There are gauges with long beams or stems and with long heads for

gauging across wide spaces, but when you need anything of the sort you

can easily make it and use with it either pencil, awl, or knife, as may

best suit the case in hand.

If you wish to draw a line two inches from the edge of a board, for

example, you can mark off two or more points at the required distance

and with a rule and pencil draw the line through these points. If you

were to make the points so near together as to touch, you would have the

line without needing the ruler. This is what the gauge does. It makes a

continuous measurement and a continuous mark, which is of course the

line required.

The only gauge you need for rough work is a rule (or even a stick) and a

pencil. To draw a line, for example, two inches from the edge of a

board, take the rule in one hand, and lay the end flat on the surface of

the board so that it laps over two inches from the edge (Fig. 528).

Place the forefinger underneath, against the edge, so that the end of

the rule will remain two inches from the edge, and simply slide rule and

finger along the edge, holding a pencil at the end of the rule with the

other hand to make the mark. The finger must be kept evenly pressed

against the edge. This is only suited for rough work, or for getting

out stock approximately to shape, and of course cannot be depended upon

for accurate measurement.

[Illustration FIG. 528.]

[Illustration FIG. 529.]

[Illustration FIG. 530.]

Something more accurate, with which you cannot get splinters in your

finger, can easily be made, when needed, in this way. To run a line two

inches from an edge, for example, and parallel to it, simply take any

short stick and cut a piece out of it at one end so that the distance

from the shoulder to the end will be just two inches, as shown in Fig.

529. Apply this to the edge of the piece and slide it along on the same

principle as the rule and finger, being careful to keep the shoulder

pressed up to the edge and the pencil or knife held firmly against the

end. Instead of cutting out a piece you can nail one piece on another

(Fig. 530). The latter is better for straight work because the head or

fence is longer and so can be more securely pressed against the edge. An

objection to this gauge is the need of making a new one for every

measurement, but where there is occasion to keep repeating a measurement

it is particularly convenient and quickly made.

[Illustration FIG. 531.]

[Illustration FIG. 532.]

For another home-made gauge (Fig. 531) cut a recess in one side of a

block just wide enough to hold the rule and just deep enough so that

the flat side of the rule will project a trifle above the surface of the

block. On this side of the block fasten a small strip, with a screw, so

that when the two pieces are seized in the hand the rule will be held

fast at the point to which it is adjusted. This is more accurate than to

use the hand alone. You can readily contrive such arrangements, which

will be quite accurate if carefully used, but it is not worth while to

spend much time over such makeshifts (except in case of necessity), for

a fairly good gauge can be bought for a small sum.

[Illustration FIG. 533.]

The gauge is usually an awkward tool for the beginner to use. He finds

it hard to keep the stock firmly against the edge while sliding it

along, and lets the spur dig or plough deeply into the wood--the spur

tends to follow the grain of the wood and when the grain runs toward the

edge the result is often as shown in Fig. 532, the stock being pushed

from the edge. The stock is then pushed back and the wobbly process

continued. To avoid these errors, the gauge, held well in front of you

in one hand, should be tipped or inclined from you so that the spur will

be drawn along the surface (Fig. 533) and will make but a slight

scratch. Then, keeping the stock or head _firmly pressed_ against the

edge, push the gauge steadily from you, watching carefully to see (1st)

that the spur does not begin to dig into the wood instead of lightly

scratching it, and (2d) that the head does not slip away from the edge.

This will prevent the point catching or jumping and will insure a good

mark, which can easily be deepened by going over the line a second time

if necessary.

It is easier to mark a line when the spur is near the head of the gauge

than when it is run out to some distance. The guiding power of the fence

or head is greater over a point near to it than over a point at a

distance, from which you can readily see that, conversely, the longer

the head or fence, the easier the gauging becomes--that is, for

_straight_ lines, which is much the most common use of the gauge. In

gauging from a curved edge, a long fence, unless curved, would be

impracticable.

Where it will injure the work to have the gauge marks show (as when the

work is to be finished with shellac or varnish), be careful not to carry

them farther than necessary, as very slight scratches show plainly after

finishing. Otherwise, in cases where the marks will not show or do no

harm, as in rough framing, it is as well to run them past the required

points, as it is quicker to do so and the juncture of lines which cross

is more distinct.

Gauge from the same side of the wood in laying out mortises or any lines

intended to be in the middle of a piece of wood, or at a fixed distance

from one edge, else if the edges are not exactly parallel (as is often

the case) the markings will differ. See also _Scribing_.

