ANCIENT ROME IN
THE ENGLISH NOVEL
A STUDY IN ENGLISH HISTORICAL
FICTION
A THESIS
PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE
OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
RANDOLPH FARIES, 2d
PHILADELPHIA
1923
LYON & ARMOR, Printers
124 North 7th Street
Philadelphia
Copyright, 1923,
by
Randolph Faries, 2d,
Philadelphia, Pa.
PREFACE
For some time I have felt the need for a satisfactory definition of the
“classic” novel,—a definition which should include novels of value, and
exclude innumerable works of fiction of little or no value. The want of
such a definition was evident not only from the vagueness with which
literary historians have referred to the “classic” novel, but also from
the fact that other students seemed to consider as such any work of
fiction using Greek and Roman names. For a definite selection of theme, I
am indebted to Dr. John Cooper Mendenhall, of the Department of English
of the University of Pennsylvania, whose generous advice I wish to
acknowledge most gratefully, and whose fine sense for literary form has
been an inspiration to me in my work. I wish to express my most sincere
appreciation for many helpful suggestions, to other members of the
Department of English, whose lectures have provided, I feel, a background
for this study. I have also to thank Dr. Eugene Stock McCartney, of the
University of Michigan, for freely providing me with a list of titles,
which has materially aided me in making complete my list of all works of
fiction dealing with ancient Rome.
RANDOLPH FARIES, 2D.
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, MAY, 1923.
CONTENTS
PAGE
I. DEFINITION OF THE FIELD 7
A. Important Novels of Roman Life 14
II. GENESIS OF THE NOVEL OF ROMAN LIFE 17
A. The First True Novel of Roman Life 23
B. The Influence of “Vathek” on the Novel of Roman Life 24
C. The Influence of the “Byronic Romance” on the Novel of
Roman Life 25
D. The Novel of Roman Life in a Fully Developed Form 28
III. PRINCIPAL LINES OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE NOVEL OF ROMAN LIFE
FROM 1834 TO THE PRESENT DAY 33
A. Novels of Roman Life which Show Evidence of the
Scholarship of Great Preachers 34
B. Thoroughness in Scholarship, Resulting in Part
from the Influence of Such German Scholars as
Becker—Becker’s “Gallus” 62
C. German Followers of Scott—The German Novel of Roman
Life; Its Influence on the English Novel 65
D. Two Pedantic Novels of Roman Life 73
E. Novels Written by So-called “Popular” Novelists Who
Rely on the Melodramatic for Their Appeal; the
Development of the “Popular” Novel of Roman Life
from 1843 to the Present Day 75
F. Influence of French Novels of Roman Life 90
G. Novels Written by Teachers of Roman History or of
the Classics 96
H. Novels Written by Authors Who Have Portrayed Roman
Life from an Esthetic Viewpoint 108
IV. IN CONCLUSION 121
BIBLIOGRAPHY 124
I
DEFINITION OF THE FIELD
It is my purpose in this study to show the use which the English
historical novel has made of the rich and abundant material furnished
by the life of ancient Rome. In doing this I shall trace the genesis of
the novel of Roman life and its development, with special emphasis upon
elements of permanent value. As an aid to a clear perception of this
latter point, I shall give a carefully selected list of the best novels
of Roman life, pointing out their claims to greatness. At the end of my
study will be found a complete list of all books which make any pretense
of presenting Roman life in the form of a novel.
Since ancient Rome is often associated with ancient Greece in classical
study, the question may arise as to why novels dealing with life in
ancient Greece are excluded from consideration here. The answer is that
comparatively few such novels have been written. The author who writes
of ancient Rome has at his disposal abundant materials from which he may
construct a novel; he who writes of the life of ancient Greece finds his
sources somewhat more limited. Another consideration which has influenced
authors is that modern life is more immediately related to the life of
ancient Rome than to that of ancient Greece. The classic period of Greek
history was of comparatively short duration, and, in one sense, the life
of ancient Greece lost its identity even before it was absorbed by the
life of the Roman empire; while the life of ancient Rome made itself felt
in the most remote parts of the widely extended Roman world. We must give
full recognition to ancient Greece for her contribution to the world’s
culture, yet admit that her influence upon the world today has been
overshadowed by the power of Rome. The story of Rome’s power, rather than
that of the culture of Greece, has found expression in the modern novel.
A novelist who writes of ancient Rome may deal with any period of
Rome’s history, from the traditional date of the founding of the city
to the time at which Rome ceased to be the head of the western Empire.
A convenient division is made when we speak of (1) Rome before the
Empire, (2) Rome under the Empire. Pre-imperial Rome has furnished the
inspiration for comparatively few novels. Since, however, some of these
are of great merit, it will be well to examine certain portions of Rome’s
early history with which they are connected. One excellent novel[1]
deals with prehistoric Italy and the first faint beginnings of Roman
things. Immediately following the legendary period of her existence,
Rome was chiefly concerned with struggles with her Italian neighbors;
these struggles have inspired no great novel in English, though several
good books for boys have been written about them. The desperate conflict
between Rome and Carthage offers material for a novel of strong appeal.
