footnotes, and bibliographies, or wherever brevity is essential, other
abbreviations may be used.= Even here, short words should not be
abbreviated: Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Ohio, Samoa, Utah,
March, April, May, June, July.
Exercise:
1. Mr. Gregg & Dr. Appleton were rivals.
2. Harris lacked but one of having a grade of one hundred; _i.
e._, he had the two O's already.
3. His inheritance tax was three thousand $. In Apr. he moved
from Portland, Me., to Sandusky, O.
4. Prof. Kellogg came down Beech St. at a quarter before eight
every a. m.
5. A No. of old friends visited them on special occasions; _e.
g._, on their wedding anniversaries.
=Numbers=
=84a. It is customary to use figures for dates, for the street numbers in
addresses, for reference to the pages of a book, and for statistics.=
Right: June 16, 1920. 804 Chalmers Street. See Chapter 4, especially
page 79.
Note.--It is desirable not to write _st_, _nd_, or _th_ after the day of
the month if the year is designated also. Right: March 3, 1919 (not
March 3rd, 1919).
=b. Figures are used for numbers which cannot be expressed in a few
words. The dollar sign and figures are used with complicated sums of
money.=
Right: The farm comprised 3260 acres. The population of Kansas City,
Missouri, was 248,381 in 1910. He earned $437 while attending school.
The cost of the improvement was $1,940.25.
=c. In other instances than those specified in _a_ and _b_ numbers as a
rule should be written out.= (This rule applies to numbers and to sums of
money which can be expressed in a few words, to sums of money less than
one dollar, and to ages and time of day.)
Right: The box weighs two hundred pounds. Xerxes had an army of three
million men. I enclose seventy-five cents. He owed twelve hundred
dollars. Grandfather Toland is eighty-seven years old. The train is due
at a quarter past three.
Exercise:
1. For 70 pounds of excess baggage I had to pay $1.00.
2. At 2 o'clock Rice gave him the 2nd capsule.
3. The letter was sent from twenty-one Warner St. November the
eleventh, nineteen hundred and eighteen.
4. Knox earned $5 a day he said; but they paid him only $0.75.
5. At 40 he owned a 2,000 acre farm and had an income of
$10,000 a year.
=Syllabication=
=85a. When a word is broken at the end of a line, use a hyphen there. Do
not place a hyphen at the beginning of the second line.=
=b. Words are divided only between syllables:= _depart-ment_,
_dis-charge_, _ab-surd_, _univer-sity_, _pro-fessor_ (not _depa-rtment_,
_disc-harge_, _abs-urd_, _unive-rsity_, _prof-essor_).
=c. Monosyllabic words are never divided:= _which_, _through_, _dipped_,
_speak_ (not _wh-ich_, _thr-ough_, _dip-ped_, _spe-ak_).
=d. A consonant at the junction of two syllables usually goes with the
second:= _recipro-cate_, _ordi-nance_, _inti-mate_ (not _reciproc-ate_,
_ordin-ance_, _intim-ate_). Sometimes two consonants are equivalent to a
single letter: _falli-ble_, _photo-graph_ (not _fallib-le_,
_photog-raph_).
=e. Two or more consonants at the junction of syllables are themselves
divided:= _en-ter-prise_, _com-mis-sary_, _in-car-nate_ (not
_ent-erpr-ise_, _comm-iss-ary_, _inc-arn-ate_).
=f. A prefix or a suffix is usually set off from the rest of the word
regardless of the rule for consonants between syllables:= _ex-empt_,
_dis-appoint_, _sing-ing_, _pro-gress-ive_. But when a final consonant
is doubled before a suffix the additional consonant goes with the
suffix: _trip-ping_, _permit-ted_, _omis-sion_.
=g. The best usage avoids separating one or two letters (unless in
prefixes like _un_ or suffixes like _ly_) from the rest of the word:=
_achieve-ment_, _enor-mous_, _remem-bered_, _dyspep-sia_ (not
_a-chievement_, _e-normous_, remember-ed, dyspepsi-a).
