FREIBERG, or FREYBERG, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Saxony, on
the Muenzbach, near its confluence with the Mulde, 19 m. S.W. of Dresden
on the railway to Chemnitz, with a branch to Nossen. Pop. (1905) 30,896.
Its situation, on the rugged northern slope of the Erzgebirge, is
somewhat bleak and uninviting, but the town is generally well built and
makes a prosperous impression. A part of its ancient walls still
remains; the other portions have been converted into public walks and
gardens. Freiberg is the seat of the general administration of the mines
throughout the kingdom, and its celebrated mining academy
(_Bergakademie_), founded in 1765, is frequented by students from all
parts of the world. Connected with it are extensive collections of
minerals and models, a library of 50,000 volumes, and laboratories for
chemistry, metallurgy and assaying. Among its distinguished scholars it
reckons Abraham Gottlob Werner (1750-1817), who was also a professor
there, and Alexander von Humboldt. Freiberg has extensive manufactures
of gold and silver lace, woollen cloths, linen and cotton goods, iron,
copper and brass wares, gunpowder and white-lead. It has also several
large breweries. In the immediate vicinity are its famous silver and
lead mines, thirty in number, and of which the principal ones passed
into the property of the state in 1886. The castle of Freudenstein or
Freistein, as rebuilt by the elector Augustus in 1572, is situated in
one of the suburbs and is now used as a military magazine. In its
grounds a monument was erected to Werner in 1851. The cathedral, rebuilt
in late Gothic style after its destruction by fire in 1484 and restored
in 1893, was founded in the 12th century. Of the original church a
magnificent German Romanesque doorway, known as the Golden Gate
(_Goldene Pforte_), survives. The church contains numerous monuments,
among others one to Prince Maurice of Saxony. Adjoining the cathedral is
the mausoleum (_Begraebniskapelle_), built in 1594 in the Italian
Renaissance style, in which are buried the remains of Henry the Pious
and his successors down to John George IV., who died in 1694. Of the
other four Protestant churches the most noteworthy is the Peterskirche
which, with its three towers, is a conspicuous object on the highest
point of the town. Among the other public buildings are the old
town-hall, dating from the 15th century, the antiquarian museum, and the
natural history museum. There are a classical and modern, a commercial
and an agricultural school, and numerous charitable institutions.
Freiberg owes its origin to the discovery of its silver mines (c. 1163).
The town, with the castle of Freudenstein, was built by Otto the Rich,
margrave of Meissen, in 1175, and its name, which first appears in 1221,
is derived from the extensive mining franchises granted to it about that
time. In all the partitions of the territories of the Saxon house of
Wettin, from the latter part of the 13th century onward, Freiberg always
remained common property, and it was not till 1485 (the mines not till
1537) that it was definitively assigned to the Albertine line. The
Reformation was introduced into Freiberg in 1536 by Henry the Pious, who
resided here. The town suffered severely during the Thirty Years' War,
and again during the French occupation from 1806 to 1814, during which
time it had to support an army of 700,000 men and find forage for
200,000 horses.
See H. Gerlach, _Kleine Chronik von Freiberg_ (2nd ed., Freiberg,
1898); H. Ermisch, _Das Freiberger Stadtrecht_ (Leipzig, 1889);
Ermisch and O. Posse, _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Freiberg_, in _Codex
diplom. Sax. reg._ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1883-1891); _Freibergs Berg- und
Huettenwesen_, published by the Bergmaennischer Verein (Freiberg, 1883);
Ledebur, _Ueber die Bedeutung der Freiberger Bergakademie_ (_ib._
1903); Steche, _Bau- und Kunstdenkmaeler der Amtshauptmannschaft
Freiberg_ (Dresden, 1884).
FREIBURG, a town of Germany in Prussian Silesia, on the Polsnitz, 35 m.
S.W. of Breslau, on the railway to Halbstadt. Pop. (1905) 9917. It has
an Evangelical and Roman Catholic church, and its industries include
watch-making, linen-weaving and distilling. In the neighbourhood are the
old and modern castles of the Fuerstenstein family, whence the town is
sometimes distinguished as Freiburg unter dem Fuerstenstein. At Freiburg,
on the 22nd of July 1762, the Prussians defended themselves successfully
against the superior forces of the Austrians.
FREIBURG IM BREISGAU, an archiepiscopal see and city of Germany in the
grand duchy of Baden, 12 m. E. of the Rhine, beautifully situated on the
Dreisam at the foot of the Schlossberg, one of the heights of the Black
Forest range, on the railway between Basel and Mannheim, 40 m. N. of the
former city. Pop. (1905) 76,285. The town is for the most part well
built, having several wide and handsome streets and a number of spacious
squares. It is kept clean and cool by the waters of the river, which
flow through the streets in open channels; and its old fortifications
have been replaced by public walks, and, what is more unusual, by
vineyards. It possesses a famous university, the Ludovica Albertina,
founded by Albert VI., archduke of Austria, in 1457, and attended by
about 2000 students. The library contains upwards of 250,000 volumes and
600 MSS., and among the other auxiliary establishments are an anatomical
hall and museum and botanical gardens. The Freiburg minster is
considered one of the finest of all the Gothic churches of Germany,
being remarkable alike for the symmetry of its proportions, for the
taste of its decorations, and for the fact that it may more correctly be
said to be finished than almost any other building of the kind. The
period of its erection probably lies for the most part between 1122 and
1252; but the choir was not built till 1513. The tower, which rises
above the western entrance, is 386 ft. in height, and it presents a
skilful transition from a square base into an octagonal superstructure,
which in its turn is surmounted by a pyramidal spire of the most
exquisite open work in stone. In the interior of the church are some
beautiful stained glass windows, both ancient and modern, the tombstones
of several of the dukes of Zaehringen, statues of archbishops of
Freiburg, and paintings by Holbein and by Hans Baldung (c. 1470-1545),
commonly called Gruen. Among the other noteworthy buildings of Freiburg
are the palaces of the grand duke and the archbishop, the old town-hall,
the theatre, the _Kaufhaus_ or merchants' hall, a 16th-century building
with a handsome facade, the church of St Martin, with a graceful spire
restored 1880-1881, the new town-hall, completed 1901, in Renaissance
style, and the Protestant church, formerly the church of the abbey of
Thennenbach, removed hither in 1839. In the centre of the fish-market
square is a fountain surmounted by a statue of Duke Berthold III. of
Zaehringen; in the Franziskaner Platz there is a monument to Berthold
Schwarz, the traditional discoverer here, in 1259, of gunpowder; the
Rotteck Platz takes its name from the monument of Karl Wenzeslaus von
Rotteck (1775-1840), the historian, which formerly stood on the site of
the Schwarz statue; and in Kaiser Wilhelm Strasse a bronze statue was
erected in 1876 to the memory of Herder, who in the early part of the
19th century founded in Freiburg an institute for draughtsmen, engravers
and lithographers, and carried on a famous bookselling business. On the
Schlossberg above the town there are massive ruins of two castles
destroyed by the French in 1744; and about 2 m. to the N.E. stands the
castle of Zaehringen, the original seat of the famous family of the
counts of that name. Situated on the ancient road which runs by the
Hoellenpass between the valleys of the Danube and the Rhine, Freiburg
early acquired commercial importance, and it is still the principal
centre of the trade of the Black Forest. It manufactures buttons,
chemicals, starch, leather, tobacco, silk thread, paper, and hempen
goods, as well as beer and wine.
Freiburg is of uncertain foundation. In 1120 it became a free town, with
privileges similar to those of Cologne; but in 1219 it fell into the
hands of a branch of the family of Urach. After it had vainly attempted
to throw off the yoke by force of arms, it purchased its freedom in
1366; but, unable to reimburse the creditors who had advanced the money,
it was, in 1368, obliged to recognize the supremacy of the house of
Hapsburg. In the 17th and 18th centuries it played a considerable part
as a fortified town. It was captured by the Swedes in 1632, 1634 and
1638; and in 1644 it was seized by the Bavarians, who shortly after,
under General Mercy, defeated in the neighbourhood the French forces
under Enghien and Turenne. The French were in possession from 1677 to
1697, and again in 1713-1714 and 1744; and when they left the place in
1748, at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, they dismantled the
fortifications. The Baden insurgents gained a victory at Freiburg in
1848, and the revolutionary government took refuge in the town in June
1849, but in the following July the Prussian forces took possession and
occupied it until 1851. Since 1821 Freiburg has been the seat of an
archbishop with jurisdiction over the sees of Mainz, Rottenberg and
Limburg.
See Schreiber, _Geschichte und Beschreibung des Muensters zu Freiburg_
(1820 and 1825); _Geschichte der Stadt und Universitaet Freiburgs_
(1857-1859); _Der Schlossberg bei Freiburg_ (1860); and Albert, _Die
Geschichtsschreibung der Stadt Freiburg_ (1902).
_Battles of Freiburg, 3rd, 5th and 10th of August 1644._--During the
Thirty Years' War the neighbourhood of Freiburg was the scene of a
series of engagements between the French under Louis de Bourbon, due
d'Enghien (afterwards called the great Conde), and Henri de la Tour
d'Auvergne, vicomte de Turenne, and the Bavarians and Austrians
commanded by Franz, Freiherr von Mercy.