=Gimlet.=--The gimlet is useful, cheap, and good for boring where the

hole does not come near the edge, but near the edge or in thin wood

great care must be taken to prevent splitting. If necessary to use it in

such a case, keep turning it backwards for every turn ahead and do not

try to force it through the wood. It is better, however, to use some

other tool if you can (see _Bits_ and _Twist-drill_), for the tapering

form of the gimlet gives it a wedge-like, prying action upon the woody

fibres.

=Gimlet-Bit.=--See _Bits_.

=Glazing.=--An old chisel can be used to clean off old putty before

setting glass. On new work, see that the rabbet or shoulder where the

putty is to go is primed with lead paint before putting on the putty

(see _Painting_). You can buy glazier's points, to hold the glass in

position under the putty, for a trifle, or very small brads can be used.

No special directions are necessary for using the putty.

To set common glass in furniture, as in bookcase doors, it is better to

fasten it in place with small strips, not pressed too tightly against

it. Strips of plain moulding are good. To set plate glass in furniture,

the same means can be used for small pieces, but large plates, as for a

mirror, should be held in place by little strips of soft pine, one or

two inches long, bevelled on one side. The other side being glued, these

strips can be lightly pressed into the crack around the glass. These

short pieces, glued to the frame on one side and with the bevelled side

wedging the glass into place, hold the latter securely, but, owing to

the softness of the wood, not too rigidly.

=Glue.=--See _Gluing_.

=Gluing.=--Glue is made from refuse animal matter, and also from parts

of fishes, the latter being known as fish glue. It comes in sheets or

cakes or flakes, to be dissolved and used hot, or already prepared in

liquid form.

The majority of practical mechanics prefer the former (_i.e._, "hot"

glue) for nice work, although the use of liquid glue has increased much

of late years. Hot glue is probably preferable if all the conditions are

just as they should be, but if not so, liquid or "cold" glue may be

better.

Buy the best grade. It is the cheapest for good work, and you will not

use enough to make the price much of an obstacle. The only _sure_ test

by which to buy glue is to get a little and see how it holds. A good way

to prove the quality of your glue is to soak it over night, or as long

as may be necessary, in whatever quantity of water you think it will

absorb. The more it will swell without dissolving, the better the

quality. _Poor_ glue will dissolve.

You cannot positively tell good glue by the colour, for there are many

kinds (and for more than one purpose) and many makers, but whatever the

colour, the glue should be clear looking and not cloudy or muddy. Do not

use glue that has a mouldy or otherwise disagreeable or offensive smell

or a bad taste.

To prepare hot glue, break the glue into small pieces, and soak it in

all the cold water it will absorb for perhaps twelve hours, when it will

have become swollen and softened and will look and feel somewhat like

jelly. Then put it in the inner glue-pot (see _Glue-pot)_ and cause the

water in the outer vessel to boil for several hours. It is quicker to

dissolve the glue at once without soaking, but the result does not seem

to be quite as good as by the former method. The glue to be right for

use must be thin enough to drip from the brush in a thread or stream,

without collecting in drops like water, and you can tell something about

its being in condition to use by testing it between your fingers. Do not

weaken its strength, however, by diluting with more water than is

necessary.

It is important to keep the glue and the glue-pot clean, and if the

odour from your glue becomes offensive at any time clean out the

glue-pot and make fresh.

Glue loses strength by repeated meltings, so do not dissolve too much at

a time, and after heating it over two or three times throw away any that

is left in the glue-pot, cleaning the latter thoroughly. On work which

you are very particular about mix fresh glue each time.[46]

You can make a good glue-brush of a stick of rattan. Soften the end in

hot water and pound it with the hammer until the fibres separate. For

corners, cracks, holes, and the like use sticks, which you can whittle

to any required shape.

Although apparently too simple an operation to need much explanation,

and often ignored in books on wood-work, as if anyone could of course

glue two pieces together, the operation, to be really successful, calls

for more knowledge of the principles involved than beginners or amateurs

usually possess. Do not daub a thick layer of lukewarm glue on the

pieces, and then slap them together as you would make a sandwich, after

the usual domestic fashion. Done in this way the pieces often stick for

a while, but there is nothing certain about it.

We have seen that wood is full of little holes (pores, as they are

commonly called), or spaces between the fibres (see Fig. 6). The glue

becomes worked into these little pores and that is what gives it such a

firm hold on the wood, somewhat as plastering is forced (purposely) into

the cracks between the laths.

