[Transcriber's Notes:
1. Italic text is rendered with underscores _like this_, and bold with
equal signs =like this=.
2. Misprints and punctuation errors were corrected. A list of
corrections can be found at the end of the text.]
THE
CENTURY HANDBOOK OF
WRITING
BY
GARLAND GREEVER
_AND_
EASLEY S. JONES
NEW YORK
THE CENTURY CO.
1927
Copyright, 1918, by
THE CENTURY CO.
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
PREFACE
This handbook treats essential matters of grammar, diction, spelling,
mechanics; and develops with thoroughness the principles of sentence
structure. Larger units of composition it leaves to the texts in formal
rhetoric.
The book is built on a decimal plan, the material being simplified and
reduced to one hundred articles. Headings of these articles are
summarized on two opposite pages by a chart. Here the student can see at
a glance the resources of the volume, and the instructor can find
immediately the number he wishes to write in the margin of a theme. The
chart and the decimal scheme together make the rules accessible for
instant reference.
By a device equally efficient, the book throws upon the student the
responsibility of teaching himself. Each article begins with a concise
rule, which is illustrated by examples; then follows a short "parallel
exercise" which the instructor may assign by adding an _x_ to the number
he writes in the margin of a theme. While correcting this exercise, the
student will give attention to the rule, and will acquire theory and
practice at the same time. Moreover, every group of ten articles is
followed by mixed exercises; these may be used for review, or imposed in
the margin of a theme as a penalty for flagrant or repeated error. Thus
friendly counsel is backed by discipline, and the instructor has the
means of compelling the student to make rapid progress toward good
English.
Although a handbook of this nature is in some ways arbitrary, the
arbitrariness is always in the interest of simplicity. The book does
have simplicity, permits instant reference, and provides an adequate
drill which may be assigned at the stroke of a pen.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
COMPLETENESS OF THOUGHT
1. Fragments wrongly used as sentences
2. Incomplete constructions
3. Necessary words omitted
4. Comparisons not logically completed
5. Cause and reason
6. _Is when_ and _is where_ clauses
7. Undeveloped thought
8. Transitions
9. EXERCISE
A. Incomplete sentences
B. Incomplete constructions
C. Incomplete logic
D. Undeveloped thought and transitions
UNITY OF THOUGHT
10. Unrelated ideas in one sentence
11. Excessive detail
12. Stringy sentences to be broken up
13. Choppy sentences to be combined
14. Excessive coördination
15. Faulty subordination of the main thought
16. Subordination thwarted by _and_
17. The _and which_ construction
18. The comma splice
19. EXERCISE
A. The comma splice
B. One thought in a sentence
C. Excessive coördination
D. Upside-down subordination
CLEARNESS OF THOUGHT
REFERENCE
20. Divided reference
21. Weak reference
22. Broad reference
23. Dangling participle or gerund
COHERENCE
24. General incoherence
25. Logical sequence
26. Squinting modifier
27. Misplaced word
28. Split construction
29. EXERCISE
A. Reference of pronouns
B. Dangling modifiers
C. Coherence
PARALLEL STRUCTURE
30. Parallel structure for parallel thoughts
31. Correlatives
CONSISTENCY
32. Shift in subject or voice
33. Shift in number, person, or tense
34. Mixed constructions
35. Mixed imagery
USE OF CONNECTIVES
36. The exact connective
37. Repetition of connective with gain in clearness
38. Repetition of connective with loss in clearness
39. EXERCISE
A. Parallel structure
B. Shift in subject or voice
C. Shift in number, person, or tense
D. The exact connective
E. Repetition of connectives
EMPHASIS
40. Emphasis by position
41. Emphasis by separation
42. Emphasis by subordination
43. The periodic sentence
44. Order of climax
45. The balanced sentence
46. Weak effect of the passive voice
47. Repetition effective: a Words; b Structure
48. Repetition offensive: a Words; b Structure
49. EXERCISE
A. Lack of emphasis in general
B. Loose structure
C. Repetition
GRAMMAR
50. Case: a Nominative, especially after _than_ or _as_;
b Nominative _who_ and _whoever_; c Predicate nominative;
d Objective; e Objective with infinitive; f Possessive;
g Possessive with gerund; h Possession by inanimate
objects; i Agreement of pronouns
51. Number: a _Each_, _every one_, etc.; b _Those kind_, etc.;
c Collective nouns; d _Don't_
52. Agreement--not to be thwarted by: a Intervening nouns;
b _Together with_ phrases; c _Or_ or _nor_ after subject;
d _And_ in the subject; e A predicate noun;
f An introductory _there_
53. _Shall_ and _will_
54. Principal parts. List
55. Tense, mode, auxiliaries: a Tense in dependent clauses
or infinitives; b The past perfect; c Present tense for a
general statement; d Mode; e Auxiliaries
56. Adjective and adverb: a Adjective misused for adverb;
b Ambiguous cases; c After verbs pertaining to the
senses
57. A word in a double capacity
58. List of the terms of grammar
59. EXERCISE
A. Case of pronouns
B. Agreement
C. _Shall_ and _will_
D. _Lie, lay; sit, set; rise, raise_
E. Principal parts of verbs
F. General
DICTION
60. Wordiness
61. Triteness
62. The exact word
63. Concreteness
64. Sound
65. Subtle violations of good use: a Faulty idiom; b Colloquialism
66. Gross violations of good use: a Barbarisms; b Improprieties;
c Slang
67. Words often confused in meaning. List
68. Glossary of faulty diction
69. EXERCISE
A. Wordiness
B. The exact word
C. Words sometimes confused in meaning
D. Colloquialisms, slang, faulty idioms
SPELLING
70. Recording errors
71. Pronouncing accurately
72. Logical kinship in words
73. Superficial resemblances. List
74. Words in _ei_ and _ie_
75. Doubling a final consonant
76. Dropping final _e_
77. Plurals: a Plurals in _s_ or _es_; b Nouns ending in _y_;
c Compound nouns; d Letters, figures, and signs;
e Old plurals; f Foreign plurals
78. Compounds: a Compound adjectives; b Compound nouns;
c Numbers; d Words written solid; e General principle
79. SPELLING LIST (500 words, 200 in bold-face type)
MISCELLANEOUS
80. Manuscript: a Titles; b Spacing; c Handwriting
81. Capitals: a To begin a sentence or a quotation; b Proper
names; c Proper adjectives; d In titles of books or
themes; e Miscellaneous uses
82. Italics: a Titles of books; b Foreign words; c Names of
ships; d Words taken out of context; e For emphasis
83. Abbreviations: a In ordinary writing; b In business
writing
84. Numbers: a Dates and street numbers; b Long figures;
Sums of money, etc.