At the close of the campaign of 1643 the French "Army of Weimar," having
been defeated and driven into Alsace by the Bavarians, had there been
reorganized under the command of Turenne, then a young general of
thirty-two and newly promoted to the marshalate. In May 1644 he opened
the campaign by recrossing the Rhine and raiding the enemy's posts as
far as Ueberlingen on the lake of Constance and Donaueschingen on the
Danube. The French then fell back with their booty and prisoners to
Breisach, a strong garrison being left in Freiburg. The Bavarian
commander, however, revenged himself by besieging Freiburg (June 27th),
and Turenne's first attempt to relieve the place failed. During July, as
the siege progressed, the French government sent the duc d'Enghien, who
was ten years younger still than Turenne, but had just gained his great
victory of Rocroy, to take over the command. Enghien brought with him a
veteran army, called the "Army of France," Turenne remaining in command
of the Army of Weimar. The armies met at Breisach on the 2nd of August,
by which date Freiburg had surrendered. At this point most commanders of
the time would have decided not to fight, but to manoeuvre Mercy away
from Freiburg; Enghien, however, was a fighting general, and Mercy's
entrenched lines at Freiburg seemed to him a target rather than an
obstacle. A few hours after his arrival, therefore, without waiting for
the rearmost troops of his columns, he set the combining armies in
motion for Krozingen, a village on what was then the main road between
Breisach and Freiburg. The total force immediately available numbered
only 16,000 combatants. Enghien and Turenne had arranged that the Army
of France was to move direct upon Freiburg by Wolfenweiter, while the
Army of Weimar was to make its way by hillside tracks to Wittnau and
thence to attack the rear of Mercy's lines while Enghien assaulted them
in front. Turenne's march (August 3rd, 1644) was slow and painful, as
had been anticipated, and late in the afternoon, on passing Wittnau, he
encountered the enemy. The Weimarians carried the outer lines of defence
without much difficulty, but as they pressed on towards Merzhausen the
resistance became more and more serious. Turenne's force was little more
than 6000, and these were wearied with a long day of marching and
fighting on the steep and wooded hillsides of the Black Forest. Thus the
turning movement came to a standstill far short of Uffingen, the village
on Mercy's line of retreat that Turenne was to have seized, nor was a
flank attack possible against Mercy's main line, from which he was
separated by the crest of the Schoenberg. Meanwhile, Enghien's army had
at the prearranged hour (4 P.M.) attacked Mercy's position on the
Ebringen spur. A steep slope, vineyards, low stone walls and abatis had
all to be surmounted, under a galling fire from the Bavarian musketeers,
before the Army of France found itself, breathless and in disorder, in
front of the actual entrenchments of the crest. A first attack failed,
as did an attempt to find an unguarded path round the shoulder of the
Schoenberg. The situation was grave in the extreme, but Enghien resolved
on Turenne's account to renew the attack, although only a quarter of his
original force was still capable of making an effort. He himself and all
the young nobles of his staff dismounted and led the infantry forward
again, the prince threw his baton into the enemy's lines for the
soldiers to retrieve, and in the end, after a bitter struggle, the
Bavarians, whose reserves had been taken away to oppose Turenne in the
Merzhausen defile, abandoned the entrenchments and disappeared into the
woods of the adjoining spur. Enghien hurriedly re-formed his troops,
fearing at every moment to be hurled down the hill by a counter-stroke;
but none came. The French bivouacked in the rain, Turenne making his way
across the mountain to confer with the prince, and meanwhile Mercy
quietly drew off his army in the dark to a new set of entrenchments on
the ridge on which stood the Loretto Chapel. On the 4th of August the
Army of France and the Army of Weimar met at Merzhausen, the rearmost
troops of the Army of France came in, and the whole was arranged by the
major-generals in the plain facing the Loretto ridge. This position was
attacked on the 5th. Enghien had designed his battle even more carefully
than before, but as the result of a series of accidents the two French
armies attacked prematurely and straight to their front, one brigade
after another, and though at one moment Enghien, sword in hand, broke
the line of defence with his last intact reserve, a brilliant
counterstroke, led by Mercy's brother Kaspar (who was killed), drove out
the assailants. It is said that Enghien lost half his men on this day
and Mercy one-third of his, so severe was the battle. But the result
could not be gainsaid; it was for the French a complete and costly
failure.
For three days after this the armies lay in position without fighting,
the French well supplied with provisions and comforts from Breisach, the
Bavarians suffering somewhat severely from want of food, and especially
forage, as all their supplies had to be hauled from Villingen over the
rough roads of the Black Forest. Enghien then decided to make use of the
Glotter Tal to interrupt altogether this already unsatisfactory line of
supply, and thus to force the Bavarians either to attack him at a
serious disadvantage, or to retreat across the hills with the loss of
their artillery and baggage and the disintegration of their army by
famine and desertion. With this object, the Army of Weimar was drawn off
on the morning of the 9th of August and marched round by Betzenhausen
and Lehen to Langen Denzling. The infantry of the Army of France, then
the trains, followed, while Enghien with his own cavalry faced Freiburg
and the Loretto position.
[Illustration: Map-Battle of Freiburg.]
Before dawn on the 10th the advance guard of Turenne's army was
ascending the Glotter Tal. But Mercy had divined his adversary's plan,
and leaving a garrison to hold Freiburg, the Bavarian army had made a
night march on the 9/10th to the Abbey of St Peter, whence on the
morning of the 10th Mercy fell back to Graben, his nearest magazine in
the mountains. Turenne's advanced guard appeared from the Glotter Tal
only to find a stubborn rearguard of cavalry in front of the abbey. A
sharp action began, but Mercy hearing the drums and fifes of the French
infantry in the Glotter Tal broke it off and continued his retreat in
good order. Enghien thus obtained little material result from his
manoeuvre. Only two guns and such of Mercy's wagons that were unable to
keep up fell into the hands of the French. Enghien and Turenne did not
continue the chase farther than Graben, and Mercy fell back unmolested
to Rothenburg on the Tauber.
The moral results of this sanguinary fighting were, however, important
and perhaps justified the sacrifice of so many valuable soldiers.
Enghien's pertinacity had not achieved a decision with the sword, but
Mercy had been so severely punished that he was unable to interfere with
his opponent's new plan of campaign. This, which was carried out by the
united armies and by reinforcements from France, while Turenne's cavalry
screened them by bold demonstrations on the Tauber, led to nothing less
than the conquest of the Rhine Valley from Basel to Coblenz, a task
which was achieved so rapidly that the Army of France and its victorious
young leader were free to return to France in two months from the time
of their appearance in Turenne's quarters at Breisach.
FREIDANK (VRIDANC), the name by which a Middle High German didactic poet
of the early 13th century is known. It has been disputed whether the
word, which is equivalent to "free-thought," is to be regarded as the
poet's real name or only as a pseudonym; the latter is probably the
case. Little is known of Freidank's life. He accompanied Frederick II.
on his crusade to the Holy Land, where, in the years 1228-1229, a
portion at least of his work was composed; and it is said that on his
tomb (if indeed it was not the tomb of another Freidank) at Treviso
there was inscribed, with allusion to the character of his style, "he
always spoke and never sang." Wilhelm Grimm originated the hypothesis
that Freidank was to be identified with Walther von der Vogelweide; but
this is no longer tenable. Freidank's work bears the name of
_Bescheidenheit_, i.e. "practical wisdom," "correct judgment," and
consists of a collection of proverbs, pithy sayings, and moral and
satirical reflections, arranged under general heads. Its popularity till
the end of the 16th century is shown by the great number of MSS. extant.
Sebastian Brant published the _Bescheidenheit_ in a modified form in
1508. Wilhelm Grimm's edition appeared in 1834 (2nd ed. 1860), H. F.
Bezzenberger's in 1872. A later edition is by F. Sandvoss (1877). The
old Latin translation, _Fridangi Discretio_, was printed by C. Lemcke
in 1868; and there are two translations into modern German, A.
Bacmeister's (1861) and K. Simrock's (1867). See also F. Pfeiffer,
_Ueber Freidank_ (_Zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte_, 1855), and H.
Paul, _Ueber die urspruengliche Anordnung von Freidanks Bescheidenheit_
(1870).
FREIENWALDE, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the Oder,
28 m. N.E. of Berlin, on the Frankfort-Angermuende railway. Pop. (1905)
7995. It has a small palace, built by the Great Elector, an Evangelical
and a Roman Catholic church, and manufactures of furniture, machinery,
&c. The neighbouring forests and its medicinal springs make it a
favourite summer resort of the inhabitants of Berlin. A new tower
commands a fine view of the Oderbruch (see ODER). Freienwalde, which
must be distinguished from the smaller town of the same name in
Pomerania, first appears as a town in 1364.
FREIESLEBENITE, a rare mineral consisting of sulphantimonite of silver
and lead, (Pb, Ag2)5Sb4S11. The monoclinic crystals are prismatic in
habit, with deeply striated prism and dome faces. The colour is
steel-grey, and the lustre metallic; hardness 21/2, specific gravity 6.2.
It occurs with argentite, chalybite and galena in the silver veins of
the Himmelsfuerst mine at Freiberg, Saxony, where it has been known since
1720. The species was named after J. K. Freiesleben, who had earlier
called it _Schilf-Glaserz_. Other localities are Hiendelaencina near
Guadalajara in Spain, Kapnik-Banya in Hungary, and Guanajuato in Mexico.
A species separated from freieslebenite by V. von Zepharovich in 1871,
because of differences in crystalline form, is known as diaphorite (from
[Greek: diaphora], "difference"); it is very similar to freieslebenite
in appearance and has perhaps the same chemical composition (or possibly
Ag2PbSb2S5), but is orthorhombic in crystallization. A third mineral
also very similar to freieslebenite in appearance is the orthorhombic
andorite, AgPbSb3S6, which is mined as a silver ore at Oruro in Bolivia.