So you must have the glue thin, that it may fill these little cavities

and get a "grip" on the wood; you must have it hot, that it may the more

easily penetrate these open spaces before it becomes chilled; you must

have the wood warm, that the glue may not be chilled and begin to set

before it has a chance to penetrate the interstices of the wood; and you

must press the pieces together so hard as to expel the body of glue from

between them, forcing it into the pores and squeezing outside what will

not go in, to be wiped or scraped off afterward. For what you want is

not to have the two pieces held together by a layer of glue between

them, lightly sticking to each surface and separating the two in

proportion to the thickness of the layer; but to have the two surfaces

as close together as possible, held so by the tenacity of the glue

reaching from the cavities of one surface to those of the other. The

closer the surfaces are forced together the better, as the glue will be

less exposed to the atmosphere.

You will see from all this that gluing should be done in a warm room of

an even temperature.

While with hot glue it will not do to change the relative positions of

the pieces after putting together, you can have considerable time to get

them in position if the liquid or cold glue is used. Where several

places in the same piece of work have to be glued together at the same

time, it is frequently very hard to get around with the hot glue before

that first applied has begun to set, unless you have help. In such

cases, cold glue is a great convenience. If your shop is not warm or if

you cannot have your glue hot, you had better use the liquid glue. It

takes much longer to set than the other. In cold weather it should be

slightly warmed. It can be thinned with vinegar or acetic acid, or what

you wish to use at once may be thinned with water. Do not pour water

into the can of glue, as it will not keep so well.

You will also readily see that it is much easier to make good glued

joints in soft wood than in hard, for the former is more readily

squeezed to a fit by the clamping, while with the latter it is quite

essential that the pieces should fit with extreme accuracy before

clamping (see note under _Clamps_).

Before beginning to glue have everything laid out, fit the pieces

together, clamp them up just as if you had put on the glue, and see that

everything comes together right--_i.e._, rehearse the gluing process

before using the glue itself. This is a very important point,

particularly when there are several pieces to be glued, for you will

have no time to waste after you have begun to use the glue.

Do not spread the glue on too thick. Take the dirt off both pieces,

then, while putting the glue on one, have the other warming slightly at

the fire. The moment the glue on the brush leaves the glue-pot it begins

to cool. If it fairly begins to set before you get the two pieces

together, your joint will not be good. You will have to take it apart,

scrape off all the old glue, and begin over again. So you will see there

is no time to be lost when once you begin and it will be too late then

to correct any mistakes in the fitting of the wood-work. Good workmen

always put the work together and take it apart again before gluing.

Do not wipe off the glue which squeezes out from a glued joint (unless

for some special reason) nor wash it off with water. Let it harden, and

clean it off after the joint has set. It helps protect the joint.

Do not be in haste to unclamp your work. When to release it depends on

the kind of wood, the kind of work, and the circumstances under which

the gluing is done, and no exact time can be set. If for some temporary

and unimportant purpose and in soft pine, for instance, you can unclamp

in a few hours or even less, but for important work, which is to hold

permanently, twelve hours is scarcely time enough even for soft wood and

hot glue, and twenty-four hours is none too long, for though the glue

dries quickly to the touch, it takes considerable time to get thoroughly

hard. It is safer to allow more time for hard wood. The thickness of the

stock makes a difference also. Large junks and blocks and boards glued

flatways require more time than 1/4" stock, thin strips, or little

splinters. You can tell something by the condition of the glue that is

squeezed from the joint. Liquid glue sets much more slowly, and

twenty-four hours is soon enough to release the work under average

conditions. The warmth and dryness of the air make a good deal of

difference. Under unfavourable conditions more than forty-eight hours

may be required.

If for any reason you cannot clamp a joint, after applying the glue rub

one piece back and forth upon the other a few times.

Rub wax, soap, or tallow on any part which must not be stuck by surplus

glue which may exude from a joint, as in the case of a panel which may

become stuck by the glue used in fastening the frame (see _Doors and

Panels_).

To glue two pieces where the surface is to be planed or trimmed at the

joint, do not glue them together after they are planed or trimmed, but

glue them first, and plane or trim them afterwards, taking care to have

the grain of the pieces run in the same direction (see _Jointing_).

To glue pieces end to end, or as in a mitre,--that is, "end

wood,"--first size with thin glue to stop the pores, else the glue will

be quickly soaked up. Then, after allowing this coat to stand, glue in

the ordinary way. But glued joints in end wood are seldom good and are

to be avoided.

