This is Dahn’s greatest novel, and portrays with fine realistic effect
the struggle between the Ostrogoths and Belisarius. In this, and in its
handling of the character of Totila, it suggests the great novel of
George Gissing, _Veranilda_ (1904). Another prominent character besides
Totila, in Dahn’s novel, is Cassiodorus. The scene in part is laid at
Ravenna, and the decay and final collapse of the Gothic kingdom are well
illustrated. In 1882 Dahn began a series of short novels, illustrating,
he says, the spread of Roman civilization, which went hand in hand with
the decline of Roman power over the migrating German tribes. The first
of these novels is _Felicitas_ (1882), which describes the capture of
the distinctly Roman town of Claudium Juvavum (now Salzburg), by the
Germans. The author gained his material when he was employed at Salzburg,
in the archives, library, and museum of Roman antiquities. He added to
his fund of thorough information by explorations in the vicinity of the
town, finding many Roman things of interest. _Felicitas_ well illustrates
the thoroughness of research and the acute scientific spirit, which the
Germans in a measure gave to the novel of Roman life. It also tells a
story of deep human interest. In 1894 Dahn published _A Captive of the
Roman Eagles_, a novel which tells the story of Bissula, and portrays the
struggle between the Romans and the Alemanni near Lake Constance. This
novel is also a model of thoroughness and historical accuracy. Dahn’s
last novel, which appeared shortly after, was call _The Scarlet Banner_
(1864), and paints with a like accuracy the overthrow of the Vandal king,
Gelimer, by Belisarius.
The historical novels of George Ebers, and the profound classical
scholarship he displayed in some of them, are well known everywhere.
While his important series of historical novels, starting with _An
Egyptian Princess_ (1879), is designed principally to follow the course
of history in Egypt, some of its numbers illustrate Roman life and
Roman history. In 1881 appeared _The Emperor_, which presents a fine
picture of life in the time of Hadrian. While the scene is laid mainly
in Egypt, life in Alexandria is shown as presenting a close parallel to
that of Rome. The sternness of Roman dominion in Egypt and the growth
of Christianity in the Empire are brought home to the reader with many
minute touches which show the author’s acuteness. The richly pictorial
style is well suited to the description of splendid scenes, and the
manners of private life are portrayed with accuracy of detail. Ebers
also excels in his analysis of character. The Emperor Hadrian, who
appears first as a benevolent philosopher, soon shows that he is capable
of becoming a cruel tyrant. The character of Hadrian’s wife Sabina
is also carefully analyzed, while his favorite, the beautiful youth
Antinous, plays a prominent part in the story. It is likely that this
gave a suggestion to Professor Hausroth (pseud. George Taylor), who made
Antinous the hero of his novel of that name, which appeared in the same
year as _The Emperor_.
In 1885 Ebers published _Serapis_, which portrays life in Alexandria in
the time of Theodosius, and reveals much of Roman customs. The struggle
between Christians and pagans is represented as culminating in the
destruction of the temple of Serapis, and the demolition of the gigantic
image of the god. This was a result of the edict abolishing the worship
of idols. The dramatic scene in which the temple of Serapis is defended
by a multitude of pagans, who have stored arms there, has appeared many
years later in the novel of Roman life of the American author, T. Everett
Harré, called _Behold the Woman_ (1916). Another interesting point is
that _Serapis_ contains a splendid scene describing a chariot race,
in which a Christian defeats a pagan, after the occurrence of a fatal
accident. This scene may have been suggested to Ebers by the famous scene
in _Ben Hur_ (1880); while on the other hand it is likely that General
Wallace, the American author of _Ben Hur_, owes some of his exactness in
matters of scholarship to the example of such German scholars as George
Ebers.