=h. The first part of a divided word should not be ludicrous or
misleading:= _dogma-tize_, _croco-dile_, _de-cadence_, _metri-cal_,
_goril-la_ (not _dog-matize_, _croc-odile_, _deca-dence_, _met-rical_,
_go-rilla_).
Exercise:
Place a hyphen between each pair of syllables in each word of
more than one syllable: _thoughtful_, _burrowing_, _thorough_,
_chimney_, _brought_, _helped_, _harshnesses_, _which_,
_murmur_, _superstition_, _ground_, _symmetry_, _ripped_,
_compartment_, _disallow_, _obey_, _opinion_, _opportune_,
_aggressive_, _intellectually_, _complicated_, _encyclopedia_,
_wrought_, _electricity_, _abstraction_, _syllabication_,
_punctuation_, _frustrate_, _except_, _substituting_,
_distressful_.
=Outlines=
Three kinds of outlines are illustrated in this article: (a) the Topic
Outline, (b) the Sentence Outline, and (c) the Paragraph Outline.
=86a. A topic outline consists of headings (nouns or phrases containing
nouns) which indicate the important ideas in a composition, and their
relation to each other. Conform to the following model:=
=The Lumber Problem=
Theme: The decline of our lumber supply requires that we shall
take steps toward reforesting, conservation, and the use of
substitutes for wood.
I The Depletion of our forests
A Former abundance
B Present scarcity (especially walnut, white pine, oak)
II The Causes of the depletion
A Great demand
1 For building
2 For industrial expansion (ties, posts, etc.)
3 For fuel, and other minor uses
B Wasteful methods of forestry
III The Remedy
A Reforestation
1 Planting by individuals
2 Planting by the states
3 Extension of the present National Forest Reserves
B The prevention of waste
1 In fires, by insects, etc.
2 In cutting and sawing
3 In by-products (sawing, odd lengths, etc.)
C The use of substitutes for wood (concrete, steel, brick,
stone, etc.)
=b. A sentence outline is expressed in complete sentences. Conform to the
following model:=
=The Lumber Problem=
I The depletion of our forests is evident when one compares
A the former abundance, with
B the present scarcity (of walnut, white pine, and oak,
especially).
II The causes of the depletion are:
A the great demand
1 for building,
2 for industrial expansion (ties, posts, etc.),
3 for fuel and other minor uses; and
B wasteful methods of forestry.
III The remedies for the depletion are:
A reforestation
1 by individuals,
2 by the states,
3 by extension of the present National Forest
Reserves;
B the prevention of waste
1 in fires, by insects, etc.,
2 in cutting and sawing,
3 in by-products (sawdust, odd lengths, etc.);
and
C the use of substitutes, for wood (concrete, steel,
brick, stone, etc.)
=c. A paragraph outline is a series of sentences summarizing the thought
of successive paragraphs in a composition. Conform to the following
model:=
=The Disagreeable Optimist=
1. The present age may be called an era of efficiency,
prosperity, and optimism, since efficiency has produced
prosperity, and this in turn has produced "optimism"--a word
recurrent in common literature and conversation.
2. The optimist is often not natural or sincere, because his
thoughts are centered on keeping up an appearance of being
happy.
3. He is intrusive, for he thrusts comfort upon those who wish
to mourn, and repeats irritating epigrams and poems about
cheer.
4. He is undiscriminating, in that he prescribes the same
remedy, "good cheer," for everybody and for every condition.
5. He is sometimes harmful, because he tells us that the world
is going well, when conditions need changing, and need changing
badly.
=d. Mechanical details.= Indent headings that are coördinate (that is, of
equal value) an equal distance from the margin. One inch to the right is
a good distance for successive subordinate headings. Use Roman numerals,
capital letters, Arabic numerals, and small letters to indicate the
comparative rank of ideas. When a heading runs over one line, use
hanging indention; that is, do not allow the second line to run back to
the left-hand margin, but indent it. Make the numerals and letters (_1_,
_A_, etc.) stand out prominently. The title of a theme should not be
given a numeral or letter.