A great deal of glued work comes apart, and a great many mistakes in

putting work together are caused by not understanding, or not bearing in

mind, the way wood expands and contracts and warps and winds from heat

and cold, dryness and moisture. This is an important matter if you wish

to do good gluing. Do not think that all that is necessary is to have

your wood dry and that then you can glue the pieces together in any

relative positions. Veneers or thin pieces are sometimes successfully

glued with the grain of the pieces running at right angles, as seen in

chair seats, but as a rule avoid gluing wide pieces together with the

grain running at right angles. See _Laying out the Work_, in Chapter

IV.; also _Jointing_.

=Glue-Pot.=--This can be bought of copper, iron, or tin. A medium-sized

one is more useful than a very small one. Have a cover to keep out dust

and loose particles.

If obliged to make shift without a proper glue-pot, always use two

dishes like a regular glue-pot, with water in the outer one, on the

principle of the double boiler used for cooking, else the glue will be

sure to burn and be spoiled. Two cans, such as are used for tomatoes or

other vegetables, can be used on a pinch, one being larger than the

other and fastened in place with wire or in some way to keep the smaller

can from moving around too much; but a regular glue-pot is much better.

See _Gluing_.

=Gouge.=--This tool is similar to the chisel, except for the curvature

across the blade. The common gouge has the bevel on the convex or outer

side and is known as an "outside" gouge. This is the more useful for

ordinary work. The "inside" gouge has the bevel on the inner or concave

side. Although very useful for many purposes, it is less important for

general work and is harder to sharpen. Gouges are of various degrees of

curvature, Fig. 534 showing a "flat" and a "quick" curve. Those of

moderate depth and curvature will be more useful for your work than very

deep or very flat ones.

[Illustration FIG. 534.]

[Illustration FIG. 535.]

In using the common or "outside" gouge, light, short strokes should

usually be made, for only the bevel of the tool bears on the wood, which

makes this gouge quite hard to control.

You can often apply the principle of the sliding or sideways cut in

using the gouge, as with the chisel, to good advantage. You can roll the

gouge around with your hand from side to side so as to make it cut

slantingly. This is particularly useful to give a clean cut when gouging

across the grain (Fig. 535). In some cases, in working out a moulding,

for instance, you can hold the tool at an angle with the work and get a

better result than to push it straight forward lengthways (Fig. 536).

[Illustration FIG. 536.]

Be careful not to scoop out little hollows below the required depth of

the cut, and keep the direction of the grain in mind the same as with

the chisel. The little inequalities left by the gouge can be reduced

easily by the file, curved scraper, or glass and sandpaper. See

_Sharpening_.

=Gouge-Bit.=--See _Bits_.

=Grindstone.=--When you get to the point of having a grindstone, get one

which is somewhat soft and fine, for if too coarse it will produce a

rougher edge than is desirable for your tools.

Do not allow your grindstone to become softened in spots by being left

partially immersed in a trough of water, as it will wear away

irregularly. With the best of care a stone will, however, become untrue

after continued use, not merely in its circular outline, but the face

will become hollowed and uneven. It must then be trued, either by some

one of the contrivances now made for the purpose, or by simply turning

the stone into the correct shape by holding the _end_ of a piece of soft

iron, as a piece of pipe, against the surface, without water, moving the

iron as occasion requires, until the stone becomes true.

=Grooving.=--Grooves of different dimensions are often required for

various purposes in wood-working. By far the best way, as a practical

matter, is to take the work to a mill and have the grooving done by

machine, which is not expensive. It can be done by hand with the planes

devised for the purpose (as the plough), but though these are valuable

tools, they are largely superseded, or becoming so, by machine-work, and

it is usually fully as well for the amateur to take such work to the

mill as to buy the tools.

In some cases the sides of the groove can be sawed by the hand-saws and

the material removed by the chisel, but this is not easy if the groove

is long. Pieces are sometimes clamped beside the line to guide the saw

and sometimes even attached to the saw itself, or to a piece of

saw-blade. The lines for the groove can be scored with the knife or

chisel and the wood between removed by the chisel, much as in cutting a

mortise.

In nice work, as fitting a shelf in a bookcase, it makes a better joint

not to fit the entire end of the shelf into a groove, but to cut a

tongue or wide tenon on the end of the shelf, with a shoulder at each

side and the front edge, to fit into a corresponding groove, as shown in

Fig. 284.

=Half-Round File.=--See _File_.

[Illustration FIG. 537.]

[Illustration FIG. 538.]

[Illustration FIG. 539.]

[Illustration FIG. 540.]

[Illustration FIG. 541.]

[Illustration FIG. 542.]

=Halving.=--This joint shown in Fig. 537 is a common, simple, and good

way of joining two sticks when they cross at right angles or obliquely.