Another of Ebers’ novels which portrayed much of Roman life was _Per
Aspera_ (_A Thorny Path_) (1892). While the scene is again Alexandria,
_Per Aspera_, like _The Emperor_, shows that city at the time of the
visit paid to it by the Roman Emperor. In _Per Aspera_ the Emperor is
Bassianus, whose nickname, “Caracalla,” was derived from his custom of
wearing a hood (caracalla). The portrait of Caracalla is well done,
showing his physical and mental suffering, his pride, his dreams and his
increasing insanity. The Christians are portrayed in a natural light,
while pagan customs are well explained, and the splendor, display and
wealth of Alexandria dazzle the imagination. The labyrinth motive appears
in the mystery of the secret passages of the temple of Serapis. Scenes
representing gladiators in the arena are characteristically Roman, while
the slaughter of the youths in the parade-ground shows the cruelty of
Rome and the power of her Emperor. Yet Ebers, with his usual insight into
human character, shows that the Emperor, who could cruelly punish those
who had wittily derided him, found his power of little ultimate value to
him. In speaking of the Emperor’s poor health, mention is made of the
great Roman physician, Galen, who plays an important part in Mr. E. L.
White’s _Andivius Hedulio_ (1921).
The next of Ebers’ novels to be considered is _Cleopatra_ (1894). While
it contains many characteristic touches, which show Ebers’ knowledge of
life in what was soon to become permanently a Roman province, _Cleopatra_
is not so much a portrayal of Roman life as a sympathetic interpretation
of the later history of Egypt’s great queen. Ebers, as usual, is
absolutely true to history, but endeavors to present Cleopatra as a human
being, subject to strong emotions, rather than as an historical figure.
Even Antony appears not so much in the character of a Roman general, as
in that of a strong man who influences the character of Cleopatra. The
chief value of Ebers’ _Cleopatra_ lies in the fact that Ebers has come
much nearer to presenting the real character of Cleopatra than has any
other novelist. Sir Rider Haggard’s _Cleopatra_ has been mentioned as a
poor piece of work, while in Mr. W. S. Davis’s excellent novel, _A Friend
of Caesar_ (1900), Cleopatra is merely represented as a young girl.
A beautiful little novel which Ebers calls _A Question; the Idyll of a
Picture by His Friend Alma Tadema_ (1881), is written in a style quite
different from that of his other novels. Its scene is Sicily, near Aetna,
at a “time when the entire earth and air were peopled with gods, nymphs
and satyrs.”[25] It is mentioned here because in its scene, its theme,
and the simplicity and beauty of its style, there is a strong suggestion
of the recently published novel of Mr. Eden Phillpotts, _Evander_ (1919),
the scene of which is prehistoric Italy. _Evander_ gives one an idea of
the first faint beginnings of Roman life in a semi-mythological setting
similar to that of _A Question_.
The novels of Ernst Eckstein were almost as widely read in England and
America as those of Ebers. Some of them equal or even surpass Ebers’
best work. _Quintus Claudius_ (1881), gives a splendid portrayal of
life in Rome under Domitian. The author has presented in a single story
practically the whole life of Rome, and has described the most noted
characters of the time. “The life and manners of all classes at this
period were never painted with a bolder pencil than by Eckstein in this
masterly romance, which displays as much scholarship as invention.”[26]
In this review a better expression than “invention” would be “a gifted
imagination and a deep insight into human nature.” In _Quintus Claudius_,
the character of Domitia is interpreted in an entirely different way
from that in which Baring-Gould interpreted it in _Domitia_ (1898);
but this does not mean that either author was untrue to history, since
little is known of her, save that she and her Emperor-husband were at
variance. In Eckstein’s novel the intrigues of Domitia really furnish
the central theme, rather than the affairs of the imaginary Quintus
Claudius, who spurns her and loves Cornelia. Quintus and Cornelia are
very finely characterized, the former being by no means perfect, and
subject to the vices of the time, although he later becomes a Christian.
Among historical characters the poet Martial is portrayed as the court
parasite that he was. The conspiracy against Domitian is described with
historical accuracy and fine realistic effect. The book ends with the
murder of Domitian and the accession of Trajan. Nerva is mentioned but
not as an emperor.
In _Prusias_ (1882), Eckstein rises to the greatness of his theme. The
story is that of the revolt, in which Roman slaves, under the leadership
of Spartacus, rose against Roman oppression. The character of Spartacus,
in every respect true to history, is made to represent democracy and
freedom. Coming, as it did, shortly after the Civil War had settled
the slavery question in America, _Prusias_ had a wide reading here.
