o'clock.
8. I like Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice better than George
Eliot's Adam Bede.
9. May I call for you about 7:30 p. m., Miss Reynolds?
10. The note draws 6 per cent interest, and is payable Jan.
1st, 1921.
11. He will remain in town until Apr. 20th, and will then go
away for the Summer. He is going abroad to study the spanish
and italian languages.
12. Grays elegy in a country churchyard is perhaps the best
known poem in english literature.
13. Enclosed please find $4, for which send me the New Republic
for one year.
14. In reply to yours of 3-7-18 wish to advise that we are out
of stock.
15. I enclose $0.10 for a copy of bulletin #314 of the dept. of
Agriculture. Thanking you, I remain ... yours Respectively....
PUNCTUATION
Punctuation is not used for its own sake. It is used in writing as
gestures, pauses, and changes of voice are used in speaking--to add
force or to reveal the precise relationship of thoughts. The tendency at
present is against the lavish use of punctuation. This does not mean,
however, that one may do as he pleases. In minor details of punctuation
there is room for individual preference, but in essential principles all
trustworthy writers agree.
=The Period=
=90a. Place a period after a complete declarative or imperative sentence.=
=b. Do not separate part of a sentence from the rest of the sentence by
means of a period. (See 1.)=
Wrong: He denied the accusation. As every one expected him to
do.
Right: He denied the accusation, as every one expected him to
do.
Wrong: Anderson wrote good editorials. The best that appeared
in any paper in the city.
Right: Anderson wrote good editorials, the best that appeared
in any paper in the city. [Or] Anderson wrote good
editorials--the best that appeared in any paper in the city.
Exception.--Condensed or elliptical phrases established by long and
frequent use may be written as separate sentences. They should be
followed by appropriate punctuation--usually by a period.
Examples: Yes. Of course. Really? By all means!
Note.--The student should distinguish clearly between a subordinate
clause and a main clause. A subordinate clause is introduced by a
subordinate conjunction (_when_, _while_, _if_, _as_, _since_,
_although_, _that_, _lest_, _because_, _in order that_, etc.), or by a
relative pronoun (_who_, _which_, _that_, etc.). Since a subordinate
clause does not express a complete thought, it cannot stand alone, but
must be joined to a main clause to form a sentence.
=c. Place a period after an abbreviation.=
Bros. Mr. e. g. Ph.D. LL.D. etc.
If an abbreviation falls at the end of a sentence, one period may serve
two functions.
Exercise:
1. The hen clucks to her chickens. When she scratches up a
worm.
2. Before my brother could forewarn me. I had touched my tongue
against the cold iron. On which it stuck.
3. The commission had the services of two men of international
reputation. Charles Newman, Esq. and Gifford Bailey,
Ph D.
4. Since Hugh had fished only in creeks. He was surprised that
the lines were let down a hundred feet or more. The right
distance for codfish.
5. Between 1775 and 1825 Virginia furnished the nation its
leaders. Such as the author of the Declaration of Independence.
The orator of the Revolution. The leader of the Revolutionary
army. The chief maker of the Constitution. Four of our first
five Presidents. And our greatest Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court.
=The Comma=
There are five principal uses of the comma:
to separate clauses (a-d)
to set off a parenthetical element (e)
to mark a series (f-g)
to introduce a quotation (h)
to compel a pause for the sake of clearness (i)
=91a. A comma is used between clauses joined by _but_, _for_, _and_, or
any other coördinating conjunction.=
Right: The hour arrived, but Forbes did not appear. [The comma
emphasizes the contrast.]
Right: She was glad she had looked, for a man was approaching
the house. [The comma prevents the combination _looked for a
man_.]
Right: He gave the money to Burke, and Reynolds received
nothing. [The comma prevents confusion.]
Exception.--If the clauses are short and closely linked in thought, the
comma may be omitted (She came and she was gone in a moment. McCoy
talked and the rest of us listened.) If the clauses are long and
complicated, a semicolon may be used (See 92b).
Note.--No comma should follow the conjunction. Wrong: He was
enthusiastic but, inexperienced. Wrong: They went before the committee
but, not one of them would answer a question.
=b. Do _not_ use a comma between independent clauses which are _not_
joined by a conjunction. Use a period or a semicolon.= (This error, the
"comma splice," betrays ignorance of what constitutes a unified
sentence. See 18.)
Wrong: The circus had just come to town, every one wanted to
see it.