85. Syllabication: a Position of hyphen; b Division between
syllables; c Monosyllabic words not divided; d One consonant
between syllables; e Two consonants between
syllables; f Prefixes and suffixes; g Short words; h Misleading
division
86. Outlines: a Topic Outline; b Sentence Outline; c Paragraph
Outline; d Indention; e Parallel form; f Faulty
coördination; g Too detailed subordination
87. Letters: a Heading; b Inside address and greeting;
c Body, Language; d Close; e Outside address;
f Miscellaneous directions; g Model business letter;
h Formal notes
88. Paragraphs: a Indention; b Length; c Dialogue
89. EXERCISE
Capitals, numbers, abbreviations, etc.
PUNCTUATION
90. The Period: a After sentences; b But not after fragments
of sentences; c After abbreviations
91. The Comma: a Between clauses joined by _but_, _for_, _and_;
b But NOT to splice clauses not joined by a conjunction;
c After a subordinate clause preceding a main clause;
d To set off non-restrictive clauses and phrases; e To
set off parenthetical elements; f Between adjectives;
g Between words in a series; h Before a quotation;
i To compel a pause for clearness; j Superfluous uses
92. The Semicolon: a Between coördinate clauses not joined
by a conjunction; b Between long coördinate clauses;
c Before a formal conjunctive adverb; d But not before
a quotation
93. The Colon: a To introduce a formal series or quotation;
b Before concrete illustrations of a previous general
statement
94. The Dash: a To enclose a parenthetical statement; b To
mark a breaking-off in thought; c Before a summarizing
statement; d But not to be used in place of a period;
e Not to be confused with the hyphen
95. Parenthesis Marks: a Uses; b With other marks; c Confirmatory
symbols; d Not used to cancel words;
e Brackets
96. Quotation Marks: a With quotations; b With paragraphs;
c In dialogue; d With slang, etc.; e With words
set apart; f Quotation within a quotation; g Together
with other marks; h Quotation interrupted by _he said_;
i Omission from a quotation; j Unnecessary in the title
of a theme, or as a label for humor or irony
97. The Apostrophe: a In contractions; b To form the possessive;
c To form the possessive of nouns ending in _s_;
d Not used with personal possessive pronouns; e To
form the plural of certain signs and letters
98. The Question Mark: a After a direct question; b Not
followed by a comma within a sentence; c In parentheses
to express uncertainty; d Not used to label irony; e The
Exclamation Point
99. EXERCISE
100. GENERAL EXERCISE
TO THE STUDENT
When a number is written in the margin of your theme, you are to turn to
the article which corresponds to the number. Read the rule (printed in
bold-face type), and study the examples. When an _r_ follows the number
on your theme, you are, in addition, to copy the rule. When an _x_
follows the number, you are, besides acquainting yourself with the rule,
to write the exercise of five sentences, to correct your own faulty
sentence, and to hand in the six on theme paper. If the number ends in 9
(9, 19, 29, etc.), you will find, not a rule, but a long exercise which
you are to write and hand in on theme paper. In the absence of special
instructions from your teacher, you are invariably to proceed as this
paragraph requires.
Try to grasp the principle which underlies the rule. In many places in
this book the reason for the existence of the rule is clearly stated.
Thus under 20, the reason for the rule on parallel structure is
explained in a prologue. In other instances, as in the rule on divided
reference (20), the reason becomes clear the moment you read the
examples. In certain other instances the rule may appear arbitrary and
without a basis in reason. But there is a basis in reason, as you will
observe in the following illustration.
Suppose you write, "He is twenty one years old." The instructor asks you
to put a hyphen in _twenty-one_, and refers you to 78. You cannot see
why a hyphen is necessary, since the meaning is clear without it. But
tomorrow you may write. "I will send you twenty five dollar bills." The
reader cannot tell whether you mean twenty five-dollar bills or
twenty-five dollar bills. In the first sentence the use of the hyphen in
_twenty-one_ did not make much difference. In the second sentence the
hyphen makes seventy-five dollars' worth of difference. Thus the
instructor, in asking you to write, "He is twenty-one years old," is
helping you to form a habit that will save you from serious error in
other sentences. Whenever you cannot understand the reason for a rule,
ask yourself whether the usage of many clear-thinking men for long years
past may not be protecting you from difficulties which you do not
foresee. Instructors and writers of text books (impressive as is the
evidence to the contrary) are human, and do not invent rules to puzzle
you. They do not, in fact, invent rules at all, but only make convenient
applications of principles which generations of writers have found to be
wisest and best.