To supplement the fine character of Spartacus, Prusias, the technical
hero of the story, is also represented as magnanimous and farsighted,
well-fitted to aid the great general of the slaves in inspiring them to
fight for freedom. By a stroke of genius, Prusias, who first appears in
the disguise of a Chaldean magician, is conceived to be the brother and
agent of Mithradates, King of Pontus. Rome’s two most powerful enemies
are thus allied against her. While Prusias does much of the planning of
the conspiracy, he does not overshadow the general of the slaves. The
truly great historical character, Spartacus, is presented with a power
not since equaled in fiction, and only approached by the Rev. A. J.
Church in his excellent book for boys, _Two Thousand Years Ago_ (1885),
written shortly afterward. _Prusias_ also portrays life in the city of
Rome under the republic with accurate detail.
In _The Chaldean Magician_ (1886), Eckstein portrays life at Rome under
Diocletian. The varied phases of the many-sided life at Rome are brought
into the picture in many ways, and Diocletian’s persecution of the
Christians is given its due place. But as the title implies, the author
gives especial attention to the magic arts which were practiced by
Chaldean astrologers at Rome. The character of the “Chaldean Magician”
had been in Eckstein’s mind when he was writing _Prusias_, and he took
the opportunity of giving it greater prominence in his novel named
for such a character. In fact, from the date of this novel, the figure
of the Chaldean astrologer supplants that of the priest who deals in
“Egyptian magic,” in those novels which deal with magic imported from
foreign lands to Rome. It became the fashion for wealthy Romans to keep a
Chaldean astrologer in their household, and such a character appears in
Baring-Gould’s _Domitia_, and in Mr. W. S. Davis’s _A Friend of Caesar_.
Eckstein’s greatest novel of Roman life was _Nero_ (1889). It was
impossible for him to surpass the portrayal of the general life of Rome,
which he had already made in his earlier novels; but in dealing with
life in the time of Nero, he found the greatest opportunity to display
his talents. In his faithfulness to the life and history of the time he
prepared the way for the two other authors who have written great novels
dealing with Nero’s time,—Canon Farrar in _Darkness and Dawn_ (1892),
and H. Sienkiewicz in _Quo Vadis_ (1895). He was also closely followed
by Hugh Westbury in _Acte_ (1890), and by two writers of books for boys,
the Rev. A. J. Church in _The Burning of Rome_ (1892), and G. A. Henty in
_Beric, the Briton_ (1892). Eckstein’s keenness in portraying the court
intrigues of Agrippina, Seneca, and Tigellinus, shows his understanding
of human nature. But his greatest triumph is in the analysis of the
character of Nero. The early boyhood of Nero, and his ingenuous love for
Acte, who is kidnapped and kept hidden by the agents of Agrippina, are
revealed with genuine sympathy. And Nero’s later development is traced
step by step, with a fairness that makes him appear the victim not only
of his own weakness, but of circumstance. In his revelation of character,
as shown in his handling of the character of Nero or of Spartacus,
Eckstein surpasses even the notable work of George Ebers.
REVIEW OF THE INFLUENCE OF GERMAN SCHOLARS AND AUTHORS
It is not intended to overemphasize the importance of the influence of
German scholars and authors upon the English novel of Roman life. The
influence of work such as that of Becker upon the English novel of Roman
life may be described as follows: (1) It stimulated many English scholars
to study the life of ancient Rome with a similar insistence upon accuracy
in regard to the most minute details of history and archæology; in one
or two instances an attempted imitation of work like Becker’s is seen in
the work of pedantic authors of the novel of Roman life. (2) It served
as one of the influences, which led popular writers of the novel of
Roman life to realize the need for at least some accurate study of the
history and life of Rome. The influence of German novelists such as Ebers
and Eckstein, upon the English novel of Roman life, is seen in the more
thorough scholarship which such English novels display,—especially after
the publication of Eckstein’s _Nero_, which is the first of a series of
important novels portraying life in Nero’s time. This series, as has
been said, includes not only Farrar’s great novel, _Darkness and Dawn_,
and other English fictions, but also the fine work of the Polish author,
Sienkiewicz, in _Quo Vadis_ (1895). In speaking of the thoroughness of
German scholars, it might be said that in some instances German novelists
such as Ebers, seem occasionally to have made the mistake of assuming
that a mass of particulars heaped together can be shaped into the aspect
of a general truth. In pursuing the details of a picture of Roman life,
they have lost sight of its larger lines sometimes; but, on the whole,
very rarely. We must not forget that there were English scholars, who
played their part in impressing upon historical novelists the necessity
for accuracy. But the German authors of novels of Roman life, produced so
many good novels of this kind in so short a time, that their influence is
seen in the work of English novelists, both in regard to the subjects
which English writers have chosen, and in the methods of presenting such
subjects taken from Roman life.