Faulty indention:
Sources of energy which may be utilized when the coal
supply is exhausted are
I Rivers and streams, especially in mountain
districts
II The tides
III The heat of the sun
Correct hanging indention:
Sources of energy which may be utilized when the coal supply
is exhausted are
I Rivers and streams, especially in mountain
districts
II The tides
III The heat of the sun
=e. Ideas parallel in thought should be expressed in parallel form.= Nouns
and phrases including nouns are ordinarily used.
Faulty parallelism:
Advantages of a garden:
1 Profitable
2 It affords good exercise
3 Gives pleasure
Right:
Advantages of a garden:
1 Profit
2 Exercise
3 Pleasure
=f. Avoid faulty coördination (giving two ideas equal rank, when one
should be subordinated to the other) and _vice versa_, avoid faulty
subordination.=
Faulty coördination:
How Seeds Scatter
I By Wind
II Some Seeds provided with parachutes
III Others light, and easily blown about
IV By Water
V By Animals
Right:
=How Seeds Scatter=
I By Wind
A Some seeds provided with parachutes
B Others light, and easily blown about
II By Water
III By Animals
=g. Avoid detailed subordination. Especially avoid a single subheading
when it can be joined to the preceding line, or omitted.=
Too detailed:
A The McClellan Orchard
1 Situation
a On a northern slope
2 Nature of soil
a Sandy
3 Kind of fruit
a Apple
b Cherry
Right:
A The McClellan Orchard
1. Situation: a northern slope
2. Nature of soil: sandy
3. Kind of fruit: apple and cherry
Exercise:
1. Give a title to an outline which shall include the following
topics. Group the topics under two main headings, and give the
headings names.
Uses of the grape
The Vine
The Fruit Itself
How Marketed
How Cultivated
2. Place in order the sentences of the following outline on
"Why Keep a Diary?" Subordinate some of the headings to others.
A diary affords great satisfaction in future years.
We sometimes record in a diary information which proves useful.
A few lines a day will suffice.
A diary is not hard to keep.
We may find time for writing in our diary if we do not waste
time at the table or on newspapers.
We may write in our diary just before we go to bed.
A diary will bring back the past.
We all have some moments to kill.
A diary gives us pleasure even in the present.
3. Place in order the headings of the following outline on
"Ulysses S. Grant." Subordinate some of the headings to others.
Obscurity in 1861
Prominence in 1865
Patience
President
General
Perseverance and Resolution
Character
The Turning Point in His Career
=Letters=
The parts of a letter are the heading, the inside address, the greeting,
the body, the close, and the signature. For these parts good use
prescribes definite forms, which we may sometimes ignore in personal
letters, but must rigidly observe in formal or business letters.
=87a. The heading of a letter should give the full address of the writer
and the date of writing. Do not abbreviate short words, or omit Street
or Avenue.=
Objectionable: #15 Hickory, Omaha.
Right: 15 Hickory Street, Omaha, Nebraska.
Objectionable: 4/12/19; 10-28-'16; May 2nd, 1910.
Right: April 12, 1919; October 28, 1916; May 2, 1910.
The following headings are correct:
106 East Race Street,
Red Oak, Iowa,
August 4, 1916.
423 Michigan Avenue
Chicago, Illinois
May 20, 1918
Prescott, Arizona, June 1, 1920.
Note.--In personal letters the heading may be transferred to the end,
below the signature, at the left-hand side. But it must not be so
divided that the street address will appear in one place and the town
and state in another.
The "closed" form of punctuation (the use of punctuation at the ends of
the lines) is best until the student learns what is correct. Afterward,
the adoption of the "open" form becomes purely a matter of individual
taste and not a matter of carelessness or ignorance.