Place the sticks in position and mark the width of each upon the surface

of the other, using a knife or chisel for scribing. With small sticks

the wood can be removed with the knife, first cutting a notch at each

side and then paring off the wood between (Fig. 538). With large pieces

the lines should be marked by the square, the depth (one-half the

thickness of either piece) by the gauge. The lines at the outside of the

space can then be sawed down to the gauge line, taking care to keep just

on the inside edge of the line. The wood between can be pared out with

the chisel down to the gauge lines. When the halving is at the ends of

the pieces or at the end of one piece (Fig. 539), the process is the

same, except that the wood can be entirely removed by the saw. Other

forms involving bevelling and dovetailing are shown in Figs. 540, 541,

and 542. This principle of the lap joint is often carried a little

further and we have the open mortise and tenon (Fig. 543), which can

successfully be applied to a mitred joint and can also be dovetailed,

and boxes are now made by machine with the corners entirely made up of a

continuous series of these joints (Fig. 544). See _Joints_.

[Illustration FIG. 543.]

[Illustration FIG. 544.]

=Hammer.=--The hammer is made in many forms, but the common kind used by

carpenters will usually answer your purpose, and is too familiar to

require description. For general use select one of medium size and

weight. Remember that the face of the hammer-head, although harder than

the nails it is meant to drive, is not intended to pound every piece of

hardened steel you may run across, nor to break up boulders when you are

after minerals. For the use of the hammer see _Nailing_.

=Hand-Screws.=--Hand-screws are of great use in clamping work that has

been glued and for holding pieces in any required position. Wooden

hand-screws are probably the most generally useful, but a couple (or

more) of the simple iron clamps will be of great service at times, as

they can be used more advantageously than the wooden ones in some kinds

of work. Get medium-sized hand-screws rather than small ones if you can,

as they will be generally more serviceable.

[Illustration FIG. 545.]

[Illustration FIG. 546.]

[Illustration FIG. 547.]

To open or close a hand-screw, hold it at arm's-length in front of you

with a handle in each hand, and with a twirling motion revolve it toward

or from you, as may be required, to increase or decrease the opening

between the jaws. The screws should be greased or rubbed over with

black-lead, soap, or bayberry tallow.

To hold two pieces together with uniform pressure is of course necessary

for gluing and various other operations, but a little practice will show

you how to adjust the hand-screws so that the jaws will bear on the wood

evenly. The main point to remember is to keep the jaws parallel. The

final tightening is given entirely by the outer screw, so, in adjusting

the screws, leave the jaws open a little at the tip as in Fig. 545, that

when the final pressure is put upon the outer screw the jaws will bear

on the wood with an even pressure (Fig. 546). If the jaws were adjusted

to bear evenly before tightening the outer screw, the final result would

be as shown in Fig. 547.

[Illustration FIG. 548.]

In clamping together finished work or pieces which could be injured by

the pressure, always put pieces of waste wood between the work and the

hand-screws. In case of delicate work, like carving or mouldings, a

piece of _soft pine_ placed between the surface and the hand-screws or

clamps will enable considerable pressure to be applied without injury to

the work.

A simple home-made clamp, suitable for such work as temporarily holding

in place parts of the frame of a boat, for instance, is shown in Fig.

548. See _Clamps_ and also Figs. 66 and 647.

=Hatchet.=--The hatchet is too familiar to need description. A common,

medium-sized hatchet, that can easily be swung with one hand, is all

that the beginner will ordinarily require, although there is quite a

variety of hatchets and axes for various purposes.

The main thing in the use of the hatchet, besides keeping your fingers

out of the way, is to look sharply after the direction of the grain of

the wood, as it is not easy to stop a blow in the wrong place, for the

hatchet is not so easily controlled as some other tools. Experience is

the best teacher in the use of a hatchet. For removing superfluous wood

with the hatchet, see _Paring_.