But the stirring times of the later Republic present the best field for
the novel of pre-Imperial Rome.[2] The period of the Empire, however,
when Rome was undisputed mistress of the world, is the time which has
appealed to most of the novelists who write of ancient Rome.
The number of novels or of books masquerading as novels, which make some
use of Roman life as a background, is large; many of these purport to be
what they are not. So, if one reviews even a small portion of the entire
number, it becomes obvious that many, if not most of them, are neither
literature nor anything else of value. There is one class of novels,
whose purpose is not primarily to represent life in ancient Rome, but to
make other work attractive by the addition of artificial coloring. The
use of such superficial aid in a novel nearly always reveals the absence
of any serious purpose. This lack of seriousness is well illustrated
by the work of Sir Rider Haggard in such pseudo-historical novels as
_Cleopatra_, and _Pearl Maiden_. A novel which seems to come a little
closer to being truly “historical,” is _Unto Caesar_, by the Baroness
Orczy; but, on closer examination, this book is found to belong to the
“artificial” class we are discussing. It makes use of a few striking
facts in the life of Caligula; but the deep significance of these
facts and of its quotations from the Bible, is entirely lost, owing to
the light and cheap sentimentality which pervades the whole volume. A
further illustration of pseudo-sanctity is seen in the recently published
novel of Dr. Burris Jenkins, _Princess Salome_.[3] When fantastic and
improbable stories are woven around historical characters in a novel; or
when facts of deep historical significance are made to aid the novelist
in a frivolous pretense to serious work; the result is sure to be a
work of small merit. Novels in which a supposed setting of Roman life
merely conceals inferior work and makes it appear attractive, will not be
considered in this study.
There is a second class of books whose chief purpose is not portrayal of
life in ancient Rome, but rather a kind of religious propaganda. They
set forth in the form of fiction, some story inspired by the records of
the New Testament, or taken from the chronicles of Church history. Not
all of these books are to be called novels, but they have been produced
in large numbers, and have a significant relation to the kind of novel
we are considering. Many stories of the early Christians, particularly
of martyrs in the arena, may be told in such a way as to portray the
life of Rome very inadequately. They often ignore the pagan point of
view, and in most cases deliberately misrepresent it. In such a book as
Cardinal Wiseman’s _Fabiola_, (1855), the Emperor and his soldiers are
mere abstract representatives of power and evil; while the Christians
artificially personify virtue and martyrdom. The work of Mrs. J. B.
Peploe Webb is well represented by _Pomponia_,[4] a moral story of
supposed religious experience. Many such books have been written since
1850, and published by religious publication societies. They usually
present merely a stereotyped analysis of the character of some Christian
martyr, while a smattering of history is used to blindfold, rather than
to enlighten the reader. A novel which is truly to portray the life of
ancient Rome may well include within its scope the life of the early
Christians, but we shall not consider those books which deliberately
present either Christians or pagans in a false light.[5]
Of special interest to the teacher of history are juvenile stories of
Roman history, written for boys in fiction form, since many of these
truly portray a part of the life of ancient Rome. It must be observed,
however, that books for boys are subject to some limitations not placed
upon novels written for their elders. Such well-known authors of books
for boys as the Rev. Alfred J. Church and G. A. Henty have recognized
that they must present a hero who will appeal especially to boys, and
that this hero must have adventures illustrating schoolbook history.
In Church’s book _Two Thousand Years Ago_, Spartacus is represented as
a truly noble figure, while in _The Young Carthaginian_, Henty makes
Hannibal the real hero. But the technical hero in each of these books is
an idealized youth, who rushes from one exciting adventure to another.
Moreover, both Church and Henty tried to make the study of history
instructive, by introducing into their fictions for boys favorite
incidents of the history books. The result was that their novels for boys
became too heavy with history. The general criticism may also be made
of such books for boys, that they make too much use of the life of the
soldier and the gladiator, to the exclusion of other elements in Roman
life. There is, however, a fairly accurate portrayal of Roman life, from
a teacher’s point of view, in some books for boys; such books are not to
be confused with religious stories of the Sunday-school type, and have a
definite connection with our subject.
After excluding novels which use Roman life merely to make other work
attractive, or as an artificial background for religious instruction,
we find that there still remain a considerable number which attempt to
portray Roman life, but are unsuccessful. The novelist may fall short
of his aim through lack of scholarship, through want of appreciation of
the essential worth of his subject, or through sheer inability to appeal
to his readers directly. There may be found on the shelves of public
libraries, many novels, in which the characters have Roman names and are
supposed to live in ancient Rome; but many of these novels do not really
portray the life of Rome at all. Some of them feebly essay to imitate
books of established reputation, and prove to be very poor imitations.
The present study will be chiefly concerned with those novels which make
a serious portrayal of the life of ancient Rome for its own intrinsic
interest.