FREIGHT, (pronounced like "weight"; derived from the Dutch _vracht_ or
_vrecht_, in Fr. _fret_, the Eng. "fraught" being the same word, and
formerly used for the same thing, but now only as an adjective =
"laden"), the lading or cargo of a ship, and the hire paid for their
transport (see AFFREIGHTMENT); from the original sense of
water-transport of goods the word has also come to be used for
land-transit (particularly in America, by railroad), and by analogy for
any load or burden.
FREILIGRATH, FERDINAND (1810-1876), German poet, was born at Detmold on
the 17th of June 1810. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native
town, and in his sixteenth year was sent to Soest, with a view to
preparing him for a commercial career. Here he had also time and
opportunity to acquire a taste for French and English literature. The
years from 1831 to 1836 he spent in a bank at Amsterdam, and 1837 to
1839 in a business house at Barmen. In 1838 his _Gedichte_ appeared and
met with such extraordinary success that he gave up the idea of a
commercial life and resolved to devote himself entirely to literature.
His repudiation of the political poetry of 1841 and its revolutionary
ideals attracted the attention of the king of Prussia, Frederick William
IV., who, in 1842, granted him a pension of 300 talers a year. He
married, and, to be near his friend Emanuel Geibel, settled at St Goar.
Before long, however, Freiligrath was himself carried away by the rising
tide of liberalism. In the poem _Ein Glaubensbekenntnis_ (1844) he
openly avowed his sympathy with the political movement led by his old
adversary, Georg Herwegh; the day, he declared, of his own poetic
trifling with Romantic themes was over; Romanticism itself was dead. He
laid down his pension, and, to avoid the inevitable political
persecution, took refuge in Switzerland. As a sequel to the
_Glaubensbekenntnis_ he published _Ca ira!_ (1846), which strained still
further his relations with the German authorities. He fled to London,
where he resumed the commercial life he had broken off seven years
before. When the Revolution of 1848 broke out, it seemed to Freiligrath,
as to all the liberal thinkers of the time, the dawn of an era of
political freedom; and, as may be seen from the poems in his collection
of _Politische und soziale Gedichte_ (1849-1851), he welcomed it with
unbounded enthusiasm. He returned to Germany and settled in Duesseldorf;
but it was not long before he had again called down upon himself the
ill-will of the ruling powers by a poem, _Die Toten an die Lebenden_
(1848). He was arrested on a charge of _lese-majeste_, but the
prosecution ended in his acquittal. New difficulties arose; his
association with the democratic movement rendered him an object of
constant suspicion, and in 1851 he judged it more prudent to go back to
London, where he remained until 1868. In that year he returned to
Germany, settling first in Stuttgart and in 1875 in the neighbouring
town of Cannstatt, where he died on the 18th of March 1876.
As a poet, Freiligrath was the most gifted member of the German
revolutionary group. Coming at the very close of the Romantic age, his
own purely lyric poetry re-echoes for the most part the familiar
thoughts and imagery of his Romantic predecessors; but at an early age
he had been attracted by the work of French contemporary poets, and he
reinvigorated the German lyric by grafting upon it the orientalism of
Victor Hugo. In this reconciliation of French and German romanticism lay
Freiligrath's significance for the development of the lyric in Germany.
His remarkable power of assimilating foreign literatures is also to be
seen in his translations of English and Scottish ballads, of the poetry
of Burns, Mrs Hemans, Longfellow and Tennyson (_Englische Gedichte aus
neuerer Zeit_, 1846; _The Rose, Thistle and Shamrock_, 1853, 6th ed.
1887); he also translated Shakespeare's _Cymbeline_, _Winter's Tale_ and
_Venus and Adonis_, as well as Longfellow's _Hiawatha_ (1857).
Freiligrath is most original in his revolutionary poetry. His poems of
this class suffer, it is true, under the disadvantage of all political
poetry--purely temporary interest and the unavoidable admixture of much
that has no claim to be called poetry at all--but the agitator
Freiligrath, when he is at his best, displays a vigour and strength, a
power of direct and cogent poetic expression, not to be found in any
other political singer of the age.
Freiligrath's _Gedichte_ have passed through some fifty editions, and
his _Gesammelte Dichtungen_, first published in 1870, have reached a
sixth edition (1898). _Nachgelassenes_ (including a translation of
Byron's _Mazeppa_) was published in 1883. A selection of Freiligrath's
best-known poems in English translation was edited by his daughter,
Mrs Freiligrath-Kroeker, in 1869; also _Songs of a Revolutionary
Epoch_ were translated by J. L. Joynes in 1888. Cp. E.
Schmidt-Weissenfels, _F. Freiligrath, eine Biographie_ (1876); W.
Buchner, _F. Freiligrath, ein Dichterleben in Briefen_ (2 vols.,
1881); G. Freiligrath, _Erinnerungen an F. Freiligrath_ (1889); P.
Besson, _Freiligrath_ (Paris, 1899); K. Richter, _Freiligrath als
Uebersetzer_ (1899). (J. G. R.)
FREIND, JOHN (1675-1728), English physician, younger brother of Robert
Freind (1667-1751), headmaster of Westminster school, was born in 1675
at Croton in Northamptonshire. He made great progress in classical
knowledge under Richard Busby at Westminster, and at Christ Church,
Oxford, under Dean Aldrich, and while still very young, produced, along
with Peter Foulkes, an excellent edition of the speeches of Aeschines
and Demosthenes on the affair of Ctesiphon. After this he began the
study of medicine, and having proved his scientific attainments by
various treatises was appointed a lecturer on chemistry at Oxford in
1704. In the following year he accompanied the English army, under the
earl of Peterborough, into Spain, and on returning home in 1707, wrote
an account of the expedition, which attained great popularity. Two years
later he published his _Prelectiones chimicae_, which he dedicated to
Sir Isaac Newton. Shortly after his return in 1713 from Flanders,
whither he had accompanied the British troops, he took up his residence
in London, where he soon obtained a great reputation as a physician. In
1716 he became fellow of the college of physicians, of which he was
chosen one of the censors in 1718, and Harveian orator in 1720. In 1722
he entered parliament as member for Launceston in Cornwall, but, being
suspected of favouring the cause of the exiled Stuarts, he spent half of
that year in the Tower. During his imprisonment he conceived the plan of
his most important work, _The History of Physic_, of which the first
part appeared in 1725, and the second in the following year. In the
latter year he was appointed physician to Queen Caroline, an office
which he held till his death on the 26th of July 1728.
A complete edition of his Latin works, with a Latin translation of the
_History of Physic_, edited by Dr John Wigan, was published in London
in 1732.
FREINSHEIM [FREINSHEMIUS], JOHANN (1608-1660), German classical scholar
and critic, was born at Ulm on the 16th of November 1608. After studying
at the universities of Marburg, Giessen and Strassburg, he visited
France, where he remained for three years. He returned to Strassburg in
1637, and in 1642 was appointed professor of eloquence at Upsala. In
1647 he was summoned by Queen Christina to Stockholm as court librarian
and historiographer. In 1650 he resumed his professorship at Upsala, but
early in the following year he was obliged to resign on account of
ill-health. In 1656 he became honorary professor at Heidelberg, and died
on the 31st of August 1660. Freinsheim's literary activity was chiefly
devoted to the Roman historians. He first introduced the division into
chapters and paragraphs, and by means of carefully compiled indexes
illustrated the lexical peculiarities of each author. He is best known
for his famous supplements to Quintus Curtius and Livy, containing the
missing books written by himself. He also published critical editions of
Curtius and Florus.
FREIRE, FRANCISCO JOSE (1719-1773), Portuguese historian and
philologist, was born at Lisbon on the 3rd of January 1719. He belonged
to the monastic society of St Philip Neri, and was a zealous member of
the literary association known as the Academy of Arcadians, in connexion
with which he adopted the pseudonym of Candido Lusitano. He contributed
much to the improvement of the style of Portuguese prose literature, but
his endeavour to effect a reformation in the national poetry by a
translation of Horace's _Ars poetica_ was less successful. The work in
which he set forth his opinions regarding the vicious taste pervading
the current Portuguese prose literature is entitled _Maximas sobre a
Arte Oratoria_ (1745) and is preceded by a chronological table forming
almost a social and physical history of Portugal. His best known work,
however, is his _Vida do Infante D. Henrique_ (1758), which has given
him a place in the first rank of Portuguese historians, and has been
translated into French (Paris, 1781). He also wrote a poetical
dictionary (_Diccionario poetico_) and a translation of Racine's
_Athalie_ (1762), and his _Reflexions sur la langue portugaise_ was
published in 1842 by the Lisbon society for the promotion of useful
knowledge. He died at Mafra on the 5th of July 1773.
FREISCHUeTZ, in German folklore, a marksman who by a compact with the
devil has obtained a certain number of bullets destined to hit without
fail whatever object he wishes. As the legend is usually told, six of
the _Freikugeln_ or "free bullets" are thus subservient to the
marksman's will, but the seventh is at the absolute disposal of the
devil himself. Various methods were adopted in order to procure
possession of the marvellous missiles. According to one the marksman,
instead of swallowing the sacramental host, kept it and fixed it on a
tree, shot at it and caused it to bleed great drops of blood, gathered
the drops on a piece of cloth and reduced the whole to ashes, and then
with these ashes added the requisite virtue to the lead of which his
bullets were made. Various vegetable or animal substances had the
reputation of serving the same purpose. Stories about the Freischuetz
were especially common in Germany during the 14th, 15th and 16th
centuries; but the first time that the legend was turned to literary
profit is said to have been by Apel in the _Gespensterbuch_ or "Book of
Ghosts." It formed the subject of Weber's opera _Der Freischuetz_ (1821),
the libretto of which was written by Friedrich Kind, who had suggested
Apel's story as an excellent theme for the composer. The name by which
the Freischuetz is known in French is Robin des Bois.