=Hinges.=--There are many varieties of hinges for various purposes. The

common kind, like that shown in Fig. 135, had best, for neatness' sake,

on moderately heavy work, be narrower than the thickness of the stock,

so as not to extend across the edge. The hinge should be sunk in the

wood of one or both of the parts to be hinged--in the case of many

boxes, for instance, one half of the hinge when shut is usually sunk in

each part, but in some kinds of work the whole thickness may be sunk in

one part. The hinge can be held in position on the edge (in the case of

the box) so that the centre of the pin on which it turns is in line with

the back of the box, or sometimes a little outside. Marks can be made

with the knife or chisel at the ends of the hinge, and the recess in

which it is to fit marked with the square and gauge. This wood should be

removed with the chisel, first making cross cuts to break up the grain,

as in Fig. 614. Fit the other hinge or hinges in the same way. Next lay

the lid exactly in position on top of the hinges and mark by them and

cut the recesses in the top in the same way. Hold the hinges in place

with two or three screws each and see whether the cover opens and shuts

as it should. Make any needed alterations, and finally screw the hinges

firmly in place. Another way is to place the lid exactly in position

(shut) and mark directly from the hinges, on both box and cover at the

same time, the points from which to lay out the recesses. It will be

well to look at a properly fitted hinge for a similar purpose before

beginning your work, since one rule cannot be laid down for all cases.

For strap-hinges, T-hinges, and the like, see page 247.

=Holes and Cracks, To Fill.=--The simplest way to stop holes, cracks,

checks, and the like, in painted work, is with putty, always applying it

_after_ the first coat of paint and never before (see _Painting_), but

this method should not be used for other than painted work, and the

nicer the work, the less desirable the use of putty becomes.

For nice work, as furniture, which has not been finished, small holes or

cracks are often stopped by putting a daub of hot glue on the smooth end

of a piece of wood of the same kind as the article, and with a sharp

chisel, held nearly at right angles with the surface, scraping off fine

wood-dust, which, mixing with the glue, forms a paste with which the

crack can be more than filled. When hard, the surplus can be pared and

scraped off.

Plaster of Paris (calcined plaster), mixed with very thin hot glue, is

excellent for stopping cracks and holes of considerable size. It can be

mixed with water only, but this is not as good.

[Illustration FIG. 549.]

Fitting in a plug of wood is a good way when the hole is of such shape

that you can do so, making the grain of the plug run the same way as

that of the piece to be plugged. Taper the plug slightly, so that when

driven in it will fit tightly and not be flush with the surface, but

project above it (Fig. 549). Dip in hot glue, and drive well in. When

dry smooth off. If the hole is irregular, trim to some shape to which

you can fit a plug. In nice work take pains to have the plug a good

match for the rest of the wood.

Slight cracks at the end of a piece can often be plugged and at the same

time secured against further splitting by sawing directly down the

crack, so as to remove it and substitute a straight saw-kerf. In this

kerf a slip of wood can be fitted and glued.

Wax, and also melted shellac, can be used to stop holes and cracks in

finished work. For this, see under _Finishing_.

=Jack-Plane.=--See _Plane_.

=Jointer.=--See _Plane_.

[Illustration FIG. 550.]

=Jointing.=--This term is applied to the act of straightening and making

true the edges of two boards or planks which are to be joined to make a

tight joint, with glue or otherwise. It is, also, popularly applied to

straightening the edge of one piece only, as to "joint" the edge of a

board. This you will often have to do, and for jointing two edges which

are to be glued particular care will be required. Assuming that the

edges have been got out nearly straight, the only plane you will require

is the fore-plane,--or better, the jointer, or even the "long" jointer

if the piece is long and you are fortunate enough to have these

tools,--and it should be set fine, although if the edge is very crooked

and you have to work off much superfluous stock, the iron can be set to

make a coarse shaving at first.

In shooting or jointing edges it is customary to hold the finger under

the sole of the plane as a guide (Fig. 550). This helps in regard to the

common fault of tipping the plane sideways so as to plane off more on

one side than on the other (Fig. 551). This trouble may be aggravated by

a wrong position of the left hand on the fore part of the plane in case

you use a wooden plane (see Fig. 624 for correct position). Keep testing

across the edge with the square (Fig. 640). The shooting-board can be

used to advantage for short pieces (see _Shooting-board_), and

attachable guides can also be obtained.

[Illustration FIG. 551.]

The jointing should be done with long, deliberate, steady strokes. Any

hasty, hit-or-miss slashing away with the plane will be sure to result

in a bad joint, and you can easily get the edge into such shape by three

or four careless strokes that it will take you a good while to get it

straight. Try also to avoid planing the edge rounding, from end to end

(see _Plane_, Figs. 635-637). Sight along the edge. Also test with

straight-edge, looking toward the light. If any shines through, the edge

is not yet accurate and the process must be resumed.