=b. An inside address and a greeting are required in business letters.=
Personal letters contain the greeting, but may omit the inside address,
or may supply it at the end of the letter.
The Jeffrey Chemical Works,
510 Marion Street,
Norfolk, Virginia.
Gentlemen:
Mr. Joseph N. Kellogg
1411 Lake Street
Cleveland, Ohio
Dear Mr. Kellogg:
Secretary of Rice Institute, Houston, Texas.
My dear Sir:
Greetings used in business letters are:
My dear Sir:
My dear Madam:
My dear Mr. Fisher:
Dear Sir:
Sir:
Sirs:
Gentlemen:
Ladies:
Greetings used in personal letters are:
My dear Miss Brown:
Dear Professor Ward:
Dear Jones,
Dear Mrs. Vincent,
Dear Robert,
Dear Olive,
"My dear Miss Brown" is more ceremonious than "Dear Miss Brown". As a
rule, the more familiar the letter, the shorter the greeting.
A colon follows the greeting if the letter is formal or long; a comma,
if the letter is familiar or in the nature of a note.
Both inside address and greeting begin at the left-hand margin. The body
of the letter begins on the line below the greeting, and is indented as
much as an ordinary paragraph (about an inch).
=c. The body of a letter should be written in correct style.=
=1.= Do not omit pronouns, or write a "telegraphic style".
Wrong: Just received yours of the 21st, and in reply would say
your order has been filled and shipped.
Right: I have your letter of March twenty-first. Your order was
promptly filled and shipped.
=2.= The idea that it is immodest to use _I_ is a superstition. Undue
repetition of _I_ is of course awkward; but entire avoidance of it is
silly.
=3.= Use simple language. Say "your letter"; not "your kind favor", or
"yours duly received", or "yours of the 21st is at hand".
=4.= Avoid "begging" expressions which you obviously do not mean,
especially the hackneyed "beg to advise".
Wrong: Received yours of the 3rd instant, and beg to advise we
are out of stock.
Right: We received your order of March 3. We find that we have
no more dining-room chairs B 2-4-6 in stock.
Wrong: I beg to enclose a booklet.
Right: I enclose a booklet.
Wrong: Permit us to say that prices have been advanced.
Right: The prices on our goods have been advanced.
=5.= Avoid the formula "please find enclosed". The reader will find what
is enclosed; if you use "please", let it refer to what the reader shall
do with what is enclosed.
Wrong: Enclosed please find 10 cents, for which send me
Bulletin 58.
Right: I enclose ten cents, for which please send me Bulletin
58.
=6.= Avoid unnecessary commercial slang: _On the job_, _A-1 service_,
_O.K._, _your ad_, _popular-priced line_, _this party_, _as per
schedule_.
=7.= Get to the important idea quickly. In applying for a position, do not
beat around the bush, or say you "wish to apply" or "would apply".
Begin, "I make application for ...", "kindly consider my application for
...", or "I apply ..."
=8.= Group your ideas logically. Do not scatter information. A letter
applying for a position might consist of three paragraphs: Personal
qualifications (age, health, education, etc.); Experience (nature of
positions, dates, etc.); References (names, business or profession,
exact street address). Finish one group of ideas before passing to the
next.
=9.= Do not monotonously close all letters with a sentence beginning with
a participle: _Hoping to hear from you ..._, _Asking your coöperation
..._, _Awaiting your further favors ..._, _Trusting this will be
satisfactory ..._, _Wishing you ..._, _Thanking you ..._. The
independent form of the verb is more emphatic (see 42); _I hope to hear
from you ..._, _We await further orders ..._, _We ask coöperation ..._.
=d. The close= should be consistent in tone with the greeting. It is
written on a separate line, beginning near the middle of the page, and
is followed by a comma. Only the first word is capitalized. Preceding
expressions like "I am", "I remain", "As ever", (if they are used at
all) belong in the body of the letter.
