novel of Roman life to derive much inspiration from Pater’s _Marius the
Epicurean_, (1885). Gissing resembles Pater in his exact scholarship,
his love of Greek things, and his estheticism. _Veranilda_ was to have
in it the love of the classics, but is unfinished. Yet it is evident
that only a few chapters at the end are missing, and what we have
of _Veranilda_ is finished with Gissing’s finest and most delicate
touches. The late Mr. Frederic Harrison says of Gissing in the preface
to _Veranilda_, that in this novel, “his poetical gift for local color,
his subtle insight into spiritual mysticism and, above all, his really
fine scholarship and classical learning had ample field.” Mr. Harrison
considers _Veranilda_ “far the most important book which George Gissing
ever produced,” and most readers of Gissing will concur in this opinion.
Though the subject-matter of _Veranilda_ is somewhat different from that
of _Marius the Epicurean_, there is much similarity between the two books
in the way subjects are presented, and at times Gissing’s purity of style
approaches that of Pater. In many respects _Veranilda_ is the greatest
novel of its kind. Not only does it show thoroughness and accuracy in
scholarship, but it has very genuine characterization and atmosphere. The
spirit of _Veranilda_ is the spirit of the time it describes,—the spirit
of disillusion, unrest, and uncertainty amid scenes of strife, sorrow,
and decay. Yet there are gleams of hope to be found in Gissing’s great
novel, which portrays life in and near Rome in the “Era of Justinian.”
While the outward, physical life of fallen Rome is portrayed accurately,
as it would appear to the eye, the special excellence of _Veranilda_
lies in its exact reproduction of the spirit of the time with which it
deals. In this respect it probably excels any other historical novel
in English,—bar none,—and deserves a high position as pure literature.
Moreover in his portrayal of life in the past, Gissing has not failed
to establish its connection with life of the present; realistic effect
is never lacking in _Veranilda_. Yet even when portraying life in the
most general terms, Gissing continually shows the same selection and
preference for the esthetic, the same search for the beautiful, which
marks the work of Walter Pater in _Marius the Epicurean_.
The plan of _Veranilda_ is more complete than that of most historical
novels; it deals chiefly with real historical characters and actual
historical events, yet there is not too much formal history in the novel.
It was carefully written after a most thorough study of the best modern
writers, (especially Gibbon), who deal with the age of Justinian and
Belisarius, and of the remains of the literature of the time. The scene
is Rome and Central and Southern Italy, and local color is obtained not
at second-hand, but from the author’s direct observation of the places
he describes, and a careful review of extant documents concerning them.
Gissing had spent some time travelling in Italy and _Veranilda_ may
be considered his most original novel. In selecting the scene and the
time of _Veranilda_, Gissing evidently intended to write a novel which
should convey a sense of Rome’s former greatness. The center and source
of power of the Roman Empire had shifted to Constantinople, though even
here the power of Rome was none too strong. Felix Dahn’s two novels, _A
Struggle for Rome_, (1876), and _The Scarlet Banner_, (1894), deal with
the same period with which _Veranilda_ deals; _The Scarlet Banner_ being
concerned with the overthrow of the Vandal king, Gelimer, by Belisarius.
_A Struggle for Rome_, is like _Veranilda_ in its subject matter, since
it is concerned with the struggle between the Ostrogoths and Belisarius,
and mentions some of the same characters that appear in _Veranilda_.
The characterization of Totila, the Gothic king, especially suggests
_Veranilda_. But while _A Struggle for Rome_ is Dahn’s greatest novel, it
does not appear that Gissing was so much indebted to it in _Veranilda_,
as to original historical sources. The period with which _Veranilda_
deals comes somewhat after the true end of Pagan Rome, and no novel will
be discussed which deals with a later period.
Gissing preserves a fine unity of effect in making the events of his
story center about Rome, and not about Constantinople. “The Eternal City”
lies there as of old, and its inhabitants cannot shake off the feeling
that it still is “eternal.” The wise Justinian is to them a foreign
tyrant, under whose governor they are harshly oppressed. The great
commander Belisarius, though he has temporarily defeated the Goths, has
now left Italy, and is no longer thought of as deliverer of Rome; the
fame of Totila is spreading. Throughout this book, with its descriptions
of ruined towns, ruined families, and the ruins of the City of Rome
itself, one feels the former greatness of Rome. Everywhere is decay,
everywhere is to be seen a dying out of the best elements of Roman
civilization. Many of the scenes which form the setting for the principal
action in the story, are typical of this lingering death of the great
city. While everywhere the old Rome is dying out, is there springing up
anything new to take its place? Even though the novel is incomplete, one
can see that the author means to show conclusively that the Goths will
furnish new life, and new strength, to Rome and to civilization.