THE CENTURY HANDBOOK OF WRITING SENTENCE STRUCTURE
COMPLETENESS OF THOUGHT
The first thing to make certain is that the thought of a sentence is
complete. A fragment which has no meaning when read alone, or a sentence
from which is omitted a necessary word, phrase, or idea, violates an
elementary principle of writing.
=Fragments Wrongly Used as Sentences=
=1. Do not write a subordinate part of a sentence as if it were a
complete sentence.=
Wrong: He stopped short. Hearing some one approach.
Right: He stopped short, hearing some one approach. [Or]
Hearing some one approach, he stopped short.
Wrong: The winters are cold. Although the summers are pleasant.
Right: Although the summers are pleasant, the winters are cold.
Wrong: The hunter tried to move the stone. Which he found very
heavy.
Right: The hunter tried to move the stone, which he found very
heavy. [Or] The hunter tried to move the stone. He found it
very heavy.
Note.--A sentence must in itself express a complete thought. Phrases or
subordinate clauses, if used alone, carry only an incomplete meaning.
They must therefore be attached to a sentence, or restated in
independent form. Elliptical expressions used in conversation may be
regarded as exceptions: Where? At what time? Ten o'clock. By no means.
Certainly. Go.
Exercise:
1. My next experience was in a grain elevator. Where I worked
for two summers.
2. The parts of a fountain pen are: first, the point. This is
gold. Second, the body.
3. The form is set rigidly. So that it will not be displaced
when the concrete is thrown in.
4. There are several reasons to account for the swarming of
bees. One of these having already been mentioned.
5. Since June the company has increased its trade three per
cent. Since August, five per cent.
=Incomplete Constructions=
=2. Do not leave uncompleted a construction which you have begun.=
Wrong: You remember that in his speech in which he said he
would oppose the bill.
Right: You remember that in his speech he said he would oppose
the bill. [Or] You remember the speech in which he said he
would oppose the bill.
Wrong: He was a young man who, coming from the country, with
ignorance of city ways, but with plenty of determination to
succeed.
Right: He was a young man who, coming from the country, was
ignorant of city ways, but had plenty of determination to
succeed.
Wrong: From the window of the train I perceived one of those
unsightly structures.
Right: From the window of the train I perceived one of those
unsightly structures which are always to be seen near a
station.
Exercise:
1. As far as his having been deceived, there is a difference of
opinion on that matter.
2. The fact that he was always in trouble, his parents wondered
whether he should remain in school or not.
3. People who go back to the scenes of their childhood
everything looks strangely small.
4. It was the custom that whenever a political party came into
office, for the incoming men to discharge all employees of the
opposite party.
5. Although the average man, if asked whether he could shoot a
rabbit, would answer in the affirmative, even though he had
never hunted rabbits, would find himself badly mistaken.
=Necessary Words Omitted=
=3. Do not omit a word or a phrase which is necessary to an immediate
understanding of a sentence.=
Ambiguous: I consulted the secretary and president. [Did the
speaker consult one man or two?]
Right: I consulted the secretary and the president. [Or] I
consulted the man who was president and secretary.
Ambiguous: Water passes through the cement as well as the
bricks.
Right: Water passes through the cement as well as through the
bricks.
Wrong: I have had experience in every phase of the automobile.
Right: I have had experience in every phase of automobile
driving and repairing.
Wrong: About him were men whom he could not tell whether they
were friends or foes.
Right: About him were men regarding whom he could not tell
whether they were friends or foes. [Or, better] About him were
men who might have been either friends or foes.
Exercise:
1. When still a small boy, my family moved to Centerville.
2. Constantly in conversation with some one broadens our ideas
and our vocabulary.
3. It was a trick which opposing teams were sure to be
baffled.
4. They departed for the battle front with the knowledge they
might never return.
5. At the banquet were all classes of people; I met a banker
and plumber.
=Comparisons=
=4. Comparisons must be completed logically.=
Wrong: His speed was equal to a racehorse.
Wrong: Of course my opinion is worth less than a lawyer.
Wrong: The shells which are used in quail hunting are different
than in rabbit hunting.
Compare a thing with another thing, an abstraction with another
abstraction. Do not carelessly compare a thing with a part or quality of
another thing. Always ask yourself: What is compared with what?
Right: His speed was equal to that of a racehorse.
Right: Of course my opinion is worth less than a lawyer's.
Right: The shells used in quail hunting are different from
those used in rabbit hunting.
Self-contradictory: Chicago is larger than any city in
Illinois.
Right: Chicago is larger than any other city in Illinois.
Impossible: Chicago is the largest of any other city in
Illinois.
Right: Chicago is the largest of all the cities in Illinois.
[Or] Chicago is the largest city in Illinois.
Note.--After a comparative, the subject of the comparison should be
excluded from the class with which it is compared; after a superlative,
the subject of the comparison should be included within the class.
Wrong: {taller of all the girls.
{tallest of any girl.
Right: {taller than any other girl [comparative].
