of Gournou, it is time to cross the Nile, and return to Carnak. Here we
continued the work, as I mentioned before. Our opponents had taken away
the four sphinxes, which the doctor had dug up, in the name of the
Defterdar bey, from the ground I had opened the year before, but had
found nothing more, which is somewhat singular, considering the number
of men they had employed in their excavation. I now opened another piece
of ground, in a line parallel with the point of the temple, and I was
fortunate enough to find another line of sphinxes. From the fragments
there were probably twenty, but five only were in good preservation.
Among them was a sitting figure of a young man nearly of the size of
life, of gray granite; but though the face, hands, and arms, were in
good condition, the chest and lower parts were quite decayed, and the
bust detached from the rest of the body. In the same place I found two
small sitting figures of red granite, nearly two feet high, and a stone
irregularly shaped, but flat and smooth on the surfaces. It is divided
by lines into many little squares of half an inch, in each of which is a
hieroglyphic, but all different from each other. This piece, in my
opinion, might be of much service to Dr. Young in his undertaking of the
discovery of the alphabet of the Egyptians, particularly in the advanced
state at which he has at present arrived. Two other articles were found
in this excavation, of which one is a tombstone, and the other an iron
sickle, that I think worthy the attention of the antiquary. It is
certain, that the burial-places of the Egyptians were on the west side
of the Nile, for not a single place is to be found on the eastern side
to indicate there having ever been a burial-ground there: yet among
these sphinxes was a tombstone similar to those which are found in the
tombs on the other side of the Nile, and probably, therefore, made to be
taken to the tomb of some family on the west. But the iron sickle to
which I would call the attention, was found under the feet of one of the
sphinxes on its removal. I was present; one of the men took it up and
gave it me. It was broken into three pieces, and so decayed, that the
rust had eaten even to the centre. It was rather thicker than the
sickles of the present time, but exactly of the common shape and size of
ours. It is now in the possession of Mr. Salt. The question is, at what
time were these statues placed there? They could not have been deposited
subsequently to the age of the Ptolemies; for it appears, that since the
time of Cambyses, who destroyed the Gods of Egypt, the country has never
been invaded, so as to compel the people to conceal their idols; and it
is evident, that these statues had been hidden in a hurry, from the
irregular and confused manner in which they lie. Now, as the sickle was
found under the statue above mentioned, I think it a sufficient proof,
that there was iron in the country long before the invasion of the
Persians, since the Egyptians had enough to make instruments of
agriculture with it. Sickles of the same form are to be seen in many
agricultural representations in the tombs; but it does not follow, that
they were taken from sickles of iron, like the one in question. I do not
mean to decide this point by my own suppositions: I lay the fact before
the reader, that he may form his own opinion upon it; yet there are
circumstances that would destroy the conjecture, that might be drawn
from this discovery. It is very singular, if the Egyptians had iron in
such abundance, as to make sickles, that they did not make instruments
of war, and other articles for their common use, of the same metal; for
if they had done so, it is strange, that none are to be found among the
various specimens of their manufacture.
I continued the work as fast as I could with the few men I had, as I
foresaw, that when the Defterdar came to the knowledge of my success he
would put a stop to our proceedings by some intrigue or other. My daily
employment kept me in continual motion. In the morning I used to give my
directions for the works at Carnak. The Arabs generally come to work at
the rising of the sun, and leave off from noon till two or three
o’clock. When I had many employed, I divided them into parties, and set
an overseer over each, to see that they worked at the proper hours, and
on the allotted spots of ground, which I had previously marked out; but
generally some of our people were obliged to be there, for no trust is
to be reposed in the Arabs, if they should find any small pieces of
antiquity. Before noon I used to cross the river and inspect the works
at Gournou. Having been there the year before, and had dealings with
these people, I was at home in every part of Thebes, knew every Arab
there, and they knew me as well. Mr. Beechey had taken possession of the
temple at Luxor, without requesting permission from the Gods, and we
made a dwelling-place of one of the chambers: I believe it must have
been the sekos. By the help of some mats we procured a very tolerable
accommodation, but could not prevent the dust from coming on our beds,
and clothes, to which for my part I had long before become indifferent.