See Kind, _Freyschuetzbuch_ (Leipzig, 1843); _Revue des deux mondes_
(February 1855); Graesse, _Die Quelle des Freischuetz_ (Dresden, 1875).
FREISING, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Isar, 16
m. by rail N.N.E. of Munich. Pop. (1905) 13,538. Among its eight Roman
Catholic churches the most remarkable is the cathedral, which dates from
about 1160 and is famous for its curious crypt. Noteworthy also are the
old palace of the bishops, now a clerical seminary, the theological
lyceum and the town-hall. There are several schools in the town, and
there is a statue to the chronicler, Otto of Freising, who was bishop
here from 1138 to 1158. Freising has manufactures of agricultural
machinery and of porcelain, while printing and brewing are carried on.
Near the town is the site of the Benedictine abbey of Weihenstephan,
which existed from 725 to 1803. This is now a model farm and brewery.
Freising is a very ancient town and is said to have been founded by the
Romans. After being destroyed by the Hungarians in 955 it was fortified
by the emperor Otto II. in 976 and by Duke Welf of Bavaria in 1082. A
bishopric was established here in 724 by St Corbinianus, whose brother
Erimbert was consecrated second bishop by St Boniface in 739. Later on
the bishops acquired considerable territorial power and in the 17th
century became princes of the Empire. In 1802 the see was secularized,
the bulk of its territories being assigned to Bavaria and the rest to
Salzburg, of which Freising had been a suffragan bishopric. In 1817 an
archbishopric was established at Freising, but in the following year it
was transferred to Munich. The occupant of the see is now called
archbishop of Munich and Freising.
See C. Meichelbeck, _Historiae Frisingensis_ (Augsburg, 1724-1729, new
and enlarged edition 1854).
FREJUS, a town in the department of the Var in S.E. France. Pop. (1906)
3430. It is 281/2 m. S.E. of Draguignan (the chief town of the
department), and 221/2 m. S.W. of Cannes by rail. It is only important on
account of the fine Roman remains that it contains, for it is now a mile
from the sea, its harbour having been silted up by the deposits of the
Argens river. Since the 4th century it has been a bishop's see, which is
in the ecclesiastical province of Aix en Provence. In modern times the
neighbouring fishing village at St Raphael (21/2 m. by rail S.E., and on
the seashore) has become a town of 4865 inhabitants (in 1901); in 1799
Napoleon disembarked there, on his return from Egypt, and reembarked for
Elba in 1814, while nowadays it is much frequented as a health resort,
as is also Valescure (2 m. N.W. on the heights above). The cathedral
church in part dates from the 12th century, but only small portions of
the old medieval episcopal palace are now visible, as it was rebuilt
about 1823. The ramparts of the old town can still be traced for a long
distance, and there are fragments of two moles, of the theatre and of a
gate. The amphitheatre, which seated 12,000 spectators, is in a better
state of preservation. The ruins of the great aqueduct which brought the
waters of the Siagnole, an affluent of the Siagne, to the town, can
still be traced for a distance of nearly 19 m. The original hamlet was
the capital of the tribe of the Oxybii, while the town of Forum Julii
was founded on its site by Julius Caesar in order to secure to the
Romans a harbour independent of that of Marseilles. The buildings of
which ruins exist were mostly built by Caesar or by Augustus, and show
that it was an important naval station and arsenal. But the town
suffered much at the hands of the Arabs, of Barbary pirates, and of its
inhabitants, who constructed many of their dwellings out of the ruined
Roman buildings. The ancient harbour (really but a portion of the
lagoons, which had been deepened) is now completely silted up. Even in
early times a canal had to be kept open by perpetual digging, while
about 1700 this was closed, and now a sandy and partly cultivated waste
extends between the town and the seashore.
See J. A. Aubenas, _Histoire de Frejus_ (Frejus, 1881); Ch. Lentheric,
_La Provence Maritime ancienne et moderne_ (Paris, 1880), chap. vii.
(W. A. B. C.)
FRELINGHUYSEN, FREDERICK THEODORE (1817-1885), American lawyer and
statesman, of Dutch descent, was born at Millstone, New Jersey, on the
4th of August 1817. His grandfather, Frederick Frelinghuysen
(1753-1804), was an eminent lawyer, one of the framers of the first New
Jersey constitution, a soldier in the War of Independence, and a member
(1778-1779 and 1782-1783) of the Continental Congress from New Jersey,
and in 1793-1796 of the United States senate; and his uncle, Theodore
(1787-1862), was attorney-general of New Jersey from 1817 to 1829, was a
United States senator from New Jersey in 1829-1835, was the Whig
candidate for vice-president on the Clay ticket in 1844, and was
chancellor of the university of New York in 1839-1850 and president of
Rutgers College in 1850-1862. Frederick Theodore, left an orphan at the
age of three, was adopted by his uncle, graduated at Rutgers in 1836,
and studied law in Newark with his uncle, to whose practice he succeeded
in 1839, soon after his admission to the bar. He became attorney for the
Central Railroad of New Jersey, the Morris Canal and Banking Company,
and other corporations, and from 1861 to 1867 was attorney-general of
New Jersey. In 1861 he was a delegate to the peace congress at
Washington, and in 1866 was appointed by the governor of New Jersey, as
a Republican, to fill a vacancy in the United States senate. In the
winter of 1867 he was elected to fill the unexpired term, but a
Democratic majority in the legislature prevented his re-election in
1869. In 1870 he was nominated by President Grant, and confirmed by the
senate, as United States minister to England to succeed John Lothrop
Motley, but declined the mission. From 1871 to 1877 he was again a
member of the United States senate, in which he was prominent in debate
and in committee work, and was chairman of the committee on foreign
affairs during the Alabama Claims negotiations. He was a strong opponent
of the reconstruction measures of President Johnson, for whose
conviction he voted (on most of the specific charges) in the impeachment
trial. He was a member of the joint committee which drew up and reported
(1877) the Electoral Commission Bill, and subsequently served as a
member of the commission. On the 12th of December 1881 he was appointed
secretary of state by President Arthur to succeed James G. Blaine, and
served until the inauguration of President Cleveland in 1885. Retiring,
with his health impaired by overwork, to his home in Newark, he died
there on the 20th of May, less than three months after relinquishing the
cares of office.
FREMANTLE, a seaport of Swan county, Western Australia, at the mouth of
the Swan river, 12 m. by rail S.W. of Perth. It is the terminus of the
Eastern railway, and is a town of some industrial activity,
shipbuilding, soap-boiling, saw-milling, smelting, iron-founding,
furniture-making, flour-milling, brewing and tanning being its chief
industries. The harbour, by the construction of two long moles and the
blasting away of the rocks at the bar, has been rendered secure. The
English, French and German mail steamers call at the port. Fremantle
became a municipality in 1871; but there are now three separate
municipalities--Fremantle, with a population in 1901 of 14,704;
Fremantle East (2494); and Fremantle North (3246). At Rottnest Island,
off the harbour, there are government salt-works and a residence of the
governor, also penal and reformatory establishments.
FREMIET, EMMANUEL (1824- ), French sculptor, born in Paris, was a
nephew and pupil of Rude; he chiefly devoted himself to animal sculpture
and to equestrian statues in armour. His earliest work was in scientific
lithography (osteology), and for a while he served in times of adversity
in the gruesome office of "painter to the Morgue." In 1843 he sent to
the Salon a study of a "Gazelle," and after that date was very prolific
in his works. His "Wounded Bear" and "Wounded Dog" were produced in
1850, and the Luxembourg Museum at once secured this striking example of
his work. From 1855 to 1859 Fremiet was engaged on a series of military
statuettes for Napoleon III. He produced his equestrian statue of
"Napoleon I." in 1868, and of "Louis d'Orleans" in 1869 (at the Chateau
de Pierrefonds) and in 1874 the first equestrian statue of "Joan of
Arc," erected in the Place des Pyramides, Paris; this he afterwards
(1889) replaced with another and still finer version. In the meanwhile
he had exhibited his masterly "Gorilla and Woman" which won him a medal
of honour at the Salon of 1887. Of the same character, and even more
remarkable, is his "Ourang-Outangs and Borneo Savage" of 1895, a
commission from the Paris Museum of Natural History. Fremiet also
executed the statue of "St Michael" for the summit of the spire of the
Eglise St Michel, and the equestrian statue of Velasquez for the Jardin
de l'Infante at the Louvre. He became a member of the Academie des
Beaux-Arts in 1892, and succeeded Barye as professor of animal drawing
at the Natural History Museum of Paris.
FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES (1813-1890), American explorer, soldier and
political leader, was born in Savannah, Georgia, on the 21st of January
1813. His father, a native of France, died when the boy was in his sixth
year, and his mother, a member of an aristocratic Virginia family, then
removed to Charleston, South Carolina. In 1828, after a year's special
preparation, young Fremont entered the junior class of the college of
Charleston, and here displayed marked ability, especially in
mathematics; but his irregular attendance and disregard of college
discipline led to his expulsion from the institution, which, however,
conferred upon him a degree in 1836. In 1833 he was appointed teacher of
mathematics on board the sloop of war "Natchez," and was so engaged
during a cruise along the South American coast which was continued for
about two and a half years. Soon after returning to Charleston he was
appointed professor of mathematics in the United States navy, but he
chose instead to serve as assistant engineer of a survey undertaken
chiefly for the purpose of finding a pass through the mountains for a
proposed railway from Charleston to Cincinnati. In July 1838 he was
appointed second lieutenant of Topographical Engineers in the United
States army, and for the next three years he was assistant to the French
explorer, Jean Nicholas Nicollet (1786-1843), employed by the war
department to survey and map a large part of the country lying between
the upper waters of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. In 1841 Fremont
surveyed, for the government, the lower course of the Des Moines river.