We are dealing then with that form of the historical novel which portrays
the life of ancient Rome. The historical novel may be defined as that
form of the novel which makes use of historical characters and events
as an integral part of the story. Ample support may be found for this
definition in the always candid words of Sir Walter Scott, the first
really great English historical novelist, in his introductions to the
_Waverly Novels_. In the _Prefatory Letter_ to _Peveril of the Peak_, he
has the anonymous “Author of Waverly” say, “A poor fellow, like myself,
weary with ransacking his own barren and bounded imagination, looks out
for some general subject in the huge and boundless field of history,
which holds forth examples of every kind,—lights on some personage, or
some combination of circumstances, or some striking trait of manners,
which he thinks may be advantageously used as the basis of a fictitious
narrative, ... invests it with such shades of character as will best
contrast with each other—and thinks, perhaps, he has done some service
to the public if he can present to them a lively fictitious picture,
for which the original anecdote or circumstance which he made free to
press into his services, only furnishes a slight sketch.” Again, in the
introduction to _The Abbot_, Scott says, “I naturally paid attention
to such principles of composition, as I conceived were best suited to
the historical novel;” and this when he has just made it clear that the
choice of a famous historical character[6] as subject is the readiest,
though the most difficult, way to instant success. In a note to the
introduction to _The Abbot_, he says, “There occur in every country
some peculiar historical characters, which are, like a spell or charm,
sovereign to excite curiosity and attract attention, since every one in
the slightest degree interested in the land which they belong to, has
heard much of them, and longs to hear more.” The importance of a theme
based on famous historical events, to an historical novel, is attested by
Scott in his introduction to _Red Gauntlet_. Here he says, “The Jacobite
enthusiasm of the eighteenth century, particularly during the rebellion
of 1745, afforded a theme, perhaps the finest that could be selected
for fictitious composition, founded upon real or probable incident.”
In the introduction to _Woodstock_, Scott says, “Nothing, indeed, is
more certain, than that incidents that are real, preserve an infinite
advantage in works of this nature (historical novels) over such as are
fictitious.” Not every novel which tells a story of the past is a true
historical novel; it must make some vital use of historical characters
and events if it is to be considered truly historical.
But the function of the historical novel is not to teach history as
it is taught by the schoolbook. It is rather to aid the reader to a
sympathetic appreciation of history in the broader sense,—the history
that reveals the life of the past with all its significant relations to
the life of the present. As Scott explains, “The love of knowledge wants
but a beginning—the least spark will give fire when the train is properly
prepared; and having been interested in fictitious adventures ascribed to
an historical period and characters, the reader begins next to be anxious
to learn what the facts really were, and how far the novelist has justly
represented them.”[7] Moreover the aim of the best historical novels is
not to _escape_ the present and carry the reader back to the past, but to
bring the present and the past face to face,—in short, to portray life
as it exists, and always has existed. “The passions, the sources from
which (sentiments and manners) must spring in all their modifications,
are generally the same in all ranks and conditions, all countries and
ages; and it follows as a matter of course, that the opinions, habits
of thinking, and actions, however influenced by the peculiar state of
society, must still, on the whole, bear a strong resemblance to each
other.”[8] An historical novel is great,—when it _is_ great,—because,
in its study of the life of the past, it displays the same qualities
that give value to the life of today. The true test of greatness in an
historical novel may be defined at once, as the test of its success in
portraying the past with realistic effect.
With this test in mind, I have reviewed all novels of Roman life which
a most thorough search has brought to light, asking the question: What
degree of success do they attain in portraying the life of Rome with
realistic effect? This was done in order to obtain from a multitude of
novels of different degrees of merit, a standard representing the best
and most significant work that has been done in the novel of Roman life.
Judged according to this standard, the best and most representative
novels of Roman life are those which appear in the following list. I
have made this list with the intention of basing upon it my deductions
concerning the achievement of English and American authors in the field
of the novel of Roman life.
A. IMPORTANT NOVELS OF ROMAN LIFE
_Valerius, a Roman Story_: John G. Lockhart, (1821)
_The Epicurean_: Thomas Moore, (1827)
_Sathaliel, the Immortal_: George Croly, (1829)
_The Last Days of Pompeii_: Sir E. G. Bulwer-Lytton, (1834)
_Zenobia_: William Ware, (1836)
_Attila_: G. P. R. James, (1837)
_Probus_—later called _Aurelian_: William Ware, (1838)
_Julian, Scenes in Judea_: William Ware, (1841)
_Antonina_: Wilkie Collins, (1850)
_Hypatia_: Charles Kingsley, (1853)
_The Roman Traitor_: Henry Herbert, (1853)
_Callista_: John Henry Newman, (1855)
_The Gladiators_: G. J. Whyte-Melville, (1863)
_Ben Hur_: Gen. Lew Wallace, (1880)
_Marius the Epicurean_: Walter Pater, (1885)
_Darkness and Dawn_: Archdeacon Frederic William Farrar, (1892)
_Gathering Clouds_: Archdeacon Frederic William Farrar, (1895)
_The Sign of the Cross_: Wilson Barrett, (1897)
_Perpetua_: Rev. S. Baring-Gould, (1897)
_Domitia_: Rev. S. Baring-Gould, (1898)
_A Friend of Caesar_: William Stearns Davis, (1900)
_Vergilius, a Tale of the Coming of Christ_: Irving Bacheller, (1904)
_Psyche_: Walter S. Cramp, (1905)
_Veranilda_: George Gissing, (1904)
_An Heir to Empire_: Walter S. Cramp, (1913)
_Behold the Woman_: T. Everett Harré, (1916)
_The Unwilling Vestal_: Edward Lucas White, (1918)
_Evander_: Eden Philpotts, (1919)
_Andivius Hedulio_: Edward Lucas White, (1921)
_Pan and the Twins_: Eden Philpotts, (1922)
The above list represents my choice, based upon reasons indicated, of
the most important novels of Roman life. The process of selection may be
carried still further, however; and, using the same standard as before, I
have chosen from this list a dozen novels which stand out above the rest,
and are to be considered the absolute best among novels of Roman life.