If you are jointing two edges, as for a "glue-joint," first examine the

pieces to see which edges will best go together, according to the

purpose for which they are intended. Look at the end grain so as to

arrange it in different ways if you are building up a piece of selected

parts (Fig. 559). If merely joining two or more boards to make a wider

one, notice the way the grain runs lengthways, and the way it crops up

to the surface, for you will have, for everything but the roughest work,

to plane the surface over after the joint is glued, and if the grain

runs in two or three different ways it will be harder to make the

surface smooth. There are cases, however, in handsomely figured wood, as

quartered oak or mahogany, where you will arrange the grain in the way

that will look the best, but in such cases you expect to go through

extra labour for the sake of having the article as handsome as possible.

With soft, straight-grained white pine or whitewood, these matters are

of less importance. When you have the pieces laid together in the best

way, mark on the surface right across the joints (Fig. 552) so that you

will know how to put the pieces together, for you will forget how they

were arranged after you have moved them around a few times.

[Illustration FIG. 552.]

[Illustration WRONG. RIGHT. FIG. 553.]

Joint each edge separately. For nice work it is well to joint the edges

of the successive pieces alternately from opposite sides,--that is, if

in planing the edge of the first piece the marked (or face) side of the

board is _towards_ you, plane the edge of the next piece with the face

side of the board against the bench, or _away_ from you. This helps to

counteract the result of any tendency to tip the plane to one side or

any inaccuracy in setting the plane-iron. See _Shooting-board_.

Then, putting one piece in the vice with the jointed edge upwards, lay

the other edge upon it in the proper position and see if the two edges

touch throughout. If not, one or both must be planed with thin, careful

strokes until they do fit, for the joint will not be good unless the

edges coincide. Remember, however, that it takes more than merely

touching to make a good joint. The _surfaces_ of the boards must be in

line (in the same plane). Of course this really depends upon the edges

being square. Test by holding a straight-edge, the square, the edge of

the plane, or anything straight, against the surface of the boards (Fig.

553).[47]

Do not be misled by the directions you may see in "amateur" books and

magazine articles which tell you, for cases like this,--when you wish to

glue up the lid of a desk, for instance,--to plane and sandpaper your

boards carefully on the sides and then fit the edges together, after

which you "have only to glue the edges and the job is done." That is not

the right way to make a glued joint, as you will find out for yourself

after you have planed a few dozen boards the second time. The skilled

workman seldom attempts to do this except in repairing or some case

where the surface of the pieces must be preserved. The practical

work-man's way (which is the way for you), is to glue first and plane

afterwards. The best way, practically, is to glue up the rough boards

before they have been planed at all, and then have the whole planed down

as one piece by machine to the required thickness. Of course you should

get the surfaces as nearly in line as you can, to avoid needless planing

afterwards, but give your special attention to making the joint hold

(see note under _Clamps_).

Sometimes the edges of boards to be glued are purposely planed,

hollowing lengthways, so that the two pieces touch at the ends, but do

not quite come together in the middle, the idea being that a clamp at

the middle will force the joint together for its whole length and will

give a stronger result than to attempt to make both edges exactly

straight. If there is to be any open place in the joint before gluing,

it is better to have it at the middle than at the ends, but there is a

difference of opinion as to whether there is any advantage in springing

boards to fit in this way.

Before gluing hardwood edges, it is well to tooth them over with the

toothed-plane, if you have one. (See _Plane_.)

See _Plane_, _Gluing_, _Joints_, _Cleating_, _Dowelling_, etc.

=Joints and Splices.=--There are many kinds of splices and joints used

in the different branches of wood-work, a few of which are here given.

[Illustration FIG. 554.]

The common square butt-joint (Fig. 554) is the simplest way to join two

pieces at right angles, as in making a box or frame, and is used for all

common work. Glue is of but little use with this joint. Rely wholly on

nails or screws.

[Illustration FIG. 555.]

To make a better joint, cut a rabbet at the end of one piece and you

have a joint (Fig. 555) which shows less end wood, and can be helped a

good deal by gluing, on account of the shoulder.

[Illustration FIG. 556.]

Another way is shown in Fig. 556. Some strength and stiffness is gained

by the tongue and groove, but a groove near the end introduces an

element of weakness.

[Illustration FIG. 557.]

A much stronger way and a tighter joint (Fig. 557) is often used for

cisterns, water-tanks, and horse troughs, but the projecting ends are

objectionable for most purposes. See _Halving_, _Mitring_,

_Dovetailing_, and also _Box-making_, page 219.

In nailing any such joints as those just shown, remember to always bore

holes for the nails wherever there is danger of splitting. See _Awl_,

_Bits_, _Boring_, _Nailing_.

There are many ways, besides those just mentioned, for joining sticks

and timbers at right angles, which is something you will often have to

do, whether for a kite or some small framework or for the timbers of a

building.

