It is a matter not requiring any proof that the object and the
subject[32] whose respective spheres are the notion of the 'Thou' (the
Non-Ego[33]) and the 'Ego,' and which are opposed to each other as much
as darkness and light are, cannot be identified. All the less can their
respective attributes be identified. Hence it follows that it is wrong
to superimpose[34] upon the subject--whose Self is intelligence, and
which has for its sphere the notion of the Ego--the object whose sphere
is the notion of the Non-Ego, and the attributes of the object, and
_vice versâ_ to superimpose the subject and the attributes of the
subject on the object. In spite of this it is on the part of man a
natural[35] procedure--which which has its cause in wrong knowledge--not
to distinguish the two entities (object and subject) and their
respective attributes, although they are absolutely distinct, but to
superimpose upon each the characteristic nature and the attributes of
the other, and thus, coupling the Real and the Unreal[36], to make use
of expressions such as 'That am I,' 'That is mine.[37]'--But what have
we to understand by the term 'superimposition?'--The apparent
presentation, in the form of remembrance, to consciousness of something
previously observed, in some other thing.[38]
Some indeed define the term 'superimposition' as the superimposition of
the attributes of one thing on another thing.[39] Others, again, define
superimposition as the error founded on the non-apprehension of the
difference of that which is superimposed from that on which it is
superimposed.[40] Others[41], again, define it as the fictitious
assumption of attributes contrary to the nature of that thing on which
something else is superimposed. But all these definitions agree in so
far as they represent superimposition as the apparent presentation of
the attributes of one thing in another thing. And therewith agrees also
the popular view which is exemplified by expressions such as the
following: 'Mother-of-pearl appears like silver,' 'The moon although one
only appears as if she were double.' But how is it possible that on the
interior Self which itself is not an object there should be superimposed
objects and their attributes? For every one superimposes an object only
on such other objects as are placed before him (i.e. in contact with his
sense-organs), and you have said before that the interior Self which is
entirely disconnected from the idea of the Thou (the Non-Ego) is never
an object. It is not, we reply, non-object in the absolute sense. For it
is the object of the notion of the Ego[42], and the interior Self is
well known to exist on account of its immediate (intuitive)
presentation.[43] Nor is it an exceptionless rule that objects can be
superimposed only on such other objects as are before us, i.e. in
contact with our sense-organs; for non-discerning men superimpose on the
ether, which is not the object of sensuous perception, dark-blue colour.
Hence it follows that the assumption of the Non-Self being superimposed
on the interior Self is not unreasonable.
This superimposition thus defined, learned men consider to be Nescience
(avidyâ), and the ascertainment of the true nature of that which is (the
Self) by means of the discrimination of that (which is superimposed on
the Self), they call knowledge (vidyâ). There being such knowledge
(neither the Self nor the Non-Self) are affected in the least by any
blemish or (good) quality produced by their mutual superimposition[44].
The mutual superimposition of the Self and the Non-Self, which is termed
Nescience, is the presupposition on which there base all the practical
distinctions--those made in ordinary life as well as those laid down by
the Veda--between means of knowledge, objects of knowledge (and knowing
persons), and all scriptural texts, whether they are concerned with
injunctions and prohibitions (of meritorious and non-meritorious
actions), or with final release[45].--But how can the means of right
knowledge such as perception, inference, &c., and scriptural texts have
for their object that which is dependent on Nescience[46]?--Because, we
reply, the means of right knowledge cannot operate unless there be a
knowing personality, and because the existence of the latter depends on
the erroneous notion that the body, the senses, and so on, are identical
with, or belong to, the Self of the knowing person. For without the
employment of the senses, perception and the other means of right
knowledge cannot operate. And without a basis (i.e. the body[47]) the
senses cannot act. Nor does anybody act by means of a body on which the
nature of the Self is not superimposed[48]. Nor can, in the absence of
all that[49], the Self which, in its own nature is free from all
contact, become a knowing agent. And if there is no knowing agent, the
means of right knowledge cannot operate (as said above). Hence
perception and the other means of right knowledge, and the Vedic texts
have for their object that which is dependent on Nescience. (That human
cognitional activity has for its presupposition the superimposition
described above), follows also from the non-difference in that respect
of men from animals. Animals, when sounds or other sensible qualities
affect their sense of hearing or other senses, recede or advance
according as the idea derived from the sensation is a comforting or
disquieting one. A cow, for instance, when she sees a man approaching
with a raised stick in his hand, thinks that he wants to beat her, and
therefore moves away; while she walks up to a man who advances with some
fresh grass in his hand. Thus men also--who possess a higher
intelligence--run away when they see strong fierce-looking fellows
drawing near with shouts and brandishing swords; while they confidently
approach persons of contrary appearance and behaviour. We thus see that
men and animals follow the same course of procedure with reference to
the means and objects of knowledge. Now it is well known that the
procedure of animals bases on the non-distinction (of Self and
Non-Self); we therefore conclude that, as they present the same
appearances, men also--although distinguished by superior
intelligence--proceed with regard to perception and so on, in the same
way as animals do; as long, that is to say, as the mutual
superimposition of Self and Non-Self lasts. With reference again to that
kind of activity which is founded on the Veda (sacrifices and the like),
it is true indeed that the reflecting man who is qualified to enter on
it, does so not without knowing that the Self has a relation to another
world; yet that qualification does not depend on the knowledge,
derivable from the Vedânta-texts, of the true nature of the Self as free
from all wants, raised above the distinctions of the Brâhma/n/a and
Kshattriya-classes and so on, transcending transmigratory existence. For
such knowledge is useless and even contradictory to the claim (on the
part of sacrificers, &c. to perform certain actions and enjoy their
fruits). And before such knowledge of the Self has arisen, the Vedic
texts continue in their operation, to have for their object that which
is dependent on Nescience. For such texts as the following, 'A
Brâhma/n/a is to sacrifice,' are operative only on the supposition that
on the Self are superimposed particular conditions such as caste, stage
of life, age, outward circumstances, and so on. That by superimposition
we have to understand the notion of something in some other thing we
have already explained. (The superimposition of the Non-Self will be
understood more definitely from the following examples.) Extra-personal
attributes are superimposed on the Self, if a man considers himself
sound and entire, or the contrary, as long as his wife, children, and so
on are sound and entire or not. Attributes of the body are superimposed
on the Self, if a man thinks of himself (his Self) as stout, lean, fair,
as standing, walking, or jumping. Attributes of the sense-organs, if he
thinks 'I am mute, or deaf, or one-eyed, or blind.' Attributes of the
internal organ when he considers himself subject to desire, intention,
doubt, determination, and so on. Thus the producer of the notion of the
Ego (i.e. the internal organ) is superimposed on the interior Self,
which, in reality, is the witness of all the modifications of the
internal organ, and vice versá the interior Self, which is the witness
of everything, is superimposed on the internal organ, the senses, and so
on. In this way there goes on this natural beginning--and endless
superimposition, which appears in the form of wrong conception, is the
cause of individual souls appearing as agents and enjoyers (of the
results of their actions), and is observed by every one.
With a view to freeing one's self from that wrong notion which is the
cause of all evil and attaining thereby the knowledge of the absolute
unity of the Self the study of the Vedânta-texts is begun. That all the
Vedânta-texts have the mentioned purport we shall show in this so-called
/S/âriraka-mîmâ/m/sâ.[50]
Of this Vedânta-mîmâ/m/sâ about to be explained by us the first Sûtra is
as follows.