We could not sleep any longer in the boat; for in consequence of the
provision we had on board, such quantities of large rats accompanied us
all the way to Luxor, that we had no peace day or night, and at last
they succeeded in fairly dislodging us. We thought to have been a match
for them, however, for we caused all the provision to be taken out, and
the boat to be sunk at Luxor, but as they were good swimmers, they saved
their lives, and hid themselves in the holes of the pier; and when the
provision had been put on board again, they all returned cheerfully, a
few excepted, and were no doubt grateful to us for having given them a
fresh appetite and a good bathing.
In Gournou, our researches continued among the mummies. The Arabs had
become quite unconcerned about the secret of the tombs; for they saw it
was their interest to search, as they were rewarded for what they found,
and those who were duly paid were indifferent whether we or their
brethren found a tomb. The men were divided into two classes. The most
knowing were making researches on their own account, employing eight or
ten to assist them. They indicated the ground where they hoped to find a
tomb, and sometimes were fortunate enough to hit on the entrance of a
mummy pit in the first attempt. At other times, after spending two or
three days, they often found only a pit filled with mummies of the
inferior class, which had nothing among them worthy of notice: so that,
even to the most skilful explorer, it was a mere chance what he should
find. On the other hand, in some of the tombs of the better class they
found very good specimens of antiquity, of all sorts. I met with some
difficulty at first in persuading these people to work in search of
tombs, and receive a regular daily payment; for they conceived it to be
against their interest, supposing I might obtain the antiquities at too
cheap a rate: but when they saw, that sometimes they received their pay
regularly, and I had nothing for it, they found it was rather in their
favour, to secure twenty paras (three pence) a day, than run the risk of
having nothing for their labour, which often happened to those who
worked at adventure.
It was from these works that I became better acquainted with the manner
in which the Egyptians regulated their burial-places; and I plainly saw
the various degrees and customs of the divers classes, from the peasant
to the king. The Egyptians had three different methods of embalming
their dead bodies, which, Herodotus informs us, were according to the
expense the persons who presented the dead bodies to the mummy-makers
chose to incur. This father of history thus expresses himself on the
subject: “Certain persons were appointed by the laws to the exercise of
this profession. When a dead body was brought to them, they exhibited to
the friends of the deceased different models, highly finished in wood.
The most perfect of these, they said, resembles one, whom I do not think
it religious to name on such an occasion; the second was of less price,
and inferior in point of execution; the other was still more mean. They
then inquired after which model the deceased should be represented. When
the price was determined, the relations retired, and the embalmers
proceeded in their work. In the most perfect specimens of their art,
they extracted the brain through the nostrils, partly with a piece of
crooked iron, and partly by the infusion of drugs. They then, with an
Ethiopian stone, made an incision in the side, through which they drew
out the intestines. These they cleansed thoroughly, washing them with
palm-wine, and afterwards covering them with pounded aromatics. They
then filled the body with powder of pure myrrh, cassia, and other
spices, without frankincense. Having sown up the body, it was covered
with nitre for the space of seventy days, which time they were not
allowed to exceed. At the end of this period, being first washed, it was
closely wrapped in bandages of cotton, dipped in a gum, which the
Egyptians used as a glue. It was then returned to the relations, who
enclosed the body in a case of wood, made to resemble a human figure,
and placed it against the wall in the repository of their dead. This was
the most costly mode of embalming.
“For those who wished to be at less expense, the following method was
adopted. They neither drew out the intestines, nor made any incision in
the dead body, but injected a liniment made from the cedar. After taking
proper means to secure the injected oil within the body, it was covered
with nitre for the time above specified. On the last day they withdrew
the liquid before introduced, which brought with it all the intestines.
The nitre dried up and hardened the flesh, so that the corpse appeared
little but skin and bone. In this state the body was returned, and no
further care taken concerning it.
