u. 832)] [Sidenote:--16--] About the same period
that these events took place it happened that at a certain inn such a
quantity of overflowed the vessels that it ran out into the street.
Moreover, Sabinus the Gaul, already mentioned, the person who had once
named himself Caesar, had later taken up arms, had been defeated and had
hidden himself in the monument, was discovered [Footnote: The meaning is
clear. Cobet (Mnemosyne, N.S.X). thinks that ephorathae expresses the idea
more accurately than the commonly accepted ephanerothae (Boissevain also
ephorathae).] and brought to Rome. With him perished also his wife
Peponila, who had previously saved his life. She had presented her
children before Vespasian and had delivered a most pitiful speech in their
behalf: "These little ones, Caesar, I both brought forth and reared in the
monument, that we might be a greater number to supplicate you." She caused
both him and the rest to weep; no mercy, however, was shown to the family.
Meantime the emperor was also the object of a conspiracy on the part of
Alienus and Marcellus, although he considered them among his best friends
and bestowed honors upon them quite unstintedly. They did not succeed in
killing him, though. Upon their being detected, Alienus was slain at once,
in the imperial residence itself, as he rose from a meal with his intended
victim. Titus issued this order to prevent his carrying his rebellion any
further during the night; Alienus had already made arrangements with not a
few of the soldiers. Marcellus was brought to trial before the senate and
was condemned, whereupon he cut his own throat with a razor. Not even
benefits, it may be remarked, can subdue those who are naturally vicious,
as is shown by the plotting of these men against him who had done them so
many kindnesses.
[Sidenote:--17--] It was after the episode just narrated that Vespasian
fell sick, not, if the truth be known, of his ordinary gout but of fever
and passed away at Aquae Cutiliae, [Footnote: These are mineral springs,
chiefly sulphurous in nature, both hot and cold, situated near the town of
Cutiliae, famous for its pool with the "floating island." Celsus (On
Medicine, Book Four, chapter 5 (=12)) recommends bathing and standing in
such cold mineral springs as those at Cutiliae in cases where a patient
suffers from inability of the stomach to assimilate food.--The town itself
is between Reate and Interocrea among the Sabines. (And compare Suetonius,
Vespasian, chapter 24).] so-called, in Sabine territory. Some, who
endeavor falsely to incriminate Titus (among them the emperor Hadrian)
have spread a report that he was poisoned at a banquet. Portents had
occurred in his career indicating his approaching end, such as the comet
star which was seen for a considerable period and the opening of the
monument of Augustus of its own accord. When the sick man's physician
chided him for continuing his usual course of living and attending to all
the duties that belonged to his office, he answered: "The emperor ought to
die on his feet." To those who said anything to him about the comet he
responded: "This is an omen not for me but for the Parthian king. He has
flowing hair like the comet, whereas I am baldheaded." When he at length
came to the belief that he was to die, he said only: "Now I shall become a
god." He had lived to the age of sixty-nine years and eight months. His
reign lasted ten years lacking six days. Accordingly, it results that from
the death of Nero to Vespasian's becoming emperor a year and twenty-two
days elapsed. I have recorded this fact to prevent a misapprehension on
the part of any persons who might reckon the time with reference to the
men who were in power. They, however, did not legitimately succeed one
another, but each of them while his rival was alive and still ruling
believed himself to be emperor from the moment that the thought first
entered his head. One must not enumerate all the days of their reigns as
if those days had followed one after another in orderly succession, but
make a single sweeping calculation with the exact time, as I have stated
it, in mind.
[Sidenote:--18--] At his death Titus succeeded to the imperial power.
Titus as a ruler committed no act of murder or passion, but showed himself
upright, though the victim of plots, and self-controlled, though Berenice
came to Rome again. Perhaps this was because he had undergone a change.
(To share a reign with somebody else is a very different thing from being
one's self an independent ruler. In the former case persons are heedless
of the good name of the sovereignty and enjoy greedily the authority it
gives them, thus doing many things that make their position the object of
envy and slander. Actual monarchs, on the other hand, knowing that
everything depends on their decision, have some eye to good repute as well
as to other matters. So Titus said to somebody whose society he had
previously affected: "It is not the same thing to desire something from
another as to decide a case yourself, nor to ask something from another as
it is to give it to some one yourself.") Perhaps his satisfactory conduct
was also due to his surviving so short a time compared with most rulers,
for he was thus given little opportunity for wrongdoing. For he lived
after this only two years, two months and twenty days in addition to his
thirty-nine years, five months and twenty-five days. People compare this
feature of Titus's career with the fullness of years of Augustus, and say
that the latter would never have won affection if he had lived a shorter
time, nor the former, if he had lived longer. Augustus, though at the
outset he had shown himself rather harsh because of the wars and the
political factions, was able later in the course of time to become
distinguished for his kindnesses: Titus ruled with forbearance and died at
the summit of his glory, whereas if he had enjoyed a longer life, it might
have been proved that he owes his present fame more to good fortune than
to virtue.