Right: I thank you for your courtesy, and remain
Yours sincerely,
Robert Blair
Right: I shall be grateful for any further information you can
give me.
Yours truly,
Florence Mitchell
In business letters the following forms are used:
Yours truly,
Very truly yours,
Yours respectfully,
In personal letters the following are used:
Yours truly,
Yours sincerely,
Sincerely yours,
Cordially yours,
=e. The outside address should follow one of the forms given below:=
+---------------------------------------------------+
| R. E. Stearns |
| 512 Chapel Hill St. |
| Durham, N. C. |
| |
| |
| Mr. Donald Kemp |
| 3314 Salem Street |
| Baltimore |
| Maryland |
+---------------------------------------------------+
+---------------------------------------------------+
| Bentley Davis |
| 906 Park Street |
| Ogden, Utah |
| |
| |
| Rogers, Mead, and Company |
| 2401 Eighth Avenue |
| Los Angeles |
| California |
+---------------------------------------------------+
Note.--An abbreviation in an address is followed by a period.
Punctuation is also correct, but not necessary, after every line (a
period after the last line, and a comma after the others).
A married woman is ordinarily addressed thus: Mrs. George H. Turner. But
a title belonging to the husband should not be transferred to the wife.
Wrong: Mrs. Dr. Jenkins, Mrs. Professor Ward. Right: Mrs. Jenkins, Mrs.
Ward. Reverend Mr. Beecher is a correct address for a minister; not
"Rev. Beecher". If a title of respect is placed before a name
(Professor, Dr., Honorable), it is undesirable to place another title
after the name (Secretary, M.D., Ph.D., Principal, Esq.).
=f. Miscellaneous directions.= Writing should be centered on the page, not
crowded against the top, or against one side. Letter paper so folded
that each sheet is a little book of four pages is best for personal
correspondence. Both sides of such paper may be written on. The pages
may be written on in any order which will be convenient to the reader.
An order like that of the pages in a printed book (1, 2, 3, 4) is best.
Business letters are usually written on one side only of flat sheets
8-1/2 by 11 inches in size. The sheet is folded once horizontally in the
middle, and twice in the other direction, for insertion in the envelope.
=g. A business letter should have, in general, the following form:=
1516 South Garrison Avenue.
Carthage, Missouri,
May 14, 1918.
J. E. Pratt, General Superintendent,
The Southwest Missouri Railroad Company,
1012 North Madison Street,
Webb City, Missouri.
Dear Sir:
I apply for a position as mechanic's assistant in the
electrical department of your shops. I am nineteen years old,
and in good physical condition. On June 6 I shall graduate from
Carthage High School, and after that date I can begin work
immediately.
I have had no practical experience in electrical work. But I
have for two years made a special study of physics, in and out
of school. I worked last summer in the local garage of Mr. R.
S. Bryant. In addition, I have become familiar with tools in my
workshop at home, so that I both know and like machinery.
For statements as to my character and ability, I refer you to
R. S. Bryant, Manager Bryant's Garage; Mr. Frank Darrow
(lawyer), 602 Ninth Street; W. C. Barnes, Superintendent of
Schools; and C. W. Oldham, Principal of the High School--all of
this city.
Respectfully yours,
Howard Rolfe
=h. Formal notes and replies are written in the third person (avoiding
_I_, _my_, _me_, _you_, _your_) and permit no abbreviations except
_Mr._, _Mrs._, _Dr._ =
Mrs. Clarence King requests the company of
Mr. Charles Eliot at dinner on Friday,
April the twenty-fourth, at six o'clock.
102 Pearl Street,
April the seventeenth.
In accepting an invitation, the writer should repeat the day and hour
mentioned, in order to avoid a misunderstanding; in declining an
invitation, only the day need be mentioned. The verb used in the reply
should be in the present tense; not "will be pleased to accept", or
"regrets that he will be unable to accept"; but "is pleased to accept",
or "regrets that circumstances prevent his accepting".