This more select list is as follows:
1. _The Last Days of Pompeii_: Bulwer, (1834)
2. _Hypatia_: Charles Kingsley, (1853)
3. _The Gladiators_: G. J. Whyte-Melville, (1863)
4. _Ben Hur_: Lew Wallace, (1880)
5. _Marius, the Epicurean_: Walter Pater, (1885)
6. _Darkness and Dawn_: F. W. Farrar, (1892)
7. _Domitia_: S. Baring-Gould, (1898)
8. _A Friend of Caesar_: William Stearns Davis, (1900)
9. _Vergilius, a Tale of the Coming of Christ_: Irving Bacheller, (1904)
10. _Veranilda_: George Gissing, (1904)
11. _Andivius Hedulio_: Edward Lucas White, (1921)
12. _Pan and the Twins_: Eden Philpotts, (1922)
These twelve novels are of permanent value. None of them are either
obsolete or obsolescent. But for the benefit of those who raise the cry:
“Of what practical good is anything which does not satisfy the present
popular taste?” I wish to make an interesting comparison. After deciding
upon the above list of twelve novels, I came upon _A Classified List of
the Best Modern Novels that are in ACTIVE USE in the Public Libraries
of the United States_. This was compiled with infinite pains by Mr.
William Alanson Borden, not with any scholarly purpose, but with a view
to ascertaining what novels were _most read_. While his list of novels
of Roman life stops at the year 1910, it can be seen that it closely
corresponds with the one I have just given. His list of novels of Roman
life, written in English, is as follows:
_The Last Days of Pompeii_: Bulwer
_Hypatia_: Charles Kingsley (given under “Alexandria,” not “Rome”)
_Ben Hur_: Lew Wallace
_Marius, the Epicurean_: Walter Pater
_Domitia_: Baring-Gould
_A Friend of Caesar_: W. S. Davis
_Vergilius_: I. Bacheller
*_Aurelian_: William Ware
*_The Son of the Swordmaker_: Opie Read
*_The Sign of the Cross_: Wilson Barrett
Of the novels marked with an asterisk, _Aurelian_ was excluded from my
list, as being somewhat too “gloomy” for modern taste. _The Son of the
Swordmaker_ and _The Sign of the Cross_ were novels of widespread, but
transient popularity. This may be said also of _Vergilius_, but to a less
extent. The three novels on Mr. Borden’s list which I have marked with an
asterisk are the only ones which do not appear of my list of the twelve
best. On the whole, Mr. Borden’s list of the best confirms my own, and
the twelve novels given in the first of the two lists will receive our
chief attention.[9]
II
GENESIS OF THE NOVEL OF ROMAN LIFE
We have indicated what novels are to be given an important place in
the field of the novel of Roman life; but before considering so fully
developed a form as Bulwer’s _Last Days of Pompeii_, let us see what the
soil was, from which such a form grew. Since the novel of Roman life
is a definite variety of the historical novel, we must first consider
the origin of the historical novel as such. The true historical novel,
it has been said, portrays the past with realistic effect. Since the
time of Scott, historical fiction has in the main followed the example
which he set in his historical novels, and it is largely due to this
fact that some authors have attained notable success in portraying the
life of the past with realistic effect. Before Scott’s time historical
romances existed, often taking such a form as to point directly toward
Scott’s work, and even attaining much of his success in such a realistic
portrayal of life. Yet in 1785, Clara Reeve had somewhat arbitrarily
said: “The Romance, in lofty and elevated language, describes what never
happened, nor is likely to happen.”[10] This definition does not seem to
allow that the historical romance had achieved realistic effect at all,
and so does not fairly represent the facts. But it must be remembered
that the definition applied not only to the historical romance, but
also to another form of the romance, which has been called the “Gothic”
romance. While Scott’s work in the historical novel is, in a sense, a
continuation of the historical romance, the “Gothic” romance better
represents the school of fiction which Scott supplanted. For this reason
it seems better to dispose of the “Gothic” romance before we discuss more
fully the early development of the historical romance.