{tallest of all the girls [superlative].
Exercise:
1. The climate of America helps her athletes to become superior
to other countries.
2. This tobacco is the best of any other on the market.
3. You men are paid three dollars more than any other factory
in the city.
4. I thought I was best fitted for an engineering course than
any other.
5. Care should be taken not to turn in more cattle than the
grass in the pasture.
=Cause and Reason=
=5. A simple statement of fact may be completed by a _because_ clause.=
Right: I am late because I was sick.
=But a statement containing _the reason is_ must be completed by a _that_
clause.=
Wrong: The reason I am late is because I was sick. [The
"reason" is not a "because"; the "reason" is the fact of
sickness.]
Right: The reason I am late is that I was sick.
=_Because_, the conjunction, may introduce an adverbial clause only.=
Wrong: Because a man wears old clothes is no proof that he is
poor. [A _because_ clause cannot be the subject of _is_.]
Right: The fact that a man wears old clothes is no proof that
he is poor. [Or] The wearing of old clothes is not proof that a
man is poor.
Note.--_Because of_, _owing to_, _on account of_, introduce adverbial
phrases only. _Due to_ and _caused by_ introduce adjectival phrases
only.
Wrong: He failed, due to weak eyes. [Due is an adjective;
it cannot modify a verb.]
Right: His failure was {due to } weak eyes
{caused by}
{because of }
Right: He failed {owing to } weak eyes.
{on account of}
Exercise:
1. The reason why I would not buy a Ford car is because it is
too light.
2. My second reason for coming here is because of social
advantages.
3. Because John is rich does not make him happier than I.
4. Because I like farming is the reason I chose it.
5. The only reason why vegetation does not grow here is because
of the lack of water.
=_is when_ or _is where_ Clauses=
=6. Do not use a _when_ or _where_ clause as a predicate noun. Do not
define a word by saying it is a "when" or a "where". Define a noun by
another noun, a verb by another verb, etc.=
Wrong: The great event is when the train arrives.
Right: The great event is the arrival of the train.
Wrong: Immigration is where foreigners come into a country.
Right: Immigration is the entering of foreigners into a
country.
Wrong: A simile is when one object is compared with another.
Right: A simile is a figure of speech in which one object is
compared with another.
Note.--A definition of a term is a statement which (1) names the class
to which the term belongs, and (2) distinguishes it from other members
of the class. Example. A quadrilateral is a plane figure having four
sides and four angles. To test a definition ask whether it separates the
term defined from all other things. If the definition does not do this,
it is incomplete. Define _California_ (so as to exclude other states),
_window_ (so as to exclude _door_), _star_ (exclude _moon_), _night_,
_rain_, _circle_, _Bible_, _metal_, _mile_, _rectangle_.
Exercise:
1. The pistol shot is when the race begins.
2. A snob is when a man treats others as inferior socially.
3. The wireless telegraph is where messages are sent a long
distance through the air.
4. The definition of usury is where one charges interest higher
than the legal rate.
5. Biology is when one studies plant and animal life.
=Undeveloped Thought=
=7. Do not halfway express an idea. If the idea is important, develop it.
If it is not important, omit it.=
Incomplete: We were now quite sure that we had lost our way,
and Jack said he had a business engagement that night.
Better: We were now quite sure that we had lost our way, a fact
which was all the more annoying as Jack said he had a business
engagement that night.
Puzzling: Since McAndrew had inherited money, his suitcase was
plastered with labels.
Right: Since McAndrew had inherited money, he had traveled
extensively. His suitcase was plastered with the labels of
foreign hotels.
Careless: In looking for gasoline troubles, we forgot to see
whether the tank was supplied.
Right: In looking for the cause of the trouble, we forgot to
see whether the tank was supplied with gasoline.
Note.--In giving information about books, do not confuse the title with
the contents or some part of the contents. Be accurate in referring to
the time, scene, action, plot, or characters.
Loose thinking: Shakespeare's _Hamlet_ occurs in Denmark [The
scene is laid?]. Many passages are powerful, especially the
grave-digging [Is grave-digging a passage?]. The character of
Horatio is a noble fellow [conception], and the same is true of
Ophelia [Ophelia a fellow?]. The drama takes place over several
weeks. [The action covers a period of several weeks.]
Exercise:
1. The victrola brings to the home the world's musical ability.
2. The user of Dietzgen instruments is not vexed by numerous
troubles that accompany the inferior makes.
3. To the picnicker rainy weather is bad weather, while the
farmer raises a big crop.
4. Some diseases can be checked by preventives, and in many
cases can be of great use to an army.
5. This idea of breaking all records held for eating is
naturally harmful to the digestion, and these important organs
may thank their stars that Christmas does not come very often.
=Transitions=
The state of mind of a writer is not the state of mind of his reader.
The writer knows his ideas, and has spent much time with them. The
reader meets these ideas for the first time, and must gather them in at
a glance. The relation between two ideas may be clear to the writer, and
not at all clear to the reader. Therefore,
=8. In passing from one thought to another, make the connection clear. If
necessary, insert a word, a phrase, or even a sentence, to carry the
reader safely across.=
Space transition needed: We were surprised to see a house in
the distance, but we went to the door and knocked. [This
sentence does not give a reader the effect of distance.]
Better: We were surprised to see a house in the distance. _But
we hastened toward it with thoughts of a warm meal and a good
lodging. We entered the yard_, and went up to the door, and
knocked.