D. TWO PEDANTIC NOVELS OF ROMAN LIFE
Few novelists have made the mistake of attempting to include in a novel
such work as appears in Becker’s _Gallus_. But in one or two instances,
novelists have tried to crowd their pages with antiquarian knowledge,
putting into their narratives matters which Becker would have placed in
his Excursus. This pedantic display of knowledge is in itself a defect,
and we shall consider separately two novelists who proved to be guilty of
it. Miles Gerald Keon, British Colonial Secretary to Bermuda, wrote, in
1866, a novel called _Dion and the Sibyls_. This was published in London.
In spite of its pedanticism, it contains some interesting similarities to
the much greater work of General Lew Wallace in _Ben Hur_ (1880). Like
_Ben Hur_ it deals with the time of Christ, and a further similarity is
seen in the fact that the author does not make the mistake of portraying
Christ as one of the central figures, and does not lay much of the
scene in Jerusalem. Keon’s hero, Dion, also, like Ben Hur, is not too
closely identified with Christianity, though he is invited to expound its
doctrines before the Emperor. Scenes in Judea in _Dion and the Sibyls_
include the banquet at which John the Baptist is beheaded, and a pedantic
display of knowledge is made in repeating things told of Herod Agrippa,
Herodias, Berenice, and the high priest Caiphas. This display of pedantic
knowledge is further seen in the part of the narrative which tells of
Dion’s meeting with Dionysius the Areopagite, who becomes St. Denis, and
brings Christianity to Gaul. But most of the scene of Keon’s novel is
laid in Rome, and in this part of the story the characters of Tiberius,
his brutal eunuch Lygdus, and the wily Sejanus, are portrayed in such a
way as to show the author’s indefatigable search for details. The only
really good scene in the novel is that in which the young Paulus, of the
Æmelian family, subdues the famous “Sejan horse” in the amphitheatre. The
story of this vicious horse became a tradition, so that Mr. E. L. White
would have done well to give the name “Sejanus” to a similar animal in
_Andivius Hedulio_ (1921), a novel of the time of Commodus; (instead he
turns the name into Selinus). In Keon’s novel Paulus was directed how to
overcome the horse by the sibyl of Cumæ, and as the title suggests, the
magic spells of such witches appear prominently in the story; the use of
a “love-philtre” suggests _The Last Days of Pompeii_ (1834). The mention
of a famous acrostic, whose initial letters spell the Greek word for
fish, remind one of the use made of this symbol of the early Christians,
which appears in later novels of Roman life, notably in _Darkness and
Dawn_ (1892), and _Quo Vadis_. But _Dion and the Sibyls_ is mentioned at
this point as an example of pedanticism in the novel of Roman life.
Another example of pedanticism in the novel of Roman life is seen in
_The Money God; or The Empire and the Papacy_ (1873). It is needless to
mention the various matters of detail which the author, M. A. Quinton,
mentions in order to display his pedantic knowledge; but it is sufficient
to say that he is very learned indeed, and has read extensively in the
works of the Latin authors.[27] In some instances he is very inaccurate
in the deductions which he makes from his reading, and there are some
notable mistakes in topography. The one redeeming feature of the novel
is its remarkable handling of a chariot-race scene; the details of this
scene are so similar to the details of a scene in _Ben Hur_ (1880), that
it seems possible that Lew Wallace may have known of Quinton’s work.
While the scene of the _Money God_ is partly laid in Rome, it does not
portray Roman life, but rather presents certain details of Roman life in
an arbitrary manner, and in confused order. A Roman marriage ceremony is
described, and the methods of Roman money-lenders are explained in this
arbitrary way. Quinton also wrote _Aurelia: or the Jews of Capena Gate_,
a few years before _The Money God_, but I have been unable to obtain this
book. In _Dion and the Sibyls_, and in _The Money God_ we have two very
pedantic novels, which, nevertheless, mention some of the things which
are mentioned in _Ben Hur_. But before considering _Ben Hur_ itself, let
us retrace our steps to the year 1843, and from that time follow the
course of the popular melodramatic novel of Roman life. This kind of
novel represents the class in which _Ben Hur_ more properly belongs.