In _Hypatia_, Kingsley had portrayed “the dying world” of Rome,
especially in the chapter headed by that phrase. In _Marius the
Epicurean_, Pater had pointed out the coming downfall of Rome in several
different ways. He had said, for example, that the Germanic tribes,
whom Marcus Aurelius defeated, were merely the advance guard of a vast
body of wandering tribes destined to overrun the Roman world. Marcus
Aurelius in his triumph over the Germans, appeared to Marius, “chiefly
as one who had made the great mistake,” as a man who had failed. “The
most Christian” Stoic Emperor, in pursuing his thoroughly Roman policy of
enforcing worship of the gods with an iron hand at Rome, and ruthlessly
subjugating peoples on the frontiers of the Empire, had failed to save
Rome from becoming more and more a nation of “coarse, vulgar people,”
an Empire that failed. In _Veranilda_ we see the impressive remains of
that great failure. Its psychology, like that of most of Gissing’s work,
is the psychology of failure. As the decayed condition of his old home
appears to be symbolic of failure to Marius, near the end of _Marius the
Epicurean_, so all through _Veranilda_ the decay of material things seems
to symbolize the downfall and death of “Eternal Rome.” Yet the gleams of
hope, which appear through the gloom, are symbolic of a new life. While
no such large contrast is made in _Veranilda_, as is made in _Hypatia_,
the hope of Christianity in a failing world is made very real.
Aside from the scene depicting the murder at the villa, there are few
sensational scenes in _Veranilda_. Moreover, in most of the scenes of
importance, it is noticeable that only a limited number of people
appear. The greater part of the novel is pitched in a minor key.
There are countless incidents of importance, whisperings, doubts,
uncertainties; trivial words often have a hidden meaning, trifling
actions assume great importance. The remains of Rome’s grandeur are
suggested in the character of Flavius Anicius Maximus, a worthy
descendant of an ancient and noble family; and his sister Petronilla
serves to keep before our minds something of the uncompromising pride
of any descendant of an old Roman family. A similar pride appears in
the characters of the Deacon Leander and Vigilius. But more fitting
messengers of God are the holy Abbott Benedict and his monks. The scenes
about the monastery are drawn with a masterful touch; one feels the
genuine influence for good, which the holy Abbott has over Basil, and the
real help which he gives to Basil, in the difficulty with which Basil is
confronted. St. Benedict appears as a man who leads a genuinely spiritual
life, with insight enough to solve all of Basil’s difficulties.
Veranilda herself is a truly radiant figure, and it is in justice that
the novel is named for her. She does not often appear upon the scene,
it is true, but the sincerity of her character and her overwhelming
loveliness are drawn with convincing strokes. Her innocence at all times,
especially when in Marcian’s power, and her faith in those into whose
care she is entrusted, are points of strength in her character, not of
weakness; and she proves herself truly great in her forgiveness of Basil.
In his delineation of character especially, Gissing has at times equalled
the exquisite touches of Pater. How little is told of St. Benedict or of
Veranilda, yet how definitely their characters are impressed upon the
reader! Veranilda is beyond question, the character who best represents
beauty of body and soul, in the novel of Roman life, and, I believe,
surpasses Pater’s Marius in representing a “soul naturally Christian.” In
any case, one feels that in _Veranilda_, as in _Marius the Epicurean_,
there always exists the esthetic conception of an inseparable connection
between physical and spiritual beauty. Gissing followed Pater in showing
that the life of Rome could be portrayed as being far from entirely
physical and material; and he showed more definitely than Pater, that
Roman life could be presented in the form of a novel, with realistic
effect, yet with the exercise of a discriminating selection of the finer
elements of subject matter, and in a style delicately fitted to portray
these finer elements.
A review of esthetic elements to be found in the novel of Roman life
would not be complete without some consideration of two recent novels by
Mr. Eden Phillpotts, _Evander_, (1919), and _Pan and the Twins_, (1922).