Exterior-interior transition needed: We noticed that the house
was built of cobblestones. There was a broad window from which
we could look out upon the small stream that dashed down the
rocky hillside.
Better: We noticed that the house was built of cobblestones.
_We went inside, and found that the living room was large and
airy._ There was a broad window from which we could look out
upon the small stream that dashed down the rocky hillside.
Cause transition lacking: The Romans were great road-builders.
They wished to maintain their empire.
Better: The Romans were great road-builders, _because means of
moving troops quickly were necessary_ to the maintenance of
their empire.
General-to-particular transition needed: Modern machinery often
makes men its slaves. Last summer I worked for the Chandler
Company. [This gap in thought occurs oftenest between the first
two sentences of a paragraph or theme.]
Better: Modern machinery often makes men its slaves. _This
truth is well illustrated by my own experience._ Last summer I
worked for the Chandler Company.
Transition to be improved by changing order: A careless trainer
may spoil a good colt. A good horse can never be made of a
vicious colt. [Here the order of ideas is: "Trainer ... colt.
Horse ... colt." Turn the last sentence end for end.]
Better: A careless trainer may spoil a good colt. And a vicious
colt can never be made a good horse. [Now the order of ideas is
"Trainer ... colt. Colt ... horse."]
Transition to be improved by removal of a disturbing element:
Our class in physics last week visited a pumping station in
which the Corliss type of steam engine is used. _The engines
are manufactured by the Allis-Chalmers Company of Milwaukee,
Wisconsin._ This type of engine is used because it has several
advantages. [The italicized sentence should be omitted here,
and used later in the theme.]
Note.--The divisions of thought within a paragraph may likewise be
indicated by connectives: _however_, _on the other hand_, _equally
important_, _another interesting problem is_, _for this reason_, _the
remedy for this_, _so much for_, _it remains to mention_, _of course I
admit_, _finally_. (For a longer list see 36.) Such phrases are also
useful in linking one paragraph to another.
When a student first learns the art, he is likely to use transition
phrases in excess, and produce something like the following: "When I
have to write a theme, I first think of my subject. As soon as I have my
subject, I take out my paper. On the paper I then make a rough outline."
This abuse of transition causes an overlapping of thought, like shingles
laid three inches to the weather. An abrupt transition is better than
wordiness.
Exercise:
1. The shore looked far off. Then we reached it.
2. A light snow was falling last night. This is a good day for
hunting rabbits.
3. A dollar is often a large sum. I sold newspapers when I was
a boy.
4. Many English words still preserve their old meanings. There
is the teller in the bank.
5. We had to walk half a mile across the pastures in the fresh
morning air. Exercise indoors does not arouse much zest or
enthusiasm.
=9.= EXERCISE IN COMPLETENESS OF THOUGHT
=A. Fragments Misused as Sentences=
Rewrite the following statements in sentences each of which expresses a
complete thought.
1. He gave me a flower. Which was wilted.
2. The gasoline flows through the supply tube to the
carburetor. Where it should vaporize and enter the cylinders.
3. People of all ages were there. Old men, young women, and
even children.
4. He told us that you had a good standing among business men.
That you always met your bills promptly.
5. Excuse Everett Smith from school this morning. He having the
measles.
6. The internal combustion engine may be either one of two
types. The two cycle or the four cycle.
7. The young men and women acted like children. Who should have
known better.
8. There was a cross cow in the pasture. Which had long horns.
9. Bacteria are microscopic organisms. Especially found where
milk or some other substance decomposes.
10. We pass on down the street. The buildings rising two or
three stories high on either side.
11. The Y. M. C. A. enables you to keep your religious
interests alive. As well as to associate with clean young men.
12. She wasted her time on foolish clothes. While her mother
took in washing.
13. He was dressed in a ridiculous fashion. Wearing, for
instance, an orange necktie.
14. The point is similar to that of the ordinary steel pen,
except that it is made of gold. Gold being used on account of
its greater smoothness and durability.
15. Tire troubles have been made less formidable by the
invention of a compact, efficient little vulcanizer. A factory
for making which is now being built.
=B. Incomplete Constructions=
Improve the following statements. Supply missing words. Make sure that
each construction and each sentence is complete.
1. When one year old, my mother died.
2. Yours received, and in reply would say your order has been
filled.
3. While in there a man came in and bought a quarter's worth of
soap.
4. War is largely dependent upon the engineers to design new
machinery.
5. When you talk to a man look at him, not the floor or
ceiling.
6. In writing a book, an author's first one is usually not very
good.
7. Every summer while in high school, our family has gone to
our cottage on Lake Michigan.
8. When a boy, Mary was my best friend.
9. There is, however, another reason a person should know how
to swim.
10. I think more of her than anyone else.
11. Corrupt laws are often the means rich people obtain the
earnings of others.
12. A hundred dollars invested in a warning signal, future
accidents would be prevented.
13. Electric transmission is sometimes used on automobiles more
of an experiment than anything else.
14. Was delighted to hear from you. Glad to hear you entered
the wholesale business. Wish you success.
15. As a rule people eat too much. This point should be
noticed, and not overwork the digestive organs.
=C. Incomplete Logic=
The following sentences are inadequate statements of cause, comparison,
etc. Complete the thought.
1. His neck is as long as a giraffe.
2. His name was David Meek, from New Hampshire.
3. The Pacific Ocean is larger than any ocean.
4. Because he never worked led to his failure.
5. A monitor is where a heavily armored boat of light draft can
go near the shore.