Right: The circus had just come to town. Every one wanted to
see it.
Wrong: The story deals with the life of a youth, Don Juan, his
mother desired to make an angel of him.
Right: The story deals with the life of a youth, Don Juan. His
mother desired to make an angel of him.
Wrong: My courses required very hard study, did yours?
Right: My courses required very hard study. Did yours? [Or] My
courses required very hard study; did yours?
Wrong: He will assist you without the slightest hesitation,
indeed he will do so with alacrity.
Right: He will assist you without the slightest hesitation.
Indeed he will do so with alacrity. [Or] He will assist you
without the slightest hesitation; indeed he will do so with
alacrity.
Exception.--Short coördinate clauses which are not joined by
conjunctions, but which are parallel in structure and leave a unified
impression, may be joined by commas.
Right: He sowed, he reaped, he repented.
=c. An adverbial clause which precedes a main clause is usually set off
by a comma.=
When long:
Right: While I have much confidence in his sincerity, I cannot
approve his decision. [The comma marks the meeting point of
clauses too long to be easily read together. Brief clauses do
not require the comma. Right: Where thou goest I will go.]
When ending in words that link themselves with words in the main
clause:
Right: If Jacob finds time to plow, the garden can be planted
tomorrow. [The comma prevents _plow the garden_ from being read
as verb and object.]
When not closely connected with the main clause in meaning:
Right: Although they were few, they were resolute. [Here the
comma reveals the distinctness of the two stages of thought. In
the sentence _If it freezes the skating will be good_ the
distinctness of the two thoughts is less emphatic, and the
comma may be omitted.]
Note.--The comma is usually omitted when the adverbial clause follows
the main clause.
Right: The score stood twelve to twelve when the first half
ended. [The adverbial clause is linked closely with the element
it modifies, the predicate; punctuation is unnecessary. If the
_when_ clause were placed before the element it does not
modify, the subject, a comma should be inserted.]
=d. Restrictive clauses should not be set off by commas; non-restrictive
clauses should be set off by commas.= (A restrictive clause is one
inseparably connected with the noun or pronoun it modifies; to omit it
would change the thought of the main clause. A non-restrictive clause is
less vitally connected with the noun or pronoun; to omit it would not
affect the thought of the main clause.)
Right: Men who are industrious will succeed. [The relative
clause restricts the meaning; it is inseparably connected with
the noun it modifies, and to omit it would change the thought
of the main clause.]
Right: Thomas Carlyle, who wrote forty volumes, was of peasant
origin. [The relative clause is non-restrictive; it is not
inseparably connected with the noun it modifies, and to omit
it would not change the thought of the main clause. Thus:
Thomas Carlyle was of peasant origin.]
Right: Where is the house that Jack built? [Restrictive.]
Right: I went to Jack's house, which is across the street.
[Non-restrictive.]
Wrong: Students, who are lazy, do not deserve to pass. [The
sentence as it stands says that all students are lazy, and that
none of them deserve to pass. Without the commas, the sentence
would mean that such students as are lazy do not deserve to
pass.]
Right: Students who are lazy do not deserve to pass.
=The rule stated above for clauses applies also to phrases.=
Right. She, hearing the voice, turned quickly. [_Hearing the
voice_ is non-restrictive. It does not identify _she_, and the
thought of the main clause is complete without it.]
Right: Books pertaining to aeronautics are in demand.
[_Pertaining to aeronautics_ is restrictive. It explains what
books are referred to, and without it the meaning of the main
thought is changed.]
Right: Our country, made up as it is of democratic people,
lacks the centralized power of a monarchy. [Non-restrictive.]
Right: A country made up of democratic people must be lacking
in centralized power. [Restrictive. _Made up of democratic
people_ explains _country_ and is essential to the thought of
the sentence.]
=e. Slightly parenthetical elements are set off by commas:=
Direct address or explanation:
Write soon, Henry, and tell all the news.
They intend, as you know, to build a great dam across the
river.
His father, they say, was frugal and industrious.
I, on my part, however, am unalterably opposed to the
expenditure.
He was, according to such reports as have reached me,
altogether in the right.
Mild interjections:
Well, we shall see.
Come now, let's talk it over.
But alas, the cupboard was bare.
The custom is, oh, very old.
Absolute phrases:
This being admitted, I shall proceed to my other evidence.