The “Gothic” romance begins with Horace Walpole’s _Castle of Otranto_
(1764), which has no real historical background, though the events are
supposed to have happened in the twelfth or thirteenth century. Walpole
had built a supposed “Gothic” castle, which he called “Strawberry Hill,”
and the castle became a part of the “Gothic” romance. Walpole supplied
this form of the romance with its familiar supernatural machinery,
its ghost, creaking doors, subterranean caverns, etc., which need not
be described here. It is well to note, however, at this point, that
Scott, who adopted some of the saner elements of the Gothic romance,
used the supernatural as something inseparable from many of the real
Scotch characters, whom he described. Clara Reeve’s _Champion of Virtue_
(1777), later called _The Old English Baron_, is to be noted, since it
contains both Gothic and historical incidents. The Gothic romance was
further developed by Mrs. Radcliffe, “Monk” Lewis, and others. Mrs.
Radcliffe especially influences Scott and the later novel. She develops
the description of those aspects of nature which later impressed Byron,
and is undoubtedly the creator of the “Byronic hero.” Her “Schedoni”
is in all essentials Byron’s “Lara,” an individual apart from other
men, with a certain nobility of his own and a “vital scorn of all.”
Lord Byron and his school reproduced certain elements of the “Gothic”
romance, and in turn had an influence on the novel. The “Byronic hero”
and the Byronic passion for the terrible aspects of nature will appear
in the novel of Roman life and assume a prominent position. The Gothic
romance continued to exist after the time of Mrs. Radcliffe; it took
various forms, such as the detective story and the fantasy, as well as
the tale of terror, with its superstitious elements. Down to 1850 it
remained the fashion for almost any novelist to arouse his readers from
time to time by a narration of marvelous or terrible events. The Gothic
romance served to show that literature is not merely utilitarian; even
in its wildest forms, it retained certain marks of the realistic novel,
and added testimony to the fact that realism and romance are, after all,
inseparable. While not making a thorough study of mediæval times, it
pointed the way for Scott, in dealing with this period of the past. It
also had an important effect on the novel of Roman life in its formative
stage, as will be seen.
The so-called “Oriental” romance is really a development of the Gothic.
It originates with the work of William Beckford in _Vathek, an Arabian
Tale_. This was a consummate piece of art of its kind, and had a
tremendous influence on the writing of the time. Beckford built in
Wiltshire, an enormous mansion with mysterious halls and galleries, in
which he tried to realize his dreams of Oriental luxury. _Vathek_ was
written in French and published in France in 1787. It was translated from
the French manuscript by Samuel Henley, an English scholar, and published
in London in 1786, without Beckford’s consent. Among other things,
_Vathek_ is noteworthy for its descriptions of Oriental “magic,” and its
employment of what may be called the “labyrinth motive.” This motive
appears in the stories of all ages, its classic example being the story
of the labyrinth at Crete (which was, perhaps, really a palace). It is
used in some of Scott’s novels (notably _Woodstock_), and in many novels
of Roman life, in which the characters have to pass through a series of
dark and intricate passages in the catacombs at Rome, or cut in the rock
near some city of Egypt. The use of Eastern magic is sometimes combined
with this motive and so appears in more than one novel of Roman life. The
influence of _Vathek_ and the “Oriental” romance, considered apart from
other varieties of the Gothic romance, on the novel of Roman life, is
considerable.
The true historical romance is even more important in its relation to our
subject. In tracing its development before Scott, the first important
example is found to be _Longsword, Earl of Salisbury, an Historical
Romance_ (1762), attributed to the Rev. Thomas Leland, of Dublin. This
romance reproduces feudal scenes such as are found in Shakespeare’s
historical plays, and anticipates many of the elements of Scott’s
historical romances. While the story is told, however, with the detail
of an authentic historical document, it lacks historical perspective.
_Longsword_ stood alone for a time, except for Clara Reeve’s _Old
English Baron_ (1777): this romance of Clara Reeve’s combined historical
and “Gothic” incidents, as already mentioned, and had the effect of
adding historical details to the customary castle and ghost in the
Gothic romance. But in 1783 appeared _The Recess_, which is the first
of a series of historical romances down to Scott, and marks a closer
approach to the true historical novel. Its theme is the same as that
of _Kenilworth_; and may owe something to Shakespeare’s _Anthony and
Cleopatra_, as _Kenilworth_ does. Many of this series of romances do, in
fact, derive their history from Shakespeare’s historical dramas. They
show an increasing attention to the facts of history, which culminates
in the romances of Jane Porter. Jane Porter’s imaginative treatment of
history far surpasses any previous attempts. Her _Thaddeous of Warsaw_ is
almost wholly historical, though deficient in characterization and plot;
while in preparing to write _The Scottish Chiefs_ she actually visited
the places which she intended to describe.
Jane Porter may fairly be given the credit for developing the use of
historical background to a point of perfection, and so preparing the
way for Scott. Moreover, Scott, with all his romantic imagination, owes
something to the “Gothic” romancers, who preceded him. What, then,
did Scott himself add to the historical novel? Bearing in mind our
definition of the historical novel, two points are to be considered
essential in our answer: He added (1) the realistic sketch of the manners
of the past; (2) characters who are real beings, who represent human
nature. These two points are suggested by Scott in his General Preface
to the _Waverly Novels_. It is clear that while he is speaking of two
circumstances which led him to finish _Waverly_, his words are to be
applied to the whole series of the Waverly novels. The circumstance
which led Scott to undertake to reproduce faithfully the manners of the
past was his completion, in 1808, of the unfinished romance of the
antiquarian, Joseph Strutt. This romance was called _Queen-hoo-Hall_, and
described the time of Henry the Sixth; it attempted to give a “pleasing
representation of the manners and amusements of our forefathers.”