Mr. Charles Eliot gladly accepts the invitation of Mrs. King to
dinner on Friday, April the twenty-fourth, at six o'clock.
514 Poplar Avenue,
April the eighteenth.
=Paragraphs=
=88a. The first lines of paragraphs are uniformly indented, in
manuscript, about an inch; in print, somewhat less. After a sentence,
the remainder of a line should not be left blank, except at the end of a
paragraph.=
=b. The length of a paragraph is ordinarily from fifty to three hundred
words, depending on the importance or complexity of the thought.= In
exposition, the paragraphs should be long enough to develop every idea
thoroughly. Scrappy expository paragraphs arouse the suspicion that the
writer is incoherent, or that he has not given sufficient thought to the
subject. Short paragraphs are permissible, and even desirable, in the
following cases:
1. In a formal introduction to the main body of a discourse, or in the
formal conclusion. (In some instances the paragraph may consist of a
single sentence.)
2. In the body of a composition, when a brief logical transition between
two longer paragraphs is necessary.
3. In short compositions on complex subjects, where space forbids the
development of each thought on a proper scale. (But, as a rule, the
student should limit his subject to a few simple ideas, each of which
can be developed fully.)
4. In newspapers, where brevity and emphasis are required. (But the
student should not take the journalistic style as a model.)
5. In description or narration meant to be vivid, vigorous, or rapid.
6. In dialogue.
=c. In representing dialogue, each speech, no matter how short, is placed
in a separate paragraph.=
Right:
"Listen!" he said. "There was a noise
outside. Didn't you hear it?"
"No," I whispered. It was dark in the room, except for a faint
light at the window, and I felt my way cautiously to his side.
"What is it? Burglars?"
"I believe it is."
"I can't hear anything."
"Listen! There it is again."
"Pshaw!" I had to laugh aloud. "Thompson's cow has got into the
garden again."
Note that a slight amount of descriptive matter may be included in a
paragraph with the direct discourse, the only requirement being that a
change of speaker shall be indicated by a new paragraph.
When special emphasis is desired, a quotation may be detached from a
preceding introductory statement.
Right: The speaker turned gravely about, and facing the front
row, he said slowly and solemnly:
"Small boys should be seen and not heard."
In exceptional cases a long, rapid-fire dialogue may, for purposes of
compression, be placed in one paragraph. Dashes should then be used
before successive quotations to indicate a change of speaker.
Omissions from a dialogue (as when only one side of a telephone
conversation is reported), long pauses, and the unfinished part of
interrupted statements, may be represented by a short row of dots.
Exercise:
Arrange in paragraphs, and insert quotation marks:
1. Help! I cried, rolling over in the narrow crevasse, and
wondering dazedly how far I had fallen through the snow. A
muffled voice came from above: We'll have a rope down to you in
a minute. Tie that bottle of brandy on the end of it, I
suggested, and it'll come faster. [The student will here insert
a sentence of his own to complete the dialogue.]
2. Good morning, James, said the deacon, suspiciously. How are
you? and where are you going? I'm all right, answered the boy,
and I'm goin' down to the creek. As he spoke, he tried to hide
something bulky underneath his coat. You oughtn't to go fishing
on Sunday. [Add another sentence to finish the dialogue.]
=89.= MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE
The following sentences illustrate errors in the use of capitals,
italics, numbers, abbreviations, etc. Make necessary changes.
1. I met him at kansas city at a dinner of the commercial club.
2. The senate and the house of representatives are the two
branches of congress.
3. In today's chicago herald the union pacific railroad
advertises reduced rates to yellowstone park and the northwest.
4. There are 30 men in each section in chemistry, but only 25
in each section in french.
5. Early in pres. wilson's administration troops crossed the
rio grande river. Pres. Carranza protested.
6. In nineteen ten the population of new york city (including
suburbs) was 4,766,883.