[Sidenote:--19--] It is worth noting that Titus during his reign put no
senator to death, nor was any one else slain by him all the time that he
was emperor. Cases involving maiestas he would never entertain himself nor
allow others to entertain, for he said: "It is impossible for me to be
insulted or outraged in any way. I do naught that deserves censure and I
care not for what is falsely reported. As for the emperors that are dead
and gone, they will avenge themselves in case any one does them wrong, if
in very truth they be heroes and possess some power."--He also made
various arrangements to render men more secure and free from trouble. One
of these was the posting of a notice confirming all gifts bestowed upon
any person by the former emperors. This also enabled him to avoid the
nuisance of having people petition him individually about the
matter.--Informers he banished from the city.
In money matters he was frugal and sanctioned no unnecessary expenditure,
yet he did not punish any one for opposite tendencies.
In his reign also the False Nero appeared, who was an Asiatic and called
himself Terentius Maximus. He resembled Nero in form and voice: he even
sang to the zither's accompaniment. He gained a few followers in Asia and
in his onward progress to the Euphrates he secured a far greater number
and at length sought a retreat with Artabanus, the Parthian chief, who,
out of the anger that he felt toward Titus, both received the pretender
and set about preparations for restoring him to Rome. (Compare John of
Antioch, frag. 104 Mueller).
[Sidenote:--20--] Meantime war had again broken out in Britain, and Gnaeus
Julius Agricola overran the whole of the hostile region. He was the first
of the Romans whom we know to discover that Britain was surrounded by
water. Some soldiers had rebelled and after killing centurions and a
military tribune had taken refuge in boats. In these they put out to sea
and sailed around to the western portion of the country just as the
billows and the wind bore them. And without knowing it they came around
from the opposite side and stopped at the camps on this side again. At
that Agricola sent others to try the voyage around Britain and learned
from them, too, that it was an island.
As a result of these events in Britain Titus received the title of
imperator for the fifteenth time. Agricola for the rest of his life lived
in dishonor and even in want because he had accomplished greater things
than a mere general should. Finally he was murdered on this account by
Domitian, in spite of having received triumphal honors from Titus.
[Sidenote:--21--] In Campania remarkable and frightful occurrences took
place. A great fire was suddenly created just at the end of autumn. It was
this way. The mountain Vesuvius stands over against Naples near the sea
and has unquenchable springs of fire. Once it was equally high at all
points and the fire rose from the center of it. This is the only portion
of it that is in a blaze, for the outside parts of the mountain remain
even now unkindled. Consequently, as the latter are never burned, while
the interior is constantly growing brittle and being reduced to ashes, the
surrounding peaks retain their original height to this day, but the whole
section that is on fire, as it is consumed in the course of time, has
grown hollow from continual collapse. Thus the entire mountain, if we may
compare great things to small, resembles a hunting-theatre. The outlying
heights of it support both trees and vines,--many of them,--but the crater
is given over to fire and sends up smoke by day, flame by night. It looks
as if quantities of incense of all sorts were being burned in it. This
goes on all the time, sometimes more, sometimes less. Often it throws up
ashes, when there is a general settling in the interior, or again it sends
up stones when the air forces them out. It echoes and bellows, too,
because its vents are not all together but are narrow and hidden.
[Sidenote:--22--] Such is Vesuvius, and these phenomena regularly occur
there at least once a year. But all the other happenings that took place
in former time, though they may have seemed great and unusual to those who
on each occasion observed them, nevertheless would be reckoned as but
slight in comparison with what now occurred even though they should all be
rolled into one. This was what befell. Numbers of huge men quite
surpassing any human stature,--such creatures as giants are depicted to
be,--appeared now on the mountain, now in the country surrounding it, and
again in the cities, wandering over the earth day and night and also
traversing the air. After this fearful droughts and earthquakes sudden and
violent occurred, so that all the level ground in that region undulated
and the heights gave a great leap. Reverberations were frequent, some
subterranean resembling thunder and some on the surface like bellowings.
The sea joined the roar and the sky resounded with it. Then suddenly a
portentous crash was heard, as if the mountains were tumbling in ruins.
And first there were belched forth stones of huge size that rose to the
very summits before they fell; after them came a deal of fire and smoke in
inexhaustible quantities so that the whole atmosphere was obscured and the
whole sun was screened from view as if in an eclipse. [Sidenote:--23--]
Thus night succeeded day and darkness light. Some thought the giants were
rising in revolt (for even at this time many of their forms could be
discerned in the smoke and moreover a kind of sound of trumpets was
heard), while others believed that the whole world was disappearing in
chaos or fire. Therefore they fled, some from the houses into the streets,
others from without into the house; in their confusion, indeed, they
hastened from the sea to the land or from the land to the sea, deeming any
place at a distance from where they were safer than what was near by.
While this was going on an inconceivable amount of ashes was blown out and
covered the land and the sea everywhere and filled all the air. It did
harm of all sorts, as chance dictated, to men and places and cattle, and
the fish and the birds it utterly destroyed. Moreover, it buried two whole
cities, Herculaneum and Pompeii, while the populace was seated in the
theatre. The entire amount of dust was so great that some of it reached
Africa and Syria and Egypt, and it also entered Rome, where it occupied
all the air over the city and cast the sun into shadow. There, too, no
little fear was felt for several days, since the people did not know and
could not conjecture what had happened. They like the rest thought that
everything was being turned upside down, that the sun was disappearing in
the earth and the earth was bounding up to the sky. This ashes for the
time being did them no great harm: later it bred among them a terrible
pestilence.