“There was a third mode of embalming, appropriated to the poor. A
particular kind of lotion was made to pass through the body, which was
afterward merely left in nitre for the above space of seventy days, and
then returned.” Such is the account given us by Herodotus.
Nothing can be more plainly distinguish the various classes of people,
than the manner of their preservation: but there are many other remarks,
that may be made to the same effect. I shall describe how I have found
the mummies of the principal class untouched, and hence we may judge how
they were prepared and deposited in their respective places. I am sorry
that I am obliged to contradict my old guide Herodotus; for in this
point, and many others, he was not well informed by the Egyptians. In
the first place, speaking of the mummies in their cases, he mentions
them as erect: but it is somewhat singular, that in so many pits as I
have opened, I never saw a single mummy standing. On the contrary, I
found them lying regularly, in horizontal rows, and some were sunk into
a cement, which must have been nearly fluid when the cases were placed
on it. The lower classes were not buried in cases: they were dried up,
as it appears, after the regular preparation of the seventy days.
Mummies of this sort were in the proportion of about ten to one of the
better class, as near as I could calculate by the quantity I have seen
of both; and it appeared to me, that, after the operation of the nitre,
adopted by the mummy-makers, these bodies may have been dried in the
sun. Indeed, for my own part, I am persuaded it was so; as there is not
the smallest quantity of gum or any thing else to be found on them. The
linen in which they are folded is of a coarser sort, and less in
quantity; they have no ornaments about them of any consequence, and they
are piled up in layers, so as to crowd several caves excavated for the
purpose in a rude manner. In general, the tombs of the lower class are
to be found in the lower grounds, at the foot of the mountains of
Gournou; and some extend as far as the border to which the inundation
reaches. They are to be entered by a small aperture, arched over, or by
a shaft four or five feet square, at the bottom of which are entrances
into various chambers, all choked up with mummies: and though there is
scarcely any thing to be found on them, many of these tombs have been
rummaged, and left in the most confused state.
I must not omit, that among these tombs we saw some which contained the
mummies of animals intermixed with human bodies. There were bulls, cows,
sheep, monkeys, foxes, cats, crocodiles, fishes, and birds, in them (see
Plate 44): idols often occur; and one tomb was filled with nothing but
cats, carefully folded in red and white linen, the head covered by a
mask representing the cat, and made of the same linen. I have opened all
these sorts of animals. Of the bull, the calf, and the sheep, there is
no part but the head and bones which is covered with linen, and the
horns projecting out of the cloth; the rest of the body being
represented by two pieces of wood, eighteen inches wide and three feet
long, in an horizontal direction, at the end of which was another,
placed perpendicularly, two feet high, to form the breast of the animal.
The calves and sheep are of the same structure, and large in proportion
to the bulls. The monkey is in its full form, in a sitting posture. The
fox is squeezed up by the bandages, but in some measure the shape of the
head is kept perfect. The crocodile is left in its own shape, and after
being well bound round with linen, the eyes and mouth are painted on
this covering. The birds are squeezed together, and lose their shape,
except the ibis, which is found like a fowl ready to be cooked, and
bound round with linen, like all the rest.—(See Plate 44.)