Mr. Phillpotts has shown his appreciation for classic art in _The Joy of
Youth_, while another of his novels, _The River_, shows his love for the
beautiful in nature. Mr. George Moore says, “Morality is but a dream, but
beauty is real;” his novel, _The Brook Kerith_, is not considered here
as a novel of Roman life, but in it the author often harks back to the
beautiful pagan world. There is something of this in the two novels of
Roman life written by Mr. Phillpotts. As has been said, George Ebers had
written, _A Question; The Idyl of a Picture by His Friend Alma Tadema_,
(1881), which presents the beauties of pastoral life in semi-mythological
classic times in pre-historic Sicily, and suggests _Evander_ in subject
matter. In _Marius the Epicurean_, Pater had said, “Farm life in Italy,
including the culture of the olive and the vine, has a grace of its
own, and might well contribute to the production of an ideal dignity of
character, like that of nature itself in this gifted region. Vulgarity
seemed impossible.” The ideal beauty of a simple, outdoor life, centering
in the farmer’s hut, appears in _Evander_, a novel which portrays life
in prehistoric Italy and abounds in beautiful pastoral description. In
its portrayal of life, _Evander_ shows somewhat the same discriminating
selection of esthetic elements to be seen in _Marius the Epicurean_. and
_Veranilda_; but unlike the work of Pater or Gissing, _Evander_ has a
rich and picturesque humor. Here, in Mr. Phillpotts’ novel, is optimism
in contrast to the detachment of Pater, and Gissing’s somewhat continuous
pessimism. Mr. Phillpott’s light, humorous, cheerful style in _Evander_,
makes the novel rank far below _Marius the Epicurean_ and _Veranilda_ as
a work of art, and is a concession to popular taste; yet it has a virtue
of its own. Many readers, who would find _Marius the Epicurean_ too
serious, could read _Evander_ with pleasure and profit.
_Evander_ portrays life in Italy when marriage was just coming into
fashion; it is really a satire of the “triangle” of the ordinary man, the
genius, and the woman who does not know her own mind. But it truthfully
represents the beginnings of things most characteristically Roman;
especially the Roman ideals of the home, the community, and finally
law, ideals which sprang from the simple, austere, agricultural life
of the prehistoric Romans. The author is right in representing as real
to these primitive Romans, “nymphs, goat-foot fauns and other immortal
creatures of lake and mountain, vale and forest, who spied upon humanity
with wonder when the world was young.” Among other gods, Pan, under
the Latin name of Faunus, appears to a mortal woman, in _Evander_, as
he had done in Mr. James Stephens’ novel, _The Crock of Gold_; and the
humorous, delicately satiric style of _Evander_ at times suggests Mr.
Stephen’s work. In portraying life “when the world was young,” the author
of _Evander_ seems to ask, “Why should it grow old?” And in portraying
ancient pagan life as a satire on modern life, he does not fail to show
that the ideals and aspirations of man have changed but little.
_Pan and the Twins_, (1922), as its title suggests, makes a similar use
of the god Pan, and is a novel written in a style similar to that of
_Evander_. It differs from Mr. Phillpotts’ other novel of Roman life in
including historical material. Not very much history is brought into
_Pan and the Twins_, but when historical events are mentioned, they are
made vividly significant, and are rightly interpreted. The scene is laid
chiefly on a country estate near Rome, and in the time of Valentinian,
though other Roman Emperors are mentioned. Even more than _Evander_, _Pan
and the Twins_ suggests Mr. James Stephens’ _The Crock of Gold_, but is
a better constructed novel and a finer piece of art. The satire of _Pan
and the Twins_ is delicate but very pointed at times, as when Theodosius
convinces the Christian bishop that it is not his duty to the State to
have Arcadius burned alive. Its humor is equally delicate, but no one
could fail to laugh at the spectacle of one of the Emperor’s favorite
bears, which escapes from its cage at the amphitheatre and becomes very
much worried that “malefactors” are no longer provided as its daily
food.[36]
While its philosophy is at times “sugar-coated,” _Pan and the Twins_
offers a very strong plea for sanity in religion and life, and suggests
that they are one and the same thing. Moreover, in its portrayal of
life, it distinctly seeks for elements of beauty. With a few delicate
touches, the author presents in his heroine a figure of ideal physical
and spiritual beauty, not unlike Gissing’s Veranilda in conception. In
portraying Roman life, coarser elements are kept in the background. One
is made to feel the existence of the horrors of the amphitheatre, the
inconsistencies of the Church, and much of the varied life of Rome.