[Sidenote: A.D. 80 (a.u. 833)] [Sidenote:--24--] Another fire, above
ground, in the following year spread over a very large portion of Rome
while Titus was absent on business connected with the catastrophe that had
befallen in Campania. It consumed the temple of Serapis, the temple of
Isis, the Saepta, the temple of Neptune, the Baths of Agrippa, the
Pantheon, the Diribitorium, the theatre of Balbus, the stage-building of
Pompey's theatre, the Octavian buildings together with their books, and
the temple of Capitoline Jupiter with its surrounding temples. Hence the
disaster seemed to be not of human but of divine contrivance. Any one can
estimate from the list of buildings that I have given, how many more must
have been destroyed. Titus, accordingly, sent two exconsuls to the
Campanians to supervise the founding of settlements and bestowed upon the
inhabitants money that came (besides various other sources) from those
citizens that had died without heirs. As for himself, he took nothing from
individual or city or king, although many kept offering and promising him
large sums. In spite of this, he restored everything from funds already at
hand. [Sidenote:--25--] Most of his deeds had no unusual quality to mark
them, but in dedicating the hunting-theatre and the baths that bear his
name he produced many remarkable spectacles. Cranes fought with one
another, and four elephants, as well as other grazing animals and wild
beasts, to the number of nine thousand, were slaughtered, and women (not
of any prominence, however,) took part in despatching them. Of men several
fought in single combat and several groups contended together in infantry
and naval battles. For Titus filled the above mentioned theatre suddenly
with water and introduced horses and bulls and some other tractable
creatures that had been taught to behave in the liquid element precisely
as upon land. He introduced also human beings on boats. These persons had
a sea-fight there, impersonating two parties, Corcyreans and Corinthians:
others gave the same performance outside in the grove of Gaius and Lucius,
a spot which Augustus had formerly excavated for this very purpose. There,
on the first day, a gladiatorial combat and slaughter of beasts took
place; this was done by building a structure of planks over the lake that
faced the images and placing benches round about it. On the second day
there was a horse-race, and on the third a naval battle involving three
thousand men. Afterwards there was also an infantry battle. The Athenians
conquered the Syracusans (these were the names that were used in the naval
battle), made a landing on the islet, and having assaulted a wall
constructed around the monument took it. These were the sights offered to
spectators, and they lasted for a hundred days.
Titus also contributed some things that were of practical use to the
people. He would throw down into the theatre from aloft little wooden
balls that had a mark, one signifying something to eat, another clothing,
another a silver vessel, or perhaps a gold one, or again horses,
pack-animals, cattle, slaves. Those who snatched them had to carry them
back to the dispensers of the bounty to secure the article of which the
name was inscribed.
[Sidenote: A.D. 81 (a.u. 834)] [Sidenote:--26--] When he had finished this
exhibition, he wept so bitterly on the last day that all the people saw
him, and after this time he performed no other great deed; but the
following year, in the consulship of Flavius [Footnote: L. Flavius Silva
Nonius Bassus.] and Pollio, [Footnote: Asinius Pollio Verrucosus.]
subsequent to the dedication of the buildings mentioned, he passed away at
the same Aquae that was the scene of his father's demise. The common
report had it that he was done to death by his brother, for he had
previously been the object of that person's plot: but some writers state
that a disease carried him off. The tradition is that, while he was still
breathing and had a possible chance of recovery, Domitian, to hasten his
end, put him in a box packed with a quantity of snow, pretending that the
disease required a chill to be administered; and, before his victim was
dead, he rode off to Rome, entered the camp, and received the title and
authority of emperor, having given the soldiers all that his brother had
been wont to give them. Titus, as he expired, said: "I have made but one
error." What this was he did not reveal, and no one else feels quite sure
about it. Some have conjectured one thing and some another. The prevailing
impression, according to one set of historians, is that he referred to
keeping his brother's wife, Domitia. Others (whom I am for following) say
what he meant was that, after finding Domitian openly plotting against
him, he had not killed him, but had chosen rather himself to suffer that
fate at his rival's hands and to surrender the government of Rome to a man
whose nature will be portrayed in the continuation of my narrative. Titus
had ruled for two years, two months, and twenty days, as has been
previously stated.
DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY
67
Domitian's cruel character: his hatred of his father and brother (chapters
1, 2).
He puts aside Domitia: falls in love with Julia: slays the Vestals
(chapter 3).
The German war (chapters 4, 5).
Dacian war with Decebalus (chapters 6, 7).
Domitian's nocturnal spectacles and entertainments (chapters 8, 9).
Events of the Dacian war (chapter 10).
Antonius, governor of Germany, rebels: many are slain (chapters 11-14).
How Domitian was killed through snares laid by certain men (chapters
15-18).