(Strutt’s Preface.) Scott perceived that the reason for its failure
was the author’s “rendering his language too ancient, and displaying
his antiquarian knowledge too liberally”; and resolved to avoid the
mistake “by rendering a similar work more light and obvious to general
comprehension.”[11] Strutt showed that the historical novelist should
attempt an exact reproduction of the past; but Scott further made it
clear that the manners of the past cannot be reproduced with realistic
effect, if the author relies solely on antiquarian knowledge, or if he
fails to bring his description home to readers of the present, in terms
intelligible to the majority of them.
Of even greater importance to the historical novel was Scott’s
determination to do for the people of Scotland, what Miss Edgeworth had
done for the people of Ireland,—to bring before his readers real Scotch
people of all ranks and conditions of society, to portray human life in
his pages. Scott is especially a realist when dealing with characters
taken from lowly life; but his realism is not confined to lowly life
alone, as some critics would have us believe. His great historical
figures, it is true, are often given romantic and literary treatment; but
even they do not lack human touches, and in any case, a proper balance
is maintained by including characters who are human enough. What has
made Scott’s novels deserve to endure is his faithful representation
of human nature. The same thing could be said of any great historical
novel, whether it deals with England or America a few years back or with
the remote times of ancient Rome. Scott’s plan in writing the historical
novel, was to create imaginary characters, with all the attributes of
real human beings, and to place them in an historical background,
containing a few historical characters. This plan, in the main, has been
followed by successful historical novelists since his time,—including
those who write of Roman life,—and seems best adapted to portraying the
life of the past with realistic effect.
It may now be asked when Roman life was first drawn upon in what may be
termed “historical fiction”; whether any evidence of this is to be found
before the period when Scott set alike the standard and the fashion in
that form of writing. It must be remembered that classic subject-matter
has taken a large place in many forms of English literature, though it
would be out of place to give examples here taken from other forms of
literature than fiction. Not to mention the very early translations
and reworkings of mediæval legends on classic subjects, it is well to
recall that Chaucer uses classic subject-matter abundantly, and that
his _Troilus and Cressida_ approaches the modern historical novel in
nearly every way, though it is written in verse. If we are looking for an
early presentation of Roman life in a form leading toward modern prose
fiction, we must turn to the allegorical quasi-historical romances of
the seventeenth century. One of them which may be claimed for England
is the _Argenis_ (1621), of John Barclay. Barclay, who was born in
France, of Scotch father and French mother, lived for a time in England
and finally went to Italy, where he wrote the _Argenis_ in Latin. It
describes important historical characters of his own time, but under
classic names. Its scenes are placed in classic countries and the story
is told in terms of Roman life and custom. A marriage is performed in a
temple dedicated to Juno and Lucina, high priests perform the ceremony,
and the bridal party honor Hymen and Apollo. Barclay opened the way for
a series of French romances which were much in vogue in England. This
led to the formation of literary societies, to one of which Roger Boyle
belonged. His _Parthenissa_ (1654), is another historical allegory, like
Barclay’s; it confuses several great Roman wars, bringing Hannibal and
Spartacus into the same scene.[12] Such romances show something of Roman
life in the form of fiction, but are far removed in some ways from the
modern historical novel; and it will be best for us to return to the time
of Scott, and search for a portrayal of Roman life in the fully developed
form of the historical novel.
A. THE FIRST TRUE NOVEL OF ROMAN LIFE
The first significant attempt in English to portray life in that period
of the past during which ancient Rome flourished, in the form of the
modern novel, appears in _Valerius, a Roman Story_. It is not to be
regarded as a mere coincidence that its author was John G. Lockhart, a
son-in-law of Sir Walter Scott. The year 1821, in which it was first
published, was also marked by the appearance of _Kenilworth_ and _The
Pirate_. In _Kenilworth_, Scott owed much to Shakespeare’s _Antony and
Cleopatra_, a play with a classic subject. And while Scott was showing
how the past could be presented in the novel, it was altogether natural
that Lockhart, a classical scholar, should decide to make use of classic
material in this form. Classic times had furnished abundant material
and true inspiration in other forms of writing. Though _Valerius_ is
not a great novel, it has certain elements of permanent value. It is a
very thorough and scholarly piece of work, well-balanced and accurate
in detail. Its characters, Christian and pagan, are fairly well-done,
and its scenes represent, with some degree of realism, the amphitheatre,
the crowded streets of Rome, the law-court, and the suburban villa.
While Christianity is not overemphasized, the martyrdom of Thraso, an
old soldier, who has become a Christian, is described with real pathos.
The story is laid in the time of Trajan, who is justly represented as
a popular ruler, and not a cruel tyrant. The customary use is made
of Pliny’s correspondence with Trajan, regarding treatment of the
Christians. The book is not without humor, though its general tone is
serious and it contains a little too much philosophy. It was republished
in 1835, the year after Bulwer’s _Last Days of Pompeii_. _Valerius_ may
fairly be considered the first novel of Roman life. This seems to be
implied by Cardinal Newman, who mentioned it many years later in his
preface to _Callista_.