It is somewhat singular that such animals are not to be met with in the
tombs of the higher sort of people; while few or no papyri are to be
found among the lower order, and if any occur they are only small pieces
stuck upon the breast with a little gum or asphaltum, being probably all
that the poor individual could afford to himself. In those of the better
classes other objects are found. I think they ought to be divided into
several classes, as I cannot confine myself to three. I do not mean to
impute error to Herodotus when he speaks of the three modes of
embalming; but I will venture to assert, that the high, middling, and
poorer classes, all admit of farther distinction. In the same pit where
I found mummies in cases, I found others without; and in these, papyri
are most likely to be met with. I remarked, that the mummies in the
cases have no papyri; at least, I never observed any: on the contrary,
in those without cases they are often obtained. It appears to me, that
such people as could afford it would have a case to be buried in, on
which the history of their lives was painted; and those who could not
afford a case were contented to have their lives written on papyri,
rolled up, and placed above their knees. Even in the appearance of the
cases there is a great difference: some are exceedingly plain, others
more ornamented, and some very richly adorned with figures, well
painted. The cases are generally made of Egyptian sycamore: apparently,
this was the most plentiful wood in the country, as it is usually
employed for the different utensils. All the cases have a human face,
male or female. Some of the large cases contain others within them,
either of wood or of plaster, painted. The inner cases are sometimes
fitted to the body of the mummy: others are only covers to the body, in
form of a man or woman, easily distinguishable by the beard and the
breast, like that on the outside. Some of the mummies have garlands of
flowers, and leaves of the acacia, or sunt tree, over their heads and
breasts. This tree is often seen on the banks of the Nile, above Thebes,
and particularly in Nubia. The flower, when fresh, is yellow, and of a
very hard substance, appearing as if artificial. The leaves, also, are
very strong, and though dried and turned brown, they still retain their
firmness. In the inside of these mummies are found lumps of asphaltum,
sometimes so large as to weigh two pounds. The entrails of these mummies
are often found bound up in linen and asphaltum. What does not
incorporate with the fleshy part, remains of the natural colour of the
pitch; but that which does incorporate becomes brown, and evidently
mixed with the grease of the body, forming a mass, which on pressure
crumbles into dust. The wooden case is first covered with a layer or two
of cement, not unlike plaster of Paris; and on this are sometimes cast
figures in basso relievo, for which they make holes cut In stone. The
whole case is painted; the ground generally yellow, the figures and
hieroglyphics blue, green, red, and black. The last is very seldom used.
The whole of the painting is covered with a varnish, which preserves it
very effectually. Some of the colours, in my humble opinion, were
vegetable, for they are evidently transparent; besides, I conceive it
was easier for the Egyptians to produce vegetable colours than mineral,
from the great difficulty of grinding the latter to such perfection.
The next sort of mummy that drew my attention, I believe I may with
reason conclude to have been appropriated to the priests. They are
folded in a manner totally different from the others, and so carefully
executed, as to show the great respect paid to those personages. The
bandages are stripes of red and white linen intermixed, covering the
whole body, and forming a curious effect from the two colours. The arms
and legs are not enclosed in the same envelope with the body, as in the
common mode, but are bandaged separately, even the fingers and toes
being preserved distinct. They have sandals of painted leather on their
feet, and bracelets on their arms and wrists. They are always found with
the arms across the breast, but not pressing it; and though the body is
bound with such a quantity of linen, the shape of the person is
carefully preserved in every limb. The cases in which mummies of this
sort are found are somewhat better executed, and I have seen one, that
had the eyes and eyebrows of enamel, beautifully executed, in imitation
of nature. Among the various tombs, I discovered one of this description
in the valley adjacent to Beban el Malook on the west of it, of which I
shall have to speak hereafter.
I found eight mummies, all untouched since they had been deposited in
their resting-place. The cases lay flat on the ground, facing the east,
in two equal rows, imbedded four inches deep in mortar, which must have
been soft when they were put into it; for when I had them removed, the
impression of them remained perfect. The opening of them I shall
describe, with that of the tomb.
The tombs containing the better classes of people are of course superior
to the others. There are some more extensive than the rest, having
various apartments, adorned with figures representing different actions
of life. Funeral processions are generally predominant. Agricultural
processes, religious ceremonies, and more ordinary occurrences, such as
feasting, &c. are to be seen every where. I shall not enter into a
minute account of these paintings, as they have been so often described,
particularly by Mr. Hamilton, whose perspicuous observations upon them
give the best idea of their various representation. It would be
impossible to describe the numerous little articles found in them, which
are well adapted to show the domestic habits of the ancient Egyptians.