Roman customs, as, for example, the marriage ceremony, are correctly
described. But in the foreground of the picture appear always scenes
amid the sunlight and pure air of the Roman country landscape. _Pan and
the Twins_ is not a great novel, but one that contains much beautiful
writing. The scenes which it portrays are selected chiefly for their
esthetic appeal, but are real, none the less; not inconsistent with
life, past or present. It is not necessarily either “pagan” or Christian;
but seems to undertake to show that beauty cannot be defined entirely in
terms of morality, Christianity, or paganism. _Pan and the Twins_ ranks
far below such a consummate piece of art as _Marius the Epicurean_, but
successfully presents the esthetic, in terms more readily appreciated by
the popular taste.
IV
IN CONCLUSION
In thus reviewing the principal lines of development which the novel
of Roman life has followed to the present day, it has been found that,
in some cases, these lines lead away ultimately from the true type of
the novel which portrays the life of Rome with realistic effect. Thus
the line of the novel of Roman life as written by scholarly preachers
has been found to branch off, at a certain point, into the line of the
story of religious instruction, a form which was excluded by definition
in Section I of this study. The line of the “popular” novel of Roman
life has always had a tendency to branch off, and deteriorate into
cheap imitations, which attempt to use Roman life to provide artificial
coloring, but do not really portray Roman life at all. The line of the
novel of Roman life written to illustrate “schoolbook” history has in
most cases branched off directly into the line of books for boys—Mr.
Davis’s and Mr. White’s novels being the notable exceptions. While there
has been little direct imitation of the pedantic elements in the work of
German scholars, with their meticulous overemphasis upon detail; German
novelists such as Eckstein have been shown to follow Scott in their
methods of writing historical novels, and to suggest in turn to English
novelists, the thorough way in which subjects taken from Roman life may
be presented by any novelist. Few English novelists have attained notable
success in portraying Roman life in terms which suggest the purity of
style and beauty of thought of Pater’s _Marius the Epicurean_.
The two English novels of Roman life, which have had the most profound
influence upon other English novels of Roman life, are Kingsley’s
_Hypatia_ and Wallace’s _Ben Hur_; and one must look to these two
especially, in any attempt to trace the lines of development which are of
the most supreme importance, in the English novel of Roman life. Since
the publication of these two books, _Quo Vadis_ has had a very important
effect upon the English novel of Roman life, but this book followed Canon
Farrar’s _Darkness and Dawn_, which in turn followed Eckstein’s _Nero_.
The importance of _Hypatia_ and _Ben Hur_, in the development of the
novel of Roman life, is due principally to the clear relation which they
establish between the life of the Roman world and the life of today,
and to their illustration of eternal truths. It must be emphasized that
novels such as these give one a comprehensive idea of life throughout
the Roman world; _Ben Hur_ is most successful in this, but the scenes in
_Hypatia_, though chiefly laid in Alexandria, are symbolic of Roman life
in a larger sphere. A few novels of Roman life have attained, in some
measure, the success of _Hypatia_ and _Ben Hur_, by portraying life in
a number of different parts of the Roman world. But most novelists have
done better work by limiting the scene of their novels to the vicinity
of the City of Rome itself, while not attempting work upon such large
outlines as those upon which the work of Charles Kingsley and Lew Wallace
is based. It has been found that novels whose scene is laid chiefly
outside of and apart from any great city of the Roman world,—especially
those whose scene is in one of the remote provinces of the Roman
Empire,—do not really portray Roman life. This has been found to be the
case with novels whose scene is Roman Britain, since they merely present
very elementary illustrations of school-book history, and do not portray
the life of Rome at all.