6. Democracy is when people, through representatives, govern
themselves.
7. The story of _Huckleberry Finn_ is in reality Mark Twain
himself.
8. Because a man has money is no reason why he should be lazy.
9. The character of Sydney Carton is the real hero of this
novel.
10. A forester leads an interesting life is the reason I want
to be one.
11. Tact is where a man anticipates the criticism of others,
and acts with discretion.
12. The comfort of a modern house is much greater than the
old-time house.
13. Free trade is when no revenue is collected on imports,
beyond enough to run the government.
14. The cost of room, board, and tuition is low at this school,
compared to the more fashionable schools.
15. The theme of this novel tells how a peasant, Jean Valjean,
from a convict comes to be a respected citizen.
=D. Undeveloped Thought and Transitions=
Complete the thought of the following sentences, and secure a smooth
transition between parts.
1. As you enter this room, to the left is an interesting
painting of the Canterbury Pilgrims.
2. Poe delights in fantastic plots. A pirate's treasure chest
was discovered in _The Gold Bug_.
3. I got up and ate a bite of breakfast. A few of my friends
came over. We went to play golf.
4. All the loose material on the trail is carried off by the
rush of the water. The last time I was on it was in early
summer, and I found it in this rough condition.
5. I managed to find the softest board in the floor and went to
sleep. Some of the boys found pleasure in arousing me with a
shower of cold water.
6. Under guise of friendly escort the Indians accompanied the
inhabitants of the fort a few miles. Only three escaped the
massacre.
7. Many people say that in civil engineering it depends on the
prosperity of the country; in hard times they do not build and
in good times they do build.
8. Canada has more forests than minerals. Canada has made only
a start in the lumber industry. The minerals are found, for the
most part, in the mountain district near Lake Superior.
9. Thanksgiving day, as we are told, is a day on which our
Puritan forefathers gathered round the roast turkey and gave
thanks to God for his goodness. Last Thanksgiving I was at
home.
10. The old method was to dig the holes by hand, and drop two
or three kernels in each hole. Corn has become a staple crop.
Machinery is used. The preparing of a field for corn has become
a science.
UNITY OF THOUGHT
Unity means oneness. A sentence should contain one thought. It may
contain two or more statements only when these are closely related parts
of a larger thought or impression. A writer should make certain, first,
that his thought has unity; and second, that this unity will be obvious
to the reader.
=Unrelated Ideas in One Sentence=
=10. Do not combine ideas which have no obvious relation to each other.
Place the ideas in separate sentences. Or, write the ideas as one
sentence, making their relation obvious.=
Wrong: The Spartans did not care for literature, and lived in
the southern part of Greece.
Wrong: The coffee business is not difficult to learn, and the
most important work in preparing coffee for the market is the
roasting of the green berries.
The simplest method of correction is to divide the sentence.
Right: The Spartans lived in the southern part of Greece. They
did not care for literature.
Right: The coffee business is not difficult to learn. The most
important work in preparing the coffee for the market is the
roasting of the green berries.
Another method of correction is to subordinate one idea to the other, or
to change the wording until the relation between the ideas is obvious.
Right: The Spartans, who lived in the southern part of Greece,
did not care for literature.
Right: The coffee business is not difficult to learn, since the
only important work in preparing the coffee for the market is
the roasting of the green berries.
Exercise:
1. Franklin is often regarded as the typical American, and
wrote an interesting autobiography.
2. Coal miners wear little oil lamps in their caps, and they
seldom receive very good wages.
3. My neighbor, Mr. Houghton, was always a very good friend of
mine, and died last night.
4. I dropped the clock and injured the works, but the jeweler
told me it would be cheaper for me to buy a new clock.
5. The next thing the camper should do is to make a bed, and
the branches of the spruce are the best.
=Excessive Detail=
=11. Do not encumber the main idea of a sentence with superfluous
details. Place some of the details in another sentence, or omit them.=
Faulty: In the town in which I live there are several large
churches, and about six o'clock one morning, in a violent
storm, one of these churches was struck by lightning.
Right: In my home town there are several large churches. One
morning about six o'clock, in a violent storm, one of these
churches was struck by lightning.
Wrong: In 1836, in Baltimore, Poe married Virginia Clemm, his
cousin, who was hardly more than a child, being then fourteen
years old, while Poe himself was twenty-eight, and to her he
wrote much of his best verse.
Right: In 1836 Poe married Virginia Clemm. Poe was then
twenty-eight, and Virginia was only fourteen. To this girl Poe
wrote much of his best verse.
Exercise:
1. The house with the red tile roof is the finest in the city,
and is owned by Mr. Saunders, who made his money speculating in
land.
2. Then the engine tilted and fell over on one side, and the
boiler exploded and added to the frightful scene.
3. The deer whose antlers you see over the fireplace as you
enter the room was shot by my Uncle Will, who is now in South
America on a hunting expedition.
4. The seeds, which have previously been soaked in water over
night, are now planted carefully, not too deep, in straight
rows sixteen inches apart, the best time being in April, when
the ground is soft and has been thoroughly spaded.
5. One day last week my employer, Mr. Conway, a jolly, peculiar
man, raised my salary, first telling me I was about to be
discharged, and laughing at me when I looked so surprised.