B. THE INFLUENCE OF “VATHEK” ON THE NOVEL OF ROMAN LIFE
In 1827 Thomas Moore published _The Epicurean_. This is to be classed as
a romance, and is akin to and inspired by the work of William Beckford in
_Vathek, an Arabian Tale_. Moore’s _The Epicurean_ takes from _Vathek_
its descriptions of Egyptian magic, and its use of the “labyrinth
motive”;[13] these are things which appear in a modified form in Bulwer’s
_Last Days of Pompeii_ (1834). _The Epicurean_, however, in spite of its
fantastic nature, contains realistic descriptions of the persecution
of the Christians in Africa, under Diocletian, and a contrast of
Christianity with a pagan system of philosophy (Epicureanism). While its
story does not take the reader to Rome, _The Epicurean_ represents life
in Greece and Egypt under Roman rule, and must be considered a step in
the genesis of the novel of Roman life. It represents new elements which
are not found in _Valerius_, but appear frequently in later novels of
Roman life. _Vathek_, which Moore says was his model, has been mentioned
as an “Oriental” romance, this kind of romance being a variety of the
“Gothic”; and when certain elements of the “Oriental” romance appear in
novels of Roman life of this early period, it is more logical to ascribe
their existence to the influence of _Vathek_ than to say that they
merely come from _The Epicurean_. But we have to consider at this point
not only the influence of _Vathek_ as a thing entirely separate from
other literature of the period; for the hero of _The Epicurean_ is the
“Byronic hero,” already mentioned in connection with Mrs. Radcliffe and
Byron. The terrible side of nature, which had appealed to these authors,
appears in _The Epicurean_, combined with Egyptian “magic”; the hero in
passing through the mysteries of initiation is surrounded by roaring
winds and rushing waters. Thus it appears that _The Epicurean_, while
it falls far below the first rank,[14] is important, because it shows
the effect which the Gothic romance, with its various developments, was
having on the early novel of Roman life.
C. THE INFLUENCE OF THE “BYRONIC ROMANCE” ON THE NOVEL OF ROMAN LIFE
In 1829[15] was first published a romance by George Croly, called
_Salathiel, a Story of the Past, the Present and the Future_. It enjoyed
wide popularity and was favorably reviewed both in England and America;
and was issued at different times with variations of the title, such as
_Salathiel, the Immortal, or the Wandering Jew_. Finally it has been
revised and republished posthumously, in 1901, under the title of _Tarry
Thou, Till I Come, or Salathiel, the Wandering Jew_. This last edition
was published in somewhat elaborate style with copious introduction and
appendix, and beautifully accurate illustrations, by Mr. T. de Thulstrup.
Especially noteworthy is the introductory letter of General Lewis
Wallace, who, in making his remarkable choice of the six greatest English
novels, includes “_Hypatia_, and this romance of Croly’s.” While his
choice of the “six greatest” is unusual, he gives very sound reasons for
his support of _Tarry Thou, Till I Come_. General Wallace, who is best
known for his _Ben Hur_, also wrote _The Prince of India_, in which he
handles the theme of the Wandering Jew, describing the wanderings of the
Jew in Moslem times.
Croly was born in 1780 in Dublin and died in 1860. In _Salathiel_ he
follows the school of Byron and Moore, which was dominant in his youth.
The style of the book is marked by a warmth of coloring, and Croly excels
in his handling of powerful situations. The character of Salathiel,
surrounded by perpetual gloom, and displaying a proud aloofness from
other men, has much in it of the “Byronic hero.” The terrible aspects of
nature are also presented with telling effect, and much in the Byronic
manner throughout the story; Croly is at his best in this sort of work
in a chapter, which has been given the title _The Wanderings of a Mind
Diseased_, and which represents the reality of Salathiel’s imaginary
trials. In this chapter the description of a volcanic eruption suggests a
similar description made by Bulwer in _The Last Days of Pompeii_, a few
years later. The scene of _Salathiel_ does not open in Rome, but from the
very start, the reader feels the intensity of the Jewish hatred for Roman
power. The degenerate Roman governor of Judea, Gessius Florus, is well
portrayed in his capacity of extortioner and tyrant. He sends Salathiel
to Rome, and at this point in the story we are given in a brief space
many of the important elements in any novel of Roman life which deals
with the time of Nero. There is the prisoner, calmly condemned to a death
of torture, while the Emperor feigns practice on the lyre; then the fire
at Rome is powerfully described, and when it is over, the blame for it is
attached to the Christians; the Christians are put to death by torture
in the amphitheatre, or torn by wild beasts; they are made to serve as
living torches in Nero’s gardens; and finally the persecution ceases.
Though his name is not mentioned, the martyrdom of St. Paul is told in
such a way as to portray his indomitable spirit and courage in the face
of death.