In the same year he married Jessie, the daughter of Senator Thomas H.
Benton of Missouri, and it was in no small measure through Benton's
influence with the government that Fremont was enabled to accomplish
within the next few years the exploration of much of the territory
between the Mississippi Valley and the Pacific Ocean.
When the claim of the United States to the Oregon territory was being
strengthened by occupation, Fremont was sent, at his urgent request, to
explore the frontier beyond the Missouri river, and especially the Rocky
Mountains in the vicinity of the South Pass, through which the American
immigrants travelled. Within four months (1842) he surveyed the Pass and
ascended to the summit of the highest of the Wind River Mountains, since
known as Fremont's Peak, and the interest aroused by his descriptions
was such that in the next year he was sent on a second expedition to
complete the survey across the continent along the line of travel from
Missouri to the mouth of the Columbia river. This time he not only
carried out his instructions but, by further explorations together with
interesting descriptions, dispelled general ignorance with respect to
the main features of the country W. of the Rocky Mountains: the Great
Salt Lake, the Great Basin, the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and the fertile
river basins of the Mexican province of California.
His report of this expedition upon his return to Washington, D.C., in
1844, aroused much solicitude for California, which, it was feared,
might, in the event of war then threatening between the United States
and Mexico, be seized by Great Britain. In the spring of 1845 Fremont
was despatched on a third expedition for the professed purposes of
further exploring the Great Basin and the Pacific Coast, and of
discovering the easiest lines of communication between them, as well as
for the secret purpose of assisting the United States, in case of war
with Mexico, to gain possession of California. He and his party of
sixty-two arrived there in January 1846. Owing to the number of American
immigrants who had settled in California, the Mexican authorities there
became suspicious and hostile, and ordered Fremont out of the province.
Instead of obeying he pitched his camp near the summit of a mountain
overlooking Monterey, fortified his position, and raised the United
States flag. A few days later he was proceeding toward the Oregon border
when new instructions from Washington caused him to retrace his steps
and, perhaps, to consider plans for provoking war. The extent of his
responsibility for the events that ensued is not wholly clear, and has
been the subject of much controversy; his defenders have asserted that
he was not responsible for the seizure of Sonoma or for the so-called
"Bear-Flag War"; and that he played a creditable part throughout. (For
an opposite view see CALIFORNIA.) Commodore John D. Sloat, after seizing
Monterey, transferred his command to Commodore Robert Field Stockton
(1795-1866), who made Fremont major of a battalion; and by January 1847
Stockton and Fremont completed the conquest of California. In the
meantime General Stephen Watts Kearny (1794-1848) had been sent by the
Government to conquer it and to establish a government. This created a
conflict of authority between Stockton and Kearny, both of whom were
Fremont's superior officers. Stockton, ignoring Kearny, commissioned
Fremont military commandant and governor. But Kearny's authority being
confirmed about the 1st of April, Fremont, for repeated acts of
disobedience, was sent under arrest to Washington, where he was tried by
court-martial, found guilty (January 1847) of mutiny, disobedience and
conduct prejudicial to military discipline, and sentenced to dismissal
from the service. President Polk approved of the verdict except as to
mutiny, but remitted the penalty, whereupon Fremont resigned.
With the mountain-traversed region he had been exploring acquired by the
United States, Fremont was eager for a railway from the Atlantic to the
Pacific, and in October 1848 he set out at his own and Senator Benton's
expense to find passes for such a railway along a line westward from the
headwaters of the Rio Grande. But he had not gone far when he was led
astray by a guide, and after the loss of his entire outfit and several
of his men, and intense suffering of the survivors from cold and hunger,
he turned southward through the valley of the Rio Grande and then
westward through the valley of the Gila into southern California. Late
in the year 1853, however, he returned to the place where the guide had
led him astray, found passes through the mountains to the westward
between latitudes 37 deg. and 38 deg. N., and arrived in San Francisco early in
May 1854. From the conclusion of his fourth expedition until March 1855,
when he removed to New York city, he lived in California, and in
December 1849 was elected one of the first two United States senators
from the new state. But as he drew the short term, he served only from
the 10th of September 1850 to the 3rd of March 1851. Although a
candidate for re-election, he was defeated by the pro-slavery party. His
opposition to slavery, however, together with his popularity--won by the
successes, hardships and dangers of his exploring expeditions, and by
his part in the conquest of California--led to his nomination, largely
on the ground of "availability," for the presidency in 1856 by the
Republicans (this being their first presidential campaign), and by the
National Americans or "Know-Nothings." In the ensuing election he was
defeated by James Buchanan by 174 to 114 electoral votes.
Soon after the Civil War began, Fremont was appointed major-general and
placed in command of the western department with headquarters at St
Louis, but his lack of judgment and of administrative ability soon became
apparent, the affairs of his department fell into disorder, and Fremont
seems to have been easily duped by dishonest contractors whom he trusted.
On the 30th of August 1861 he issued a proclamation in which he declared
the property of Missourians in rebellion confiscated and their slaves
emancipated. For this he was applauded by the radical Republicans, but
his action was contrary to an act of congress of the 6th of August and to
the policy of the Administration. On the 11th of September President
Lincoln, who regarded the action as premature and who saw that it might
alienate Kentucky and other border states, whose adherence he was trying
to secure, annulled these declarations. Impelled by serious charges
against Fremont, the president sent Montgomery Blair, the
postmaster-general, and Montgomery C. Meigs, the quartermaster-general,
to investigate the department; they reported that Fremont's management
was extravagant and inefficient; and in November he was removed. Out of
consideration for the "Radicals," however, Fremont was placed in command
of the Mountain Department of Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee. In the
spring and summer of 1862 he co-operated with General N. P. Banks against
"Stonewall" Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley, but showed little ability
as a commander, was defeated by General Ewell at Cross Keys, and when his
troops were united with those of Generals Banks and McDowell to form the
Army of Virginia, of which General John Pope was placed in command,
Fremont declined to serve under Pope, whom he outranked, and retired from
active service. On the 31st of May 1864 he was nominated for the
presidency by a radical faction of the Republican party, opposed to
President Lincoln, but his following was so small that on the 21st of
September he withdrew from the contest. From 1878 to 1881 he was governor
of the territory of Arizona, and in the last year of his life he was
appointed by act of congress a major-general and placed on the retired
list. He died in New York on the 13th of July 1890.
See J. C. Fremont, _Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky
Mountains, 1842, and to Oregon and North California, 1843-1844_
(Washington, 1845); Fremont's _Memoirs of my Life_ (New York, 1887);
and J. Bigelow, _Memoirs of the Life and Public Services of John C.
Fremont_ (New York, 1856).
FREMONT, a city and the county-seat of Dodge county, Nebraska, U.S.A.,
about 37 m. N.W. of Omaha, on the N. bank of the Platte river, which
here abounds in picturesque bluffs and wooded islands. Pop. (1890) 6747;
(1900) 7241 (1303 foreign-born); (1910) 8718. It is on the main line of
the Union Pacific railway, on a branch of the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy system, and on the main western line of the Chicago &
North-Western railway, several branches of which (including the formerly
independent Fremont, Elkhorn & Missouri Valley and the Sioux City &
Pacific) converge here. The city has an attractive situation and is
beautifully shaded. It has a public library and is the seat of the
Fremont College, Commercial Institute and School of Pharmacy (1875), a
private institution. There is considerable local trade with the rich
farming country of the Platte and Elkhorn valleys; and the wholesale
grain interests are especially important. Among the manufactures are
flour, carriages, saddlery, canned vegetables, furniture, incubators and
beer. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting plant and
water-works. Fremont was founded in 1856, and became the county-seat in
1860. It was chartered as a city (second-class) in 1871, and became a
city of the first class in 1901.
FREMONT, a city and the county-seat of Sandusky county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
the Sandusky river, 30 m. S.E. of Toledo. Pop. (1890) 7141; (1900) 8439,
of whom 1074 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 9939. Fremont is served by
the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Lake Shore Electric, the Lake
Erie & Western, and the Wheeling & Lake Erie railways. The river is
navigable to this point. Spiegel Grove, the former residence of
Rutherford B. Hayes, is of interest, and the city has a public library
(1873) and parks, in large measure the gifts of his uncle, Sardis
Birchard. Fremont is situated in a good agricultural region; oil and
natural gas abound in the vicinity; and the city has various
manufactures, including boilers, electro-carbons, cutlery, bricks,
agricultural implements, stoves and ranges, safety razors, carriage
irons, sash, doors, blinds, furniture, beet sugar, canned vegetables,
malt extract, garters and suspenders. The total factory product was
valued at $2,833,385 in 1905, an increase of 23.4% over that of 1900.
Fremont is on the site of a favourite abode of the Indians, and a
trading post was at times maintained here; but the place is best known
in history as the site of Fort Stephenson, erected during the War of
1812, and on the 2nd of August 1813 gallantly and successfully defended
by Major George Croghan (1791-1849), with 160 men, against about 1000
British and Indians under Brigadier-General Henry A. Proctor. In 1906
Croghan's remains were re-interred on the site of the old fort. Until
1849, when the present name was adopted in honour of J. C. Fremont, the
place was known as Lower Sandusky; it was incorporated as a village in
1829 and was first chartered as a city in 1867.
FREMY, EDMOND (1814-1894), French chemist, was born at Versailles on the
29th of February 1814. Entering Gay-Lussac's laboratory in 1831, he
became _preparateur_ at the Ecole Polytechnique in 1834 and at the
College de France in 1837. His next post was that of _repetiteur_ at the
Ecole Polytechnique, where in 1846 he was appointed professor, and in
1850 he succeeded Gay-Lussac in the chair of chemistry at the Museum
d'Histoire Naturelle, of which he was director, in succession to M. E.