=Stringy Sentences to be Broken up=
=12. Avoid stringy compound sentences. The crude, rambling style which
results from their use may be corrected by separating the material into
shorter sentences, or by subordinating lesser ideas to the main thought.=
Faulty: The second speaker had sat quietly waiting, and he was
a man of a different type, and he began calmly, yet from the
very first words he showed great earnestness.
Right: The second speaker, who had sat quietly waiting, was a
man of a different type. He began calmly, yet from his very
first words he showed great earnestness.
Faulty: There are many stops on the organ which control the
tones of the different pipes and one has to learn how and when
to use these and this takes time and practice.
Right: On the organ are many stops which control the tones of
the different pipes. To learn how and when to use these takes
time and practice.
Faulty: He published prose fiction, and this was then the
accepted literary form, and the drama was neglected.
Better: He published prose fiction, which was then the accepted
literary form, the drama being neglected. [This sentence makes
three statements in a diminishing series. The important idea is
expressed in a main clause; a less important explanation is
fitted into a relative clause; and a still less important
comment takes a parenthetical phrase at the end.]
Note.--One of the crying faults of the immature writer is that by
excessive coördination he obscures the fine shades of meaning. When two
clauses are joined, the meaning will very often be more exact if one is
subordinated to the other. For a list of subordinating connectives, see
36.
Exercise:
1. He went down town, and it began to rain, and so he decided
to go to the city library.
2. There is an old saying which I have often heard and I
believe in it to a certain extent, and it runs as follows: The
more you live at your wit's end, the more the wit's end grows.
3. Our salesman, Mr. Powers, has spoken very favorably of your
firm, and we feel that our relations will be most pleasant, and
the report of the commercial agencies is sufficient evidence of
your good financial standing.
4. There was no escaping from this churn, so one of the frogs,
after a brief struggle thought that he might just as well die
one time as another, and so he gave up and sank to the bottom.
5. Socrates did no writing himself, and the only information we
have of him we get from the writings of his pupils and from
later writers, and our most reliable knowledge comes from two
of these writers, Plato and Xenophon.
=Choppy Sentences to be Combined=
=13. Do not use two or three short sentences to express ideas which will
make a more unified impression in one sentence. Place subordinate ideas
in subordinate grammatical constructions.=
Excessive predication: Excavating is the first operation in
street paving. The excavating is usually done by means of a
steam shovel. The shovel scoops up the dirt and loads it
directly into wagons.
Right: Excavating, the first operation in street paving, is
usually done by a steam shovel which loads the dirt directly
into wagons.
Monotonous: The doe is wading along the shore. She is nibbling
the lily pads as she goes. Now she moves slowly around the
point. She has a little spotted fawn with her. The fawn frolics
along at the heels of his mother.
Better: Wading along the shore, the doe nibbles the lily pads
by the way, and moves slowly around the point. A spotted fawn
frolics at her heels.
Primer style: Rooms are marked on the floor. These rooms are
about fourteen feet square.
Better: The floor is marked off into rooms about fourteen feet
square.
Note.--An occasional short sentence is permissible, even desirable.
Successive short sentences may be used to express rapid action, or
emphatic assertion, or deliberate simplicity. Otherwise, avoid them.
Exercise.
1. Decatur has wide streets. The streets are paved with brick,
asphalt, and creosote blocks.
2. Sixteen posts are set in a row. All of these are at equal
intervals.
3. The boat approaches the leeward side of the ship. This side
is the side protected from the wind.
4. The _Scientific American_ reports the progress of science.
It explains new inventions. It makes practical applications of
scientific principles.
5. The beans are usually harvested about the middle of
September. They are cut when the plants turn color at the roots
and the beans turn white. They are cut by a bean-cutter which
takes two rows at a time.
=Excessive Coördination=
In structure a sentence may be
A. Simple: The rain fell.
B. Compound: The rain continued and the stream rose.
C. Complex: When the rain ceased, the flood came.
In B, the clauses are of almost equal importance, and the first is
coördinated with the second. In C, the clauses are not of equal
importance, and the first is subordinated to the second. _And_ is a
coördinating conjunction. _When_ is a subordinating conjunction. For a
list of connectives see 36.
=14. Do not use coördination when subordination will secure a more clear
and emphatic unit of thought. Especially do not coördinate a main idea
with an explanatory detail.= The speech of children connects all ideas,
important and unimportant, with _and_. Discriminating writers place
minor ideas in subordinate clauses, consign still less important ideas
to participial or prepositional phrases, and omit trivial details
altogether.
Childish: I went down town and saw a crowd standing in the
street, and wanted to know what was the matter, and so I went
up and asked a man.
Right: When I went down town, I saw a crowd standing in the
street, and since I wanted to know what was the matter, I asked
a man. [Two clauses are subordinated by the use of _when_ and
_since_. This change abolishes two _ands_. The words _went up
and_ are struck out. One _and_ remains, and deserves to remain,
for it joins two ideas which are truly coördinate.]
Main idea not emphasized: I talked with an old man and his name
was Ned.
Better: I talked with an old man named Ned. [A participial
phrase replaces a clause. The name is now subordinated.]
Main idea not emphasized: Developing is the next step in
preparing the film, and it is very important.
Better: Developing, the next step in preparing the film, is
very important. [An appositional phrase replaces the first
predicate.]
Main idea not emphasized: They began their perilous journey,
and they had four horses.
Right [emphasizing _perilous journey_]: With four horses they
began their perilous journey. [A prepositional phrase replaces
a clause.]