The scene of the remainder of the story is again laid in Judea, and the
story of events culminating in the capture of Jerusalem by a Roman army,
is taken from Josephus.[16] In this part of the book things Roman are
best represented by the figure of the Prince and commander, Titus, and by
the soldiers and officers of the Roman army. The divisions of the Roman
army are described with great realism, recruited as they are from almost
every tribe and nation under the sun. The fierce struggles between Roman
and Jew outside of the walls, give opportunity for some of the finest
pictures of desperate fighting to be found in any novel. The “labyrinth
motive,” one of the oldest motives in story telling, is used a number of
times in the latter part of _Salathiel_; it is used with much ingenuity
in the description of his entrance into the fortress of Masada by a
secret underground passage; and again, when, escaping from prison, he
finds he has blundered upon the secret rear entrance of the pirates’ cave.
_Salathiel_ is a truly great romance, in which the exalted language is
suited to the grandeur of the theme. While “romance” is the proper word
to describe the book as a whole, individual passages exhibit a realistic
effect which far surpasses anything in the pages of _Valerius_ or of
_The Epicurean_. Moreover, it is sound in its historical basis, for
Croly was a man of genuine learning, classic[17] and otherwise. On the
other hand, it must not be supposed, because he was a curate, that he
wrote _Salathiel_ with any intention of spreading religious propaganda.
The scene in which the Christians, imprisoned and awaiting crucifixion,
exhibit their supreme faith, is one of tremendous significance; but this
could be said of many other scenes in the book. Even if it were not a
story of absorbing interest, _Salathiel_ would deserve a high position
in fiction, for its illustration of great principles in life, and its
powerful revelation of eternal truths.
D. THE NOVEL OF ROMAN LIFE IN A FULLY DEVELOPED FORM
In 1834 was published Bulwer’s[18] _Last Days of Pompeii_, which probably
has been as widely read, and for as long a period as any other historical
novel. Men still live who consider Bulwer among the greatest of English
novelists; and if one were to select only one book for which he is
especially remembered, I believe The _Last Days of Pompeii_ would have
equal claims with such a novel as _The Last of the Barons_, to which
critics usually assign a higher place. _The Last Days of Pompeii_ was a
new thing of its kind; it represents a new departure in the historical
novel, and in the novel of Roman life. It is true that there remain in
it certain elements of the Byronism, which was still so prevalent in
the novel of the day, but these elements cannot merely be dismissed
as defects. There is the Byronic passion for the terrible in nature,
which reaches its height in the unsurpassed description of the eruption
of Vesuvius, and its terrible effects. The “Byronic hero,” moreover,
can easily be seen in the disguise of Arbaces, the Egyptian, who is
surrounded by an air of mystery, and has a lofty scorn of the common
herd of mankind. Moreover, Arbaces, to secure his ends, has recourse
to Egyptian “magic,” the intricacy and subtlety of which had been well
represented in _The Epicurean_. Such motives as these, however, have
already been discussed, together with their relation to the novel of
Roman life. Let us see what Bulwer added to this particular variety of
the historical novel.
It will be recalled that Scott (who must be considered Bulwer’s most
important predecessor in the field), in writing his historical novels,
always made use of historical characters and events, as well as of purely
imaginary characters and events. Bulwer departed from this program, in
the first instance, by reducing the number of historical events,—the
eruption being the only important one. Moreover, he succeeded, with no
loss of effect, in replacing the “historical” characters, which are
usually necessary to the historical novel, by imaginary characters such
as he perceived would be in harmony with the time he described. This
omission of “historical” characters is to be accounted for by Bulwer’s
choice of scene. Having chosen Pompeii (and not Rome) for his scene,
and finding there were no “historical” characters suitable for a novel
portraying the life of this brilliant Campanian city, he decided to make
up for their absence by lending an almost “historical” reality to his
imaginary characters. Scott had made his imaginary characters appear
to be real men and women by reproducing real men and women whom he had
observed; Bulwer, in writing The _Last Days of Pompeii_, undertook the
more difficult task of representing men and women who might well have
lived in the times of ancient Rome,—and succeeds rather well. Around
these characters he decided to weave a narrative which would reproduce
exactly the life of the time,—and in this he succeeds admirably. Scott
had been warned by the mistake made by the antiquary, Joseph Strutt, in a
misuse of antiquarian details. Bulwer was an antiquarian of an entirely
different sort; he revelled in the use of details, but in putting them
into his story, made the whole conduce toward realistic effect. He had
read widely in Latin and Greek literature; he climbed Mt. Vesuvius and
learned all he could by actual observation, filing every detail in huge
commonplace books; he studied Roman antiquities, and compared the results
of his study with the manners of modern Italians. In short, he realized
in his imagination the decadent life of Pompeii as it had actually been
just before the eruption of Vesuvius, and reproduced it in the pages of
The _Last Days of Pompeii_. While Bulwer, therefore, did not reproduce
historical characters and events in quite the same way that Scott did,
he makes an even more concrete use, than Scott did, of that life of the
past which is not recorded in formal history. He views the past from
the standpoint of the philosopher as well as from that of the student of
human nature. Moreover, he seeks for permanent truths in human nature,
rather than for merely picturesque elements.