Chevreul, from 1879 to 1891. He died at Paris on the 3rd of February
1894. His work included investigations of osmic acid, of the ferrates,
stannates, plumbates, &c., and of ozone, attempts to obtain free
fluorine by the electrolysis of fused fluorides, and the discovery of
anhydrous hydrofluoric acid and of a series of _acides sulphazotes_, the
precise nature of which long remained a matter of discussion. He also
studied the colouring matters of leaves and flowers, the composition of
bone, cerebral matter and other animal substances, and the processes of
fermentation, in regard to the nature of which he was an opponent of
Pasteur's views. Keenly alive to the importance of the technical
applications of chemistry, he devoted special attention as a teacher to
the training of industrial chemists. In this field he contributed to our
knowledge of the manufacture of iron and steel, sulphuric acid, glass
and paper, and in particular worked at the saponification of fats with
sulphuric acid and the utilization of palmitic acid for candle-making.
In the later years of his life he applied himself to the problem of
obtaining alumina in the crystalline form, and succeeded in making
rubies identical with the natural gem not merely in chemical composition
but also in physical properties.
FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850- ), American sculptor, was born at
Exeter, New Hampshire, on the 20th of April 1850, the son of Henry Flagg
French, a lawyer, who for a time was assistant-secretary of the United
States treasury. After a year at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, French spent a month in the studio of John Q. A. Ward, then
began to work on commissions, and at the age of twenty-three received
from the town of Concord, Massachusetts, an order for his well-known
statue "The Minute Man," which was unveiled (April 19, 1875) on the
centenary of the battle of Concord. Previously French had gone to
Florence, Italy, where he spent a year with Thomas Ball. French's
best-known work is "Death Staying the Hand of the Sculptor," a memorial
for the tomb of the sculptor Martin Milmore, in the Forest Hills
cemetery, Boston; this received a medal of honour at Paris, in 1900.
Among his other works are: a monument to John Boyle O'Reilly, Boston;
"Gen. Cass," National Hall of Statuary, Washington; "Dr Gallaudet and
his First Deaf-Mute Pupil," Washington; the colossal "Statue of the
Republic," for the Columbian Exposition at Chicago; statues of Rufus
Choate (Boston), John Harvard (Cambridge, Mass.), and Thomas Starr King
(San Francisco, California), a memorial to the architect Richard M.
Hunt, in Fifth Avenue, opposite the Lenox library, New York, and a large
"Alma Mater," near the approach to Columbia University, New York. In
collaboration with Edward C. Potter he modelled the "Washington,"
presented to France by the Daughters of the American Revolution; the
"General Grant" in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, and the "General Joseph
Hooker" in Boston. French became a member of the National Academy of
Design (1901), the National Sculpture Society, the Architectural League,
and the Accademia di San Luca, of Rome.
FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678), bishop of Ferns, was an Irish political
pamphleteer, who was born at Wexford. He was educated at Louvain, and
returning to Ireland became a priest at Wexford, and before 1646 was
appointed bishop of Ferns. Having taken a prominent part in the
political disturbances of this period, French deemed it prudent to leave
Ireland in 1651, and the remainder of his life was passed on the
continent of Europe. He acted as coadjutor to the archbishops of
Santiago de Compostella and Paris, and to the bishop of Ghent, and died
at Ghent on the 23rd of August 1678. In 1676 he published his attack on
James Butler, marquess of Ormonde, entitled "The Unkinde Desertor of
Loyall Men and True Frinds," and shortly afterwards "The Bleeding
Iphigenia." The most important of his other pamphlets is the "Narrative
of the Earl of Clarendon's Settlement and Sale of Ireland" (Louvain,
1668).
The _Historical Works_ of Bishop French, comprising the three
pamphlets already mentioned and some letters, were published by S. H.
Bindon at Dublin in 1846. See T. D. McGee, _Irish Writers of the 17th
Century_ (Dublin, 1846); Sir J. T. Gilbert, _Contemporary History of
Affairs in Ireland_, 1641-1652 (Dublin, 1879-1880); and T. Carte,
_Life of James, Duke of Ormond_ (new ed., Oxford, 1851).
FRENCH CONGO, the general name of the French possessions in equatorial
Africa. They have an area estimated at 700,000 sq. m., with a
population, also estimated, of 6,000,000 to 10,000,000. The whites
numbered (1906) 1278, of whom 502 were officials. French Congo,
officially renamed FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA in 1910, comprises--(1) the
Gabun Colony, (2) the Middle Congo Colony, (3) the Ubangi-Shari
Circumscription, (4) the Chad Circumscription. The two last-named
divisions form the Ubangi-Shari-Chad Colony.
The present article treats of French Congo as a unit. It is of highly
irregular shape. It is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by the (Spanish)
Muni River Settlements, the German colony of Cameroon and the Sahara, E.
by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and S. by Belgian Congo and the Portuguese
territory of Kabinda. In the greater part of its length the southern
frontier is the middle course of the Congo and the Ubangi and Mbomu, the
chief northern affluents of that stream, but in the south-west the
frontier keeps north of the Congo river, whose navigable lower course is
partitioned between Belgium and Portugal. The coast line, some 600 m.
long, extends from 5 deg. S. to 1 deg. N. The northern frontier, starting inland
from the Muni estuary, after skirting the Spanish settlements follows a
line drawn a little north of 2 deg. N. and extending east to 16 deg. E. North of
this line the country is part of Cameroon, German territory extending so
far inland from the Gulf of Guinea as to approach within 130 m. of the
Ubangi. From the intersection of the lines named, at which point French
Congo is at its narrowest, the frontier runs north and then east until
the Shari is reached in 10 deg. 40' N. The Shari then forms the frontier up
to Lake Chad, where French Congo joins the Saharan regions of French
West Africa. The eastern frontier, separating the colony from the
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, is the water-parting between the Nile and the
Congo. The Mahommedan sultanates of Wadai and Bagirmi occupy much of the
northern part of French Congo (see WADAI and BAGIRMI).
_Physical Features._--The coast line, beginning in the north at
Corisco Bay, is shortly afterwards somewhat deeply indented by the
estuary of the Gabun, south of which the shore runs in a nearly
straight line until the delta of the Ogowe is reached, where Cape
Lopez projects N.W. From this point the coast trends uniformly S.E.
without presenting any striking features, though the Bay of Mayumba,
the roadstead of Loango, and the Pointe Noire may be mentioned. A
large proportion of the coast region is occupied by primeval forest,
with trees rising to a height of 150 and 200 ft., but there is a
considerable variety of scenery--open lagoons, mangrove swamps,
scattered clusters of trees, park-like reaches, dense walls of tangled
underwood along the rivers, prairies of tall grass and patches of
cultivation. Behind the coast region is a ridge which rises from 3000
to 4500 ft., called the Crystal Mountains, then a plateau with an
elevation varying from 1500 to 2800 ft., cleft with deep
river-valleys, the walls of which are friable, almost vertical, and in
some places 760 ft. high.
[Illustration: Map of French Congo.]
The coast rivers flowing into the Atlantic cross four terraces. On the
higher portion of the plateau their course is over bare sand; on the
second terrace, from 1200 to 2000 ft. high, it is over wide grassy
tracts; then, for some 100 m., the rivers pass through virgin forest,
and, lastly, they cross the shore region, which is about 10 m. broad.
The rivers which fall directly into the Atlantic are generally
unnavigable. The most important, the Ogowe (q.v.), is, however,
navigable from its mouth to N'Jole, a distance of 235 m. Rivers to the
south of the Ogowe are the Nyanga, 120 m. long, and the Kwilu. The
latter, 320 m. in length, is formed by the Kiasi and the Luete; it has
a very winding course, flowing by turns from north to south, from east
to west, from south to north-west and from north to south-west. It is
encumbered with rocks and eddies, and is navigable only over 38 m.,
and for five months in the year. The mouth is 1100 ft. wide. The Muni
river, the northernmost in the colony, is obstructed by cataracts in
its passage through the escarpment to the coast.
Nearly all the upper basin of the Shari (q.v.) as well as the right
bank of the lower river is within French Congo. The greater part of
the country belongs, however, to the drainage area of the Congo river.
In addition to the northern banks of the Mbomu and Ubangi, 330 m. of
the north shore of the Congo itself are in the French protectorate as
well as numerous subsidiary streams. For some 100 m. however, the
right bank of the Sanga, the most important of these subsidiary
streams, is in German territory (see CONGO).
_Geology._--Three main divisions are recognized in the French
Congo:--(1) the littoral zone, covered with alluvium and superficial
deposits and underlain by Tertiary and Cretaceous rocks; (2) the
mountain zone of the Crystal Mountains, composed of granite,
metamorphic and ancient sediments; (3) the plateau of the northern
portion of the Congo basin, occupied by Karroo sandstones. The core of
the Crystal Mountains consists of granite and schists. Infolded with
them, and on the flanks, are three rock systems ascribed to the
Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous. These are unfossiliferous, but
fossils of Devonian age occur on the Congo (see CONGO FREE STATE).
Granite covers wide areas north-west of the Crystal Mountains. The
plateau sandstones lie horizontally and consist of a lower red
sandstone group and an upper white sandstone group. They have not
yielded fossils. Limestones of Lower Cretaceous age, with
_Schloenbachia inflata_, occur north of the Gabun and in the Ogowe
basin. Marls and limestones with fossils of an Eocene facies overlie
the Cretaceous rocks on the Gabun. A superficial iron-cemented sand,
erroneously termed laterite, covers large areas in the littoral zone,
on the flanks of the mountains and on the high plateau.