Right [emphasizing _having the horses_]: When they began their
perilous journey, they had four horses. [A subordinate clause
replaces a main clause.]
Capable of greater unity: The frog is a stupid animal, and may
be caught with a hook baited with red flannel. [Is the writer
trying to tell us _how to catch frogs_, or merely that _frogs
are stupid_? Coördination makes the two ideas appear equally
important.]
Right [emphasizing _frogs are stupid_]: The fact that the frog
can be caught with a hook baited with red flannel proves his
stupidity.
Right [emphasizing _how to catch frogs_]: The frog, being
stupid, will bite at a piece of red flannel.
Exercise.
1. Men were sent to Panama and could not live in such
unsanitary conditions.
2. When a letter came and it bore a familiar handwriting, I
always opened it eagerly.
3. West Hickory is the name of the place where the tannery is
situated, and it is a laboring man's town.
4. She wore a dress and it was silk, and cost her father a lot
of money.
5. Every race horse has a care taker or groom, and this man
spends all his time and makes the horse comfortable.
=Faulty Subordination of the Main Thought=
=15. Do not put the principal statement of a sentence in a subordinate
clause or phrase.= This violation of unity is sometimes called
"upside-down subordination".
Faulty: I was going down the street, when I heard an explosion.
[If _hearing the explosion_ is the main thought, it should be
placed in the main clause.]
Right: When I was going down the street, I heard an explosion.
Faulty: Longstreet received orders to attack the Federal right
wing, which he did immediately.
Right: As soon as Longstreet received orders, he attacked the
Federal right wing.
Faulty: I suspected that it would rain, although I did not take
an umbrella.
Right: Although I suspected that it would rain, I did not take
an umbrella.
Exercise:
1. An old man used to work for us, who died yesterday.
2. He became angry, saying he positively refused to go.
3. He is a bright boy, although I should not want to trust him
with my pocketbook.
4. He had an ambition which was to become the best lawyer in
the state by the time he was forty years old.
5. The cable breaks and the elevator starts to drop, when the
safety device always operates at once to prevent an accident.
=Subordination Thwarted by _and_=
=16. Do not attach to a main clause by means of _and_, a word, phrase, or
clause which you intend shall be subordinate. The presence of _and_
thwarts subordination.=
Wrong: Major went to bed, and leaving the work unfinished.
Right: Major went to bed, leaving the work unfinished.
Wrong: He ran home and with coat tails flying.
Right: He ran home with coat tails flying.
Exercise:
1. They denied my request, and giving no reason for the
refusal.
2. He gave me his answer and in few words.
3. The girl stood on the edge of the cliff, and thus showing
that she was not afraid.
4. A telegraph line is leased by the Associated Press, and thus
giving the newspapers quick service.
5. When the summer passed, the fisherman returned home for the
winter, and where he renewed his acquaintance with the
villagers.
=The _and which_ construction=
=17. Use _and which_ (or _but which_), _and who_ (or _but who_) only
between relative clauses similar in form. Between a main clause and a
relative clause, _and_ or _but_ thwarts subordination.=
Wrong: This is an important problem, and which we shall not
find easy to solve.
Right: This problem is an important problem, which we shall not
find easy to solve.
Right: This problem is one _which_ is important, _and which_ we
cannot easily solve.
Wrong: _Les Miserables_ is a novel of great interest and which
everybody should read.
Right: _Les Miserables_ is a novel of great interest, and one
which everybody should read.
Wrong: Their chief opponent was Winter, a shrewd politician,
but who is now less popular than he was.
Right: Their chief opponent was Winter, a shrewd politician,
who is now less popular than he was.
Note.--Rule 17 is sometimes briefly stated: "Do not use _and which_
unless you have already used _which_ in the sentence." This statement is
generally true, but an exception must be made for sentences like the
following: Right: "He told me what countries he had visited, and which
ones he liked most."
Exercise:
1. Just outside is a small porch looking out over the street,
and which can be used for sleeping purposes.
2. She is a woman of pleasing personality, and who can converse
intelligently.
3. It is a difficult task, but which can be accomplished in
time.
4. He is a good-looking man, but who is very snobbish.
5. The rule made by the conference of college professors in
1896, and which has been followed ever since, applies to the
case we are considering.
=Unity Thwarted by Punctuation=
=The Comma Splice=
=18. Do not splice two independent statements by means of a comma. Write
two sentences. Or, if the two statements together form a unit of
thought, combine them (1) by a comma plus a conjunction, (2) by a
semicolon, or (3) by reducing one of the statements to a phrase or a
subordinate clause.=
Wrong: The town has two railroads, it was founded when oil was
discovered.
Right: The town has two railroads. It was founded when oil was
discovered.
Wrong: The speed of the car seemed slower than it really was,
this was due, no doubt, to the absence of all noise. [Here are
three commas. The reader cannot quickly discover which one
marks the great division of thought.]
Right: The speed of the car seemed slower than it really was.
This was due, no doubt, to the absence of all noise.
Wrong: The winters were long and cold, nothing could live
without shelter.
Right: The winters were long and cold. Nothing could live
without shelter.
Right: The winters were long and cold, and nothing could live
without shelter [For the use of the comma, see 91a].
Right: The winters were long and cold; nothing could live
without shelter [For the use of the semicolon see 92].
Right: The winters were so long and cold that nothing could
live without shelter.