E. NOVELS WRITTEN BY SO-CALLED “POPULAR” NOVELISTS, WHO RELY ON THE
MELODRAMATIC FOR THEIR APPEAL; THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE “POPULAR” NOVEL OF
ROMAN LIFE FROM 1843 TO THE PRESENT DAY
As has been said, the growing insistence upon thoroughness of
scholarship, which is seen in the work of both German and English
scholars, resulted not only in a somewhat direct imitation of the
methods which appear in Becker’s _Gallus_ (1838), by a few pedantic
novelists; but more especially in an attempted exhibition of scholarship
by “popular” novelists, who wrote novels of Roman life after this date.
These “popular” novelists were men who either turned out novels by
the score, or produced a few novels of the made-to-order variety; who
sought for material with the idea of obtaining “grist for the mill,”
rather than of writing a masterpiece. Such novelists have in most cases
relied for their appeal upon the use of melodramatic material; but
even these “popular” novelists soon came to realize the necessity of
sound scholarship to any author who intends to attempt a novel of Roman
life. In the class of “popular” novelists, we shall also include those
novelists whose principal desire seems to have been to tell a “rattling
good story” or to present a series of gorgeous pictures from the life of
the past,—though in some cases a more serious purpose seems to underlie
work of this description. We shall begin our review of the “popular,”
melodramatic novel of Roman life with the novel of Ellen Pickering,
which appeared in 1843; but the “gorgeous romance,” which is a direct
development of the “popular” novel, did not reach its height until
considerably later. After 1843 all true novels of Roman life make at
least some pretense of thorough scholarship.
Ellen Pickering, an American authoress, who turned out a score of
“popular” novels, wrote as one of the last of them, _Julia of Baiae;
or the Days of Nero_ (1843). She clearly shows her realization both of
the necessity for thorough scholarship in matters of history, and of
her own shortcomings in such matters. This is plain from the diffidence
of her preface to the novel, and from the fact that it was published
anonymously. The story of the death of Burrus, and the appearance of
Vespasian in the Praetorian guards, are matters introduced not in
strictly historical order. But otherwise the book has no great faults.
It is, however, not even intended as a great novel, and is only cited
here in illustration of the fact that a reasonable display of scholarship
was coming to be demanded even of popular novelists. _Julia of Baiae_
appeared two years after the last of the Rev. Ware’s novels (_Julian_,
1841), and was dedicated to the Rev. Fred. J. Goodwin, M. A., Rector of
St. George’s Church, Flushing, N. Y. Yet, while it contains a story of
the martyrs, it is not to be considered a story of religious instruction,
but as an attempt at a popular novel with a rather feeble essay at
classical scholarship.
Wilkie Collins, who wrote _Antonina_ in 1850, is a curious example of a
novelist possessed of rather high talents, yet turning out novels which
were made to the order of the popular taste, and did not have the stamp
of permanence. Collins belongs to the school of Dickens rather than
that of Scott; and he develops the melodramatic side of Dickens, while
dispensing with Dickens’ humor. In fact, in _Antonina_, Collins goes
back somewhat toward the style of the Gothic romancers, who preceded
Scott. Bleak mountainsides, dark caverns and rushing torrents suggest the
“Gothic” terror. The labyrinth motive appears as one of the principal
motives of the story, in that its chief character, a priest of Serapis,
spends his life in digging a secret passage through the walls of Rome,
that he may thwart the Christians by letting in the pagan invaders. This
motive is also used in a description of the secret passages under the
temple of Serapis. Another “Gothic” element is shown in the ghastly scene
at the banquet where guests and host resolve to die before leaving their
couches. While the story describes the siege and sack of Rome by the
Goths in 410 A. D., the invaders are made to appear less like the real
Goths than like the characters of the “Gothic” romancers. In fact, the
few historical characters of _Antonina_ are not very well done, and its
history is not very good. But in writing this, his first novel, Collins
realized that he must be fairly accurate in matters of history,—and in
his descriptions of Roman life in _Antonina_ he sometimes achieves fine
realistic effect.