_Climate._--The whole of the country being in the equatorial region,
the climate is everywhere very hot and dangerous for Europeans. On the
coast four seasons are distinguished: the dry season (15th of May to
15th of September), the rainy season (15th of September to 15th of
January), then a second dry season (15th of January to 1st of March),
and a second rainy season (1st of March to 15th of May). The rainfall
at Libreville is about 96 in. a year.
_Flora and Fauna._--The elephant, the hippopotamus, the crocodile and
several kinds of apes--including the chimpanzee and the rare
gorilla--are the most noteworthy larger animals; the birds are various
and beautiful--grey parrots, shrikes, fly-catchers, rhinoceros birds,
weaver birds (often in large colonies on the palm-trees), ice-birds,
from the _Cecyle Sharpii_ to the dwarfish _Alcedo cristata_, butterfly
finches, and helmet-birds (_Turacus giganteus_), as well as more
familiar types. Snakes are extremely common. The curious
climbing-fish, which frequents the mangroves, the _Protopterus_ or
lung-fish, which lies in the mud in a state of lethargy during the dry
season, the strange and poisonous _Tetrodon guttifer_, and the
herring-like _Pellona africana_, often caught in great shoals--are the
more remarkable of the fishes. Oysters are got in abundance from the
lagoons, and the huge _Cardisoma armatum_ or heart-crab is fattened
for table. Fireflies, mosquitoes and sandflies are among the most
familiar forms of insect life. A kind of ant builds very striking
bent-house or umbrella-shaped nests rising on the tree trunks one
above the other.
Among the more characteristic forms of vegetation are baobabs,
silk-cotton trees, screw-pines and palms--especially _Hyphaene
guineensis_ (a fan-palm), _Raphia_ (the wine-palm), and _Elaeis
guineensis_ (the oil-palm). Anonaceous plants (notably _Anona
senegalensis_), and the _pallabanda_, an olive-myrtle-like tree, are
common in the prairies; the papyrus shoots up to a height of 20 ft.
along the rivers; the banks are fringed by the cottony _Hibiscus
tiliaceus_, ipomaeas and fragrant jasmines; and the thickets are bound
together in one inextricable mass by lianas of many kinds. In the
upper Shari region, and that of the Kotto tributary of the Ubangi, are
species of the coffee tree, one species attaining a height of over 60
ft. Its bean resembles that of Abyssinian coffee of medium quality.
Among the fruit trees are the mango and the papaw, the orange and the
lemon. Negro-pepper (a variety of capsicum) and ginger grow wild.
_Inhabitants and Chief Towns._--A census, necessarily imperfect, taken
in 1906 showed a total population, exclusive of Wadai, of 3,652,000,
divided in districts as follows:--Gabun, 376,000; Middle Congo,
259,000; Ubangi-Shari, 2,130,000; Chad, 885,000. The country is
peopled by diverse negro races, and, in the regions bordering Lake
Chad and in Wadai, by Fula, Hausa, Arabs and semi-Arab tribes. Among
the best-known tribes living in French Congo are the Fang (Fans), the
Bakalai, the Batekes and the Zandeh or Niam-Niam. Several of the
tribes are cannibals and among many of them the fetish worship
characteristic of the West African negroes prevails. Their
civilization is of a low order. In the northern regions the majority
of the inhabitants are Mahommedans, and it is only in those districts
that organized and powerful states exist. Elsewhere the authority of a
chief or "king" extends, ordinarily, little beyond the village in
which he lives. (An account of the chief tribes is given under their
names.) The European inhabitants are chiefly of French nationality,
and are for the most part traders, officials and missionaries.
The chief towns are Libreville (capital of the Gabun colony) with 3000
inhabitants; Brazzaville, on the Congo on the north side of Stanley
Pool (opposite the Belgian capital of Leopoldville), the seat of the
governor-general; Franceville, on the upper Ogowe; Loango, an
important seaport in 4 deg. 39' S.; N'Jole, a busy trading centre on the
lower Ogowe; Chekna, capital of Bagirmi, which forms part of the Chad
territory; Abeshr, the capital of Wadai, Bangi on the Ubangi river,
the administrative capital of the Ubangi-Shari-Chad colony. Kunde,
Lame and Binder are native trading centres near the Cameroon frontier.
_Communications._--The rivers are the chief means of internal
communication. Access to the greater part of the colony is obtained by
ocean steamers to Matadi on the lower Congo, and thence round the
falls by the Congo railway to Stanley Pool. From Brazzaville on
Stanley Pool there is 680 m. of uninterrupted steam navigation N.E.
into the heart of Africa, 330 m. being on the Congo and 350 m. on the
Ubangi. The farthest point reached is Zongo, where rapids block the
river, but beyond that port there are several navigable stretches of
the Ubangi, and for small vessels access to the Nile is possible by
means of the Bahr-el-Ghazal tributaries. The Sanga, which joins the
Congo, 270 m. above Brazzaville, can be navigated by steamers for 350
m., i.e. up to and beyond the S.E. frontier of the German colony of
Cameroon. The Shari is also navigable for a considerable distance and
by means of its affluent, the Logone, connects with the Benue and
Niger, affording a waterway between the Gulf of Guinea and Lake Chad.
Stores for government posts in the Chad territory are forwarded by
this route. There is, however, no connecting link between the coast
rivers--Gabun, Ogowe and Kwilu and the Congo system. A railway, about
500 m. long, from the Gabun to the Sanga is projected and the surveys
for the purpose made. Another route surveyed for a railway is that
from Loango to Brazzaville. A narrow-gauge line, 75 m. long, from
Brazzaville to Mindule in the cataracts region was begun in November
1908, the first railway to be built in French Congo. The district
served by the line is rich in copper and other minerals. From Wadai a
caravan route across the Sahara leads to Bengazi on the shores of the
Mediterranean. Telegraph lines connect Loango with Brazzaville and
Libreville, there is telegraphic communication with Europe by
submarine cable, and steamship communication between Loango and
Libreville and Marseilles, Bordeaux, Liverpool and Hamburg.
_Trade and Agriculture._--The chief wealth of the colony consists in
the products of its forests and in ivory. The natives, in addition to
manioc, their principal food, cultivate bananas, ground nuts and
tobacco. On plantations owned by Europeans coffee, cocoa and vanilla
are grown. European vegetables are raised easily. Gold, iron and
copper are found. Copper ores have been exported from Mindule since
1905. The chief exports are rubber and ivory, next in importance
coming palm nuts and palm oil, ebony and other woods, coffee, cocoa
and copal. The imports are mainly cotton and metal goods, spirits and
foodstuffs. In the Gabun and in the basin of the Ogowe the French
customs tariff, with some modifications, prevails, but in the Congo
basin, that is, in the greater part of the country, by virtue of
international agreements, no discrimination can be made between French
and other merchandise, whilst customs duties must not exceed 10% _ad
valorem_.[1] In the Shari basin and in Wadai the Anglo-French
declaration of March 1899 accorded for thirty years equal treatment to
British and French goods. The value of the trade rose in the ten years
1896-1905 from L360,000 to L850,000, imports and exports being nearly
equal. The bulk of the export trade is with Great Britain, which takes
most of the rubber, France coming second and Germany third. The
imports are in about equal proportions from France and foreign
countries.
_Land Tenure. The Concessions Regime._--Land held by the natives is
governed by tribal law, but the state only recognizes native ownership
in land actually occupied by the aborigines. The greater part of the
country is considered a state domain. Land held by Europeans is
subject to the Civil Code of France except such estates as have been
registered under the terms of a decree of the 28th of March 1899,
when, registration having been effected, the title to the land is
guaranteed by the state. Nearly the whole of the colony has been
divided since 1899 into large estates held by limited liability
companies to whom has been granted the sole right of exploiting the
land leased to them. The companies holding concessions numbered in
1904 about forty, with a combined capital of over L2,000,000, whilst
the concessions varied in size from 425 sq. m. to 54,000 sq. m. One
effect of the granting of concessions was the rapid decline in the
business of non-concessionaire traders, of whom the most important
were Liverpool merchants established in the Gabun before the advent of
the French. As by the Act of Berlin of 1885, to which all the European
powers were signatories, equality of treatment in commercial affairs
was guaranteed to all nations in the Congo basin, protests were raised
against the terms of the concessions. The reply was that the critics
confused the exercise of the right of proprietorship with the act of
commerce, and that in no country was the landowner who farmed his land
and sold the produce regarded as a merchant. Various decisions by the
judges of the colony during 1902 and 1903 and by the French _cour de
cassation_ in 1905 confirmed that contention. The action of the
companies was, however, in most cases, neither beneficial to the
country nor financially successful, whilst the native cultivators
resented the prohibition of their trading direct with their former
customers. The case of the Liverpool traders was taken up by the
British government and it was agreed that the dispute should be
settled by arbitration. In September 1908 the French government issued
a decree reorganizing and rendering more stringent the control
exercised by the local authorities over the concession companies,
especially in matters concerning the rights of natives and the liberty
of commerce.
De Brazza's treaties.