Geographical names which explain other names and dates which explain
other dates:
The convention met at Madison, Wisconsin, on March 24, 1916.
Words in apposition:
We arrived at Austin, the capital of Texas.
It was Archie, my best friend in boyhood.
Exception.--The comma is omitted (1) When the appositive is
part of a proper name. Right: William the Silent, Alexander the
Great. (2) When there is unusually close connection between the
appositive and the noun it modifies. Right: My one confidant
was my brother Robert. (3) When the appositive is a word or
phrase to which attention is called by italics or some other
device which sets it apart. Right: The word _sequent_ is
derived from Latin. Right: The expression "That's fine" is one
which I use indiscriminately.
Note.--When the parenthetical element occurs in the middle of a
sentence, "set off by commas" means _punctuate before and after_.
Wrong: I was, madam at home yesterday.
Right: I was, madam, at home yesterday.
Wrong: I am to say the least, provoked.
Right: I am, to say the least, provoked.
=f. Consecutive adjectives that modify the same noun are separated from
each other by commas. If, however, the last adjective is closely linked
in meaning with the noun, no comma is used before it.=
Right: A short, slight, pitiable figure.
Right: A shrewd professional man. [_Shrewd_ modifies, not _man_
alone, but _professional man_.]
Right: A bedraggled old rooster. [_Old rooster_ has almost the
force of a compound word. _Bedraggled_ modifies the general
idea _old rooster_.]
Note.--The commas in a series of adjectives are used to separate the
adjectives from each other. No comma should intervene between the final
adjective and the noun. Wrong: He was only a frail, unarmed, frightened,
youngster. Right: He was only a frail, unarmed, frightened youngster.
=g. Words or phrases in series are separated by commas.=
When the series takes the form _a, b, and c_, a comma precedes the
_and_.
Confusing: The railroads in question are the New York Central,
Pennsylvania and Chesapeake and Ohio. [The reader might surmise
that the words _Pennsylvania and Chesapeake and Ohio_ represent
a single line or even three different lines.]
Right: The railroads in question are the New York Central,
Pennsylvania, and Chesapeake and Ohio.
Confusing: For breakfast we had oatmeal, bacon, eggs and honey.
[Omission of the comma after _eggs_ suggests a mixture.]
Right: For breakfast we had oatmeal, bacon, eggs, and honey.
=h. A comma should follow an expression like _he said_ which introduces a
short quotation.= (For longer or more formal quotations use a colon.)
Right: He shouted, "Come on! I dare you!"
Right: Our captain replied, "We're ready."
But for indirect quotations, a caution is necessary. Do not place a
comma between a verb and a _that_ or _how_ clause which the verb
introduces.
Wrong: He explained, how the accident occurred.
Right: He explained how the accident occurred.
Wrong: The chauffeur told us, that the gasoline tank was empty.
Right: The chauffeur told us that the gasoline tank was empty.
=i. A comma is used to separate parts of a sentence which might
erroneously be read together.=
Confusing: Long before she had received a letter.
Better: Long before, she had received a letter.
Confusing: We turned the corner and the horse stopped throwing
us off.
Better: We turned the corner and the horse stopped, throwing us
off.
Confusing: Through the alumni gathered there went a thrill of
dismay.
Better: Through the alumni gathered there, went a thrill of
dismay.
Wrong: For a dime you can buy two pieces of pie or cake and ice
cream.
Right: For a dime you can buy two pieces of pie, or cake and
ice cream.
Right: The man whom everybody had for years regarded as a crank
and a weakling, is now praised for his sagacity and his
strength.
Right: In a situation so critical as to require the utmost
coolness of mind, he lost his wits completely. [Here the
confusion might not be serious if the comma were omitted, but
separation of the long introduction from the main clause is
desirable.]
=j. Do not use superfluous commas:=
=1.= To mark a trivial pause:
Needless use of comma: In the road, stood a wagon.
Needless use of commas: The taking of notes, is a guarantee,
against inattention, in class.
Slight pauses in a sentence are taken care of by the good sense of the
reader. Do not sprinkle commas when the sentence is moving along freely
with no complication in the thought.
Right: In the road stood a wagon.
Right: The taking of notes is a guarantee against inattention
in class.
=2.= To separate an adjective from its noun:
Wrong: A tall, solemn, antique, clock stood in the hallway.
[The first two commas separate the adjectives from each other.
There is no reason why _antique_ should be separated from the
noun.]