It is here the smaller idols are occasionally found, either lying on the
ground, or on the cases of the mummies. Vases are sometimes found
containing the embalmed entrails of the mummies. These are generally
made of baked clay, and painted over: their sizes differ from eight
inches to eighteen: their covers represent the head of some divinity,
bearing either the human form, or that of a monkey, fox, cat, or some
other animal. I met with a few of these vases of alabaster in the tombs
of the kings, but unfortunately they were broken. A great quantity of
pottery is found, and also wooden articles in some of the tombs, as if
the deceased had resolved to have all he possessed deposited along with
him. The most singular among these things are the ornaments, in
particular the small works in clay and other composition. I have been
fortunate enough to find many specimens of their manufactures, among
which is gold leaf, beaten nearly as thin as ours. The gold appears to
me extremely pure, and of a finer colour than is generally seen in our
own. It is somewhat singular that no instruments of war are found in
these places, when we consider what a warlike nation the Egyptians were.
What has become of their weapons I cannot conjecture; for in all my
researches I found only one arrow, two feet long. At one extremity it
had a copper point well fixed in it, and at the other a notch as usual
to receive the string of the bow: it had been evidently split by the
string, and glued together again.
Among other articles too numerous to be mentioned, the beetle, or
scarabæus, to all appearance a highly sacred animal, is found in the
tombs. There are various sorts; some of basalt, verde antico, or other
stones, and some of baked clay. They are scarce, particularly those with
hieroglyphics on them, which no doubt contain some particular prayers,
or the commemoration of striking events in the life of the deceased. It
is supposed, that the Egyptians hung the scarabæus to their necks when
they went to war; but of this we have no clear proofs. I must mention a
circumstance on this subject, which perhaps will solve the doubt. The
scarabæi are of such a peculiar form, that, if they were among the
ornaments of the warriors, they would be easily distinguished. One
solitary instance of this kind I have observed. There is a sitting
figure in the tomb of Psammuthis, which I discovered in the valley below
Beban el Malook, that, by its splendid dress and ornaments, may be
intended to represent a king. It has a square plate of basalt hung to
its neck, with an obelisk in the centre, and a figure on each side of
it. I was extremely fortunate in meeting with one of these plates, I
believe the only one that ever was found of the kind. It has the form of
an Egyptian temple, and in the centre is an elevated scarabæus on a
boat, guarded by two figures, one at each side; and on the reverse of
the scarabæus is an inscription over a boat, on which are two other
figures, exactly like the former. The plate has the holes by which it
was hung to a chain or string. I found also other scarabæi, with human
heads, which I never saw before.
The Egyptians were certainly well acquainted with linen manufactures to
a perfection equal to our own; for, in many of their figures, we observe
their garments quite transparent; and among the folding of the mummies,
I observed some cloth quite as fine as our common muslin, very strong,
and of an even texture. They had the art of tanning leather, with which
they made shoes as well as we do, some of which I found of various
shapes. They had also the art of staining the leather with various
colours, as we do morocco, and actually knew the mode of embossing on
it, for I found leather with figures impressed on it, quite elevated. I
think it must have been done with a hot iron while the leather was damp.
They also fabricated a sort of coarse glass, with which they made beads
and other ornaments.
Beside enamelling, the art of gilding was in great perfection among
them, as I found several ornaments of the kind. They knew how to cast
copper, as well as to form it into sheets, and had a metallic
composition not unlike our lead, rather softer, but of greater tenacity.
It is much like the lead which we see on paper in the tea-chests from
China, but much thicker. I found some pieces of it covered on both sides
with a thin coat of another metal, which might be taken for silver, but
I cannot believe it to be so. It certainly is a proof of the scarcity of
this metal in Egypt, where, in my opinion, it was less common than gold;
for it is seldom found, whereas the latter is quite common on the
ornaments.
Carved works were very common, and in great perfection, particularly in
the proportion of the figures; and it is to be observed, that though the
Egyptians were unacquainted with anatomy, yet in these, as well as in
their statues of marble, they preserved that sweet simplicity peculiar
to themselves, which is always pleasing to the beholder.