_History._--The Gabun was visited in the 15th century by the Portuguese
explorers, and it became one of the chief seats of the slave trade. It
was not, however, till well on in the 19th century that Europeans made
any more permanent settlement than was absolutely necessary for the
maintenance of their commerce. In 1839 Captain (afterwards Admiral)
Bouet-Willaumez obtained for France the right of residence on the left
bank, and in 1842 he secured better positions on the right bank. The
primary object of the French settlement was to secure a port wherein
men-of-war could revictual. The chief establishment, Libreville, was
founded in 1849, with negroes taken from a slave ship. The settlement in
time acquired importance as a trading port. In 1867 the troops numbered
about 1000, and the civil population about 5000, while the official
reports about the same date claimed for the whole colony an area of 8000
sq. m. and a population of 186,000. Cape Lopez had been ceded to France
in 1862, and the colony's coast-line extended, nominally, to a length of
200 m. In consequence of the war with Germany the colony was practically
abandoned in 1871, the establishment at Libreville being maintained as a
coaling depot merely. In 1875, however, France again turned her
attention to the Gabun estuary, the hinterland of which had already been
partly explored. Paul du Chaillu penetrated (1855-1859 and 1863-1865) to
the south of the Ogowe; Walker, an English merchant, explored the
Ngunye, an affluent of the Ogowe, in 1866. In 1872-1873 Alfred Marche, a
French naturalist, and the marquis de Compiegne[2] explored a portion of
the Ogowe basin, but it was not until the expedition of 1875-1878 that
the country east of the Ogowe was reached. This expedition was led by
Savorgnan de Brazza (q.v.), who was accompanied by Dr Noel Eugene
Ballay, and, for part of the time, by Marche. De Brazza's expedition,
which was compelled to remain for many months at several places,
ascended the Ogowe over 400 m., and beyond the basin of that stream
discovered the Alima, which was, though the explorers were ignorant of
the fact, a tributary of the Congo. From the Alima, de Brazza and Ballay
turned north and finally reached the Gabun in November 1878, the journey
being less fruitful in results than the time it occupied would indicate.
Returning to Europe, de Brazza learned that H. M. Stanley had revealed
the mystery of the Congo, and in his next journey, begun December 1879,
the French traveller undertook to find a way to the Congo above the
rapids via the Ogowe. In this he was successful, and in September 1880
reached Stanley Pool, on the north side of which Brazzaville was
subsequently founded. Returning to the Gabun by the lower Congo, de
Brazza met Stanley. Both explorers were nominally in the service of the
International African Association (see CONGO FREE STATE), but de Brazza
in reality acted solely in the interests of France and concluded
treaties with Makoko, "king of the Batekes," and other chieftains,
placing very large areas under the protection of that country. The
conflicting claims of the Association (which became the Congo Free
State) and France were adjusted by a convention signed in February
1885.[3] In the meantime de Brazza and Ballay had more fully explored
the country behind the coast regions of Gabun and Loango, the last-named
seaport being occupied by France in 1883. The conclusion of agreements
with Germany (December 1885 and February-March 1894) and with Portugal
(May 1886) secured France in the possession of the western portion of
the colony as it now exists, whilst an arrangement with the Congo Free
State in 1887 settled difficulties which had arisen in the Ubangi
district.
The advance towards the Nile: Fashoda.
The extension of French influence northward towards Lake Chad and
eastward to the verge of the basin of the Nile followed, though not
without involving the country in serious disputes with the other
European powers possessing rights in those regions. By creating the
posts of Bangi (1890), Wesso and Abiras (1891), France strengthened her
hold over the Ubangi and the Sanga. But at the same time the Congo Free
State passed the parallel of 4 deg. N.--which, after the compromise of 1887,
France had regarded as the southern boundary of her possessions--and,
occupying the sultanate of Bangasso (north of the Ubangi river), pushed
on as far as 9 deg. N. The dispute which ensued was only settled in 1894 and
after the signature of the convention between Great Britain and the
Congo State of the 12th of May of that year, against which both the
German and the French governments protested, the last named because it
erected a barrier against the extension of French territory to the Nile
valley. By a compromise of the 14th of August the boundary was
definitely drawn and, in accordance with this pact, which put the
frontier back to about 4 deg. N., France from 1895 to 1897 took possession
of the upper Ubangi, with Bangasso, Rafai and Zemio. Then began the
French encroachment on the Bahr-el-Ghazal; the Marchand expedition,
despatched to the support of Victor Liotard, the lieutenant-governor of
the upper Ubangi, reached Tambura in July 1897 and Fashoda in July 1898.
A dispute with Great Britain arose, and it was decided that the
expedition should evacuate Fashoda. The declaration of the 21st of March
1899 finally terminated the dispute, fixing the eastern frontier of the
French colony as already stated. Thus, after the Franco-Spanish treaty
of June 1900 settling the limits of the Spanish territory on the coast,
the boundaries of the French Congo on all its frontiers were determined
in broad outline. The Congo-Cameroon frontier was precisely defined by
another Franco-German agreement in April 1908, following a detailed
survey made by joint commissioners in 1905 and 1906. For a comprehensive
description of these international rivalries see AFRICA, Sec. 5, and for
the conquest of the Chad regions see BAGIRMI and RABAH ZOBEIR. In the
other portions of the colony French rule was accepted by the natives,
for the most part, peaceably. For the relations of France with Wadai see
that article.
Following the acquisitions for France of de Brazza, the ancient Gabun
colony was joined to the Congo territories. From 1886 to 1889 Gabun was,
however, separately administered. By decree of the 11th of December 1888
the whole of the French possessions were created one "colony" under the
style of Congo francais, with various subdivisions; they were placed
under a commissioner-general (de Brazza) having his residence at
Brazzaville. This arrangement proved detrimental to the economic
development of the Gabun settlements, which being outside the limits of
the free trade conventional basin of the Congo (see AFRICA, Sec. 5) enjoyed
a separate tariff. By decree of the 29th of December 1903 (which became
operative in July 1904) Congo francais was divided into four parts as
named in the opening paragraph. The first commissioner-general under the
new scheme was Emile Gentil, the explorer of the Shari and Chad. In 1905
de Brazza was sent out from France to investigate charges of cruelty and
maladministration brought against officials of the colony, several of
which proved well founded. De Brazza died at Dakar when on his way home.
The French government, after considering the report he had drawn up,
decided to retain Gentil as commissioner-general, making however (decree
of 15th of February 1906) various changes in administration with a view
to protect the natives and control the concession companies. Gentil, who
devoted the next two years to the reorganization of the finances of the
country and the development of its commerce, resigned his post in
February 1908. He was succeeded by M. Merlin, whose title was changed
(June 1908) to that of governor-general.
_Administration and Revenue._--The governor-general has control over
the whole of French Congo, but does not directly administer any part
of it, the separate colonies being under lieutenant-governors. The
Gabun colony includes the Gabun estuary and the whole of the
coast-line of French Congo, together with the basin of the Ogowe
river. The inland frontier is so drawn as to include all the
hinterland not within the Congo free-trade zone (the Chad district
excepted). The Middle Congo has for its western frontier the Gabun
colony and Cameroon, and extends inland to the easterly bend of the
Ubangi river; the two circumscriptions extend east and north of the
Middle Congo. There is a general budget for the whole of French Congo;
each colony has also a separate budget and administrative autonomy. As
in other French colonies the legislative power is in the French
chambers only, but in the absence of specific legislation presidential
decrees have the force of law. A judicial service independent of the
executive exists, but the district administrators also exercise
judicial functions. Education is in the hands of the missionaries,
upwards of 50 schools being established by 1909. The military force
maintained consists of natives officered by Europeans.
Revenue is derived from taxes on land, rent paid by concession
companies, a capitation or hut tax on natives, and customs receipts,
supplemented by a subvention from France. In addition to defraying the
military expenses, about L100,000 a year, a grant of L28,000 yearly
was made up to 1906 by the French chambers towards the civil expenses.
In 1907 the budget of the Congo balanced at about L250,000 without the
aid of this subvention. In 1909 the chambers sanctioned a loan for the
colony of L840,000, guaranteed by France and to be applied to the
establishment of administrative stations and public works.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Fernand Rouget, _L'Expansion coloniale au Congo
francais_ (Paris, 1906), a valuable monograph, with bibliography and
maps; A. Chevalier, _L'Afrique centrale francaise_ (Paris, 1907). For
special studies see Lacroix, _Resultats mineralogiques et zoologiques
des recentes explorations de l'Afrique occidentale francaise et de la
region du Tchad_ (Paris, 1905); M. Barrat, _Sur la geologie du Congo
francais_ (Paris, 1895), and _Ann. des mines_, ser. q. t. vii. (1895);
J. Cornet, "Les Formations post-primaires du bassin du Congo," _Ann.
soc, geol. belg._ vol. xxi. (1895). The Paris _Bulletin du Museum_ for
1903 and 1904 contains papers on the zoology of the country. For flora
see numerous papers by A. Chevalier in _Comptes rendus de l'academie
des sciences_ (1902-1904), and the _Journal d'agriculture pratique des
pays chauds_ (1901, &c.). For history, besides Rouget's book, see J.
Ancel, "Etude historique. La formation de la colonie du Congo
francais, 1843-1882," containing an annotated bibliography, in _Bull.
Com. l'Afrique francaise_, vol. xii. (1902); the works cited under
BRAZZA; and E. Gentil, _La Chute de l'empire de Rabah_ (Paris, 1902).
Of earlier books of travels the most valuable are:--Paul du Chaillu,
_Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa_ (London, 1861); _A
Journey to Ashonga Land_ (London, 1867); and Sir R. Burton, _Two Trips
to Gorilla Land_ (London, 1876). Of later works see Mary H. Kingsley,
_Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897); A. B. de Mezieres, _Rapport
de mission sur le Haut Oubangui, le M'Bomou et le Bahr-el-Ghazal_
(Paris, 1903); and C. Maistre, _A travers l'Afrique centrale du Congo
au Niger_, 1892-1893 (Paris, 1895). For the story of the concession
companies see E. D. Morel, _The British Case in French Congo_ (London,
1903). (F. R. C.)