Right: A tall, solemn, antique clock stood in the hallway.
=3.= Before the first word or phrase in a series unless the comma would be
employed if the word or phrase stood alone:
Wrong: He made a study of, gymnastics, medicine, and surgery.
Right: He made a study of gymnastics, medicine, and surgery.
Wrong: He had learned, to be prompt, to think clearly, and to
write correctly.
Right: He had learned to be prompt, to think clearly, and to
write correctly.
Exercise:
1. Before the workmen finished eating the tunnel caved in.
Three Italian laborers were crushed, the others with the
foreman escaped.
2. Sneed the new chairman proposed that the convention should
meet at Cheyenne Wyoming. The suggestion however was according
to reports not adopted.
3. He had a pen and an ink bottle was in the cupboard. By
washing poor widows can earn but scant living.
4. Saunders asked, how I liked the Overland car as compared
with the Chalmers, the Hudson and the Buick. I started to reply
but at that moment we were interrupted.
5. People, who steal watermelons, say the stolen melons are
sweetest. Farragut who was born in Tennessee was the North's
ablest naval commander. The developer is a chemical, which
reduces the silver salt.
=The Semicolon=
The semicolon represents a division in thought somewhat greater than
that represented by a comma, and somewhat smaller than that represented
by a period. It may represent grammatical separation and logical
connection at the same time; that is, it may indicate that two
statements are separate units in grammar, and are yet to be taken
together to form a larger unit of logic or thought.
=92a. The semicolon is used between coördinate clauses which are not
joined by a conjunction.= (For a possible exception see 91b.).
Wrong: He was alarmed in fact he was terrified.
Right: He was alarmed; in fact he was terrified.
Right: He drew up at the curb; he leaped from the car.
Note.--Very often the writer may choose freely between the semicolon and
the period; in such instances the use of the semicolon implies greater
logical unity between the clauses than the use of the period would show.
Unless this logical unity is distinct, the period is to be preferred.
=b. The semicolon is sometimes used between coördinate clauses which are
joined by a conjunction if the clauses are long, or if the clauses have
commas within themselves, or if obscurity would result were the
semicolon not used.= (Otherwise, see 91a.)
Right: Very slowly the glow in the heavens deepened and
extended itself along the eastern horizon; but at last the
bright-red rim of the sun showed above the crest of the hill.
Right: He arrived, so they tell me, after nightfall; and
immediately going to a hotel, called for a room.
Confusing: She enjoyed the dinners, and the dancing, and the
music, and the whole gay round of fashionable life was a
delight to her.
Better. She enjoyed the dinners, and the dancing, and the
music; and the whole gay round of fashionable life was a
delight to her.
=c. The semicolon is used between coördinate clauses which are joined by
a formal conjunctive adverb (_hence_, _thus_, _then_, _therefore_,
_accordingly_, _consequently_, _besides_, _still_, _nevertheless_, or
the like).=
Wrong: We have failed in this therefore let us try something
else.
Right: We have failed in this; therefore let us try something
else.
Wrong: He was tattered and muddy, besides he ate like a
cormorant.
Right: He was tattered and muddy; besides he ate like a
cormorant.
Note 1.--If a simple conjunction like _and_ is used in the sentences
above, a comma will suffice. But a comma is not sufficient before a
conjunctive adverb like _therefore_. Conjunctive adverbs may be clearly
distinguished from simple conjunctions (See 91a). They cannot always be
easily distinguished from subordinating conjunctions (see 90b, Note),
but the distinction, when it can be made with certainty, is an aid to
clear thinking.
Note 2.--Good usage sometimes permits a comma to be used before a
conjunctive adverb in short sentences where the break in the thought is
not formal or emphatic. For instance, when the conjunctive adverb _so_
is used as a formal or emphatic connective, a semicolon is desirable (I
won't go; so that's settled). But in the sentence, "I was excited, so I
missed the target", a comma is sufficient. For the use of _so_ is here
informal, and probably expresses degree as well as result. (Compare "I
was so excited that I missed the target").
=d. The semicolon is not used before quotations, or after the "Dear Sir"
in letters. Use a comma or a colon.= (See 91h, 93a, and 87b.)
Wrong: Mother said; "Let me get my needle."
Right: Mother said, "Let me get my needle."
Exercise:
1. The eggs tasted musty, they were cold storage eggs.
2. You should have seen that old, formally kept house, you
should have sat in that stuffy and immaculate parlor.