In general, the novel of Roman life has been found to be a very elastic
form, and this has necessitated a certain looseness of structure in
the section treating of its development, (Sec. III); but especial care
has been taken not to omit significant elements in this development,
and not to set up arbitrary standards of value. The principal lines of
development, which the novel of Roman life has followed, and which I
have endeavored to trace carefully, have not converged up to the present
time; this study has therefore been devoted to an analysis of important
individual elements, rather than to an attempt to construct from these
elements a complete whole, based upon any abstract theory, and having a
merely superficial unity. All elements of permanent value in the novel
of Roman life have been given an entirely thorough consideration, the
combination of a number of important elements in great novels has been
pointed out; but the possibility of a further combination of these
important elements into an even greater novel of Roman life than any
which has yet been written, is something which the future alone can
realize. While, for the sake of completeness, it has been necessary to
review a number of inferior novels; these have, in most cases, been used
to illustrate definite tendencies in particular lines of development
of the novel of Roman life; or to mark the exact points at which such
particular lines of development pass outside the limits of the field of
the true novel of Roman life.
It is sincerely hoped that this study will serve as a complete and
unbiased review of all the best work that has been done in the novel of
Roman life. This work has been shown to be one requiring scholarship of
the highest order, and offering to the reader products, whose literary
merit compares favorably with that of the best work produced in other
departments of the historical novel. In portraying life in the past
with realistic effect, the novel of Roman life has been shown to be a
direct development of the historical novel, a literary form which has
in all important respects followed the example of Sir Walter Scott, and
which has continued to show evidences of vigor and power to the present
time. The life of ancient Rome has been shown to offer to the English
historical novelist a field rich in material which illustrates the vital
connection between the life of the past and the life of the present.
FOOTNOTES
[1] _Evander_: Mr. Eden Phillpotts, (1919).
[2] e. g., _A Friend of Caesar_: Mr. William Stearns Davis, (1900).
[3] _Princess Salome_: Dr. Burris Jenkins, Lippincott, Phila., (1921).
[4] _Pomponia, the Gospel in Caesar’s Household_: Mrs. J. B. Peploe Webb,
(1867), (Presbyterian Publication Company, o. p.).
[5] Emma Leslie in _Sowing Beside All Waters_, etc., furnishes a clear
example of the most worthless kind of work to be found in the form of the
story of religious instruction.
[6] Scott rarely made a great historical character _the central figure_
of a novel. An exception is seen in the character of Queen Mary in _The
Abbot_.
[7] _Prefatory Letter_ to _Peveril of the Peak_.
[8] Scott’s _Introduction_ to _Ivanhoe_.
[9] Mr. Borden’s list of novels of Roman life by foreign authors is:
_Nero_: Ernst Eckstein, (1889)
_A Thorny Path_: George Ebers, (1892)
_Quo Vadis_: H. Sienkiewicz, (1895)
_The Death of the Gods_: D. Merejkowski, (1901)
[10] _The Progress of Romance_ (1785).
[11] _General Preface_ to the _Waverly Novels_.
[12] For a more complete outline of the tendencies of the romance at this
time, see _The Development of the English Novel_: Wilbur L. Cross.
[13] This motive is used in Mr. E. L. White’s _Andivius Hedulio_, and in
Baring-Gould’s _Perpetua_; in each of these novels the hero makes his
escape through the drain.
[14] Thomas Love Peacock said _The Epicurean_ was “not faithful to
ancient manners, and ignorant of Epicureanism.”
[15] The date 1827 is given in the publisher’s note to the 1901 edition,
as the date when _Salathiel_ was first published. This is evidently
a mistake on the part of the publishers (Messrs. Funk and Wagnalls),
since 1829 is given as the original date of publication by historians
of the novel (_e. g._, George Saintsbury in _The English Novel_), and
in biographical accounts of Croly (_e. g._, _The Dictionary of National
Biography_, etc.).
[16] Josephus is the direct source usually, and always the ultimate
source of all novels which take the siege of Jerusalem for their theme.
_cf._ Whyte-Melville’s _The Gladiators_.
[17] Croly’s classical scholarship is especially well displayed in his
_Catiline_, which tells in the form of a verse drama the story of the
famous conspiracy against the Roman republic.
[18] Since Bulwer wrote for many years under this name, before he became
the Earl of Lytton, it is quite permissable to use the shorter form of
his name.
[19] The scene of _Valerius_, of course, opens in Britain, but nothing of
importance to the story happens there. This is doubtless a mere device
to arouse the interest of English readers in the hero by hinting at the
connection of “Roman” Britain with Rome.
[20] The date 1840, given in some guides to historical fiction, has been
found to be incorrect.
[21] _Hypatia_ was begun as a serial in Fraser’s Magazine in 1851.