3. I objected to the plan however since he insisted upon it I
yielded.
4. I suppose I must go if I don't he will be anxious.
5. Although the note is due on March 19, you have three days of
grace, consequently you may pay it on March 22.
=The Colon=
=93a. The colon is used to introduce formally a word, a list, a statement
or question, a series of statements or questions, or a long quotation.=
Right: Only one man stood between Burr and the presidency:
Jefferson.
Right: My favorite novels are the following: _Ivanhoe_, _Henry
Esmond_, and _The Mill on the Floss_.
Right: The difficulty is this: Where is the money to come from?
Right: The measure must be considered from several standpoints:
Is it timely? Is it expedient? Is it just? Is it superior to
the other measures proposed?
Right: I shall do three things next year: study hard, take care
of my health, and enter into various student activities.
Right: Webster concluded with the following peroration: "When
my eyes shall be turned for the last time to behold the sun in
heaven," etc., etc.
=b. The colon may be used before concrete illustrations of a general
statement.=
Right: The colors were various: blue, purple, emerald, and
orange.
Right: The day was propitious: the sun shone, the birds sang,
the flowers sent forth their fragrance.
Exercise:
1. The city must have these improvements paved streets more
schools better sanitation and a park.
2. A guild comprised men of a single class tailors,
fishmongers, or goldsmiths.
3. Everything was favorable, it was a wheat-raising district,
there were no rival mills, the means of transportation were
excellent.
4. The personal adornments of the eighteenth century "blood"
were elaborate, wigs, cocked hat, colored breeches, red-heeled
shoes, cane, and muff.
5. The chief of the engineers reported "The route, taken as a
whole, is practicable enough, but near Clifton, where the yards
must be placed, it leads through a rocky defile."
=The Dash=
=94a. The dash may be used instead of the marks of parenthesis,
especially where informality is desired.=
Right: She fell asleep--would you believe it?--in the middle of
the lecture.
Right: That fellow actually--of course this is between you and
me--stole money from his father.
=b. Insert a dash when a sentence is broken off abruptly.=
Right: The next morning--let's see, what happened the next
morning?
=c. The dash may be used near the end of a sentence, before a summarizing
statement or an afterthought.=
Right: When you have carried in the wood and the water, and
milked the cows, and fed all the stock and the poultry, and
mended the harness--when you have done these things, you may
consider the rest of the evening your own.
Right: Barnes played a mischievous trick one day--in fact,
Barnes was always into mischief.
=d. The use of the dash to end sentences is childish.=
Childish: At dawn I went on deck--far off to the left was a
cloud, I thought, on the edge of the water--it grew more
distinct as we angled toward it--it was land--before noon we
had sailed into harbor.
Right: At dawn I went on deck. Far off to the left was a cloud,
I thought, on the edge of the water. It grew more distinct as
we angled toward it. It was land. Before noon we had sailed
into harbor.
=e. A dash should be made about three times as long as a hyphen;
otherwise it may be mistaken as the sign of a compound word.=
Exercise:
1. The boy left the package on the where did that boy leave the
package?
2. She was haughty independent as a queen in fact and she told
him no.
3. The clatter of the other typewriters, the relentless
movement of the hands of the clock, the calls from the press
room for more copy, these made Sears write like mad.
4. He made her acquaintance what do you think of this by
scribbling his name and address on some eggs he sold to a
grocer.
5. He obtained a position in a big department store--his good
taste was quickly recognized--within a month he was dressing
the windows.
=Parenthesis Marks and Brackets=
=95a.= Parenthesis marks may be used to enclose matter foreign to the main
thought of the sentence. (But see also 94a and 91e.)
Right: His testimony is conclusive (unless, to be sure, we find
that he has perjured himself).
=b. A comma or a semicolon used at the end of a parenthesis should as a
rule follow the mark of parenthesis rather than precede it.=
Right: If there is snow on the ground (and I am sure there will
be), we shall have plenty of sleighing.
=c. When confirmatory symbols or figures are enclosed within parenthesis
marks, they should follow rather than precede the words they confirm.=
Wrong: They earn (3) dollars a day.
Right: They earn three (3) dollars a day. [Or] They earn three
dollars ($3) a day.
=d. Do not use parenthesis marks to cancel a word or passage.= Draw a
horizontal line through whatever is to be omitted.