To join two or more boards or planks to make a wider surface, several

methods can be used. Cleating, though strong and suitable for all such

work as drawing-boards, rough doors, and the like, is often undesirable,

both on account of the looks and because the cleats may be in the way

(see _Cleating_). The simplest way, without cleats, is to glue the

jointed edges (see _Jointing_ and _Gluing_). Dowels can be used with

this joint (see _Dowelling_), or grooves can be cut and a strip or

spline or tongue inserted (Fig. 558). This last way can be done at the

mill quicker and better than by hand. The edges can also be halved, or a

rabbet cut in each edge from opposite sides. The boards can also be

"matched" (see page 46), in which case it is not usual to glue them. All

of these joints can best be made by machine.

[Illustration FIG. 558.]

[Illustration FIG. 559.]

To avoid the warping and change of shape to which wide pieces are

subject, particularly when they are not middle boards (see Chapter III),

they are often built up of selected narrower pieces (Fig. 559). This is

done for many things,--the frames of machines, the tops of

sewing-tables, drawing-boards, chopping-blocks, etc. Masts, bows,

fishing-rods, and the like are sometimes built up of selected pieces,

the idea being that a better result can be obtained by combining

selected smaller pieces, that flaws and defects (which are apt to occur

in larger pieces) can be avoided, and that sometimes the grain can be

arranged to better advantage. This is doubtless true, but there is

always the objection that glued joints may give way. If you can get a

piece which is practically perfect, it is probably in most cases better

than a glued-up combination, for it is not easy to improve on Nature

when you can get her best specimens; but unless you can get

_first-class_ stock of the dimensions required, it is better to "build

up" with smaller pieces of selected stock.

Where the ends of two pieces come together and you wish to make a close

joint, you will, of course, saw the pieces off as squarely as possible,

using the square or perhaps the mitre-box. If you mark and saw them with

exactness, and if everything about their arrangement is straight and

square and true, the ends will come together exactly and make a close

joint, but as a practical matter this frequently will not happen,

however careful you may be. For nice work, the workmanlike way in such

cases is to plane or pare the ends until they fit, but for rougher work

the expedient of sawing the ends to fit can be resorted to. To do this,

put the ends together as they are to go (Fig. 560), keep them from

moving, and saw straight down through the joint. As the saw will leave a

kerf of uniform thickness, the pieces can now be pushed together and the

ends will fit, unless the joint was very much open, in which case you

have only to saw again, and if necessary repeat the operation until the

ends fit. This is a very useful expedient in case of need, but should

not be relied on as a regular way to make joints, lest it engender a

careless and inaccurate method of work. This applies also to joints

which meet at any angle.

[Illustration FIG. 560.]

[Illustration FIG. 561.]

In some cases, where only one side of each piece shows, as in laying

floor-boards, it is usual to undercut the ends slightly--that is, to

make the joint a little open at the bottom, which gives a tight and neat

joint on the side which shows (Fig. 561, which is exaggerated).

Another way to make an end joint is by bevelled scarfing or splaying

(Fig. 562). You will see the ends of the clapboards on old houses joined

in this way, and it doubtless makes a better joint in many cases than

the common square or butt-joint, but it is more work. Strips of moulding

are often cut in this way.

[Illustration FIG. 562.]

[Illustration FIG. 563.]

[Illustration FIG. 564.]

There are many ways of splicing two or more pieces so as to get greater

length, many of them, such as are used in bridge-building and

roof-framing, being quite complicated. You will rarely, however, in

such work as you will do at first, have occasion to do more than nail

strips (fish-plates) on the sides of the pieces or make a halved splice

or scarfed joint (Fig. 563). The latter is often made longer than that

shown and fastened in various ways. A joint for a brace is shown in Fig.

564.

See _Cleats_, _Doors_, _Dovetailing_, _Dowelling_, _Gluing_, _Halving_,

_Mitring_, _Mortising_, _Nailing_, etc.

=Keyhole Saw.=--See _Saw_.

=Knife.=--An excellent knife for shop work is a sloyd knife. A good

shoe-knife will do very well. This is better for shop work than a

jack-knife. It will not close on your fingers for one thing. For general

purposes, however, a pocket-knife is the best thing, as you cannot carry

a sloyd knife around with you. In buying it get a good plain knife with

not more than two or three blades and of the best steel you can afford.

Do not waste money in trying to get your whole kit of tools into the

compass of one jack-knife handle. In selecting a knife, open the blades

and sight along the back to see that each blade is accurately in line

with the handle, as they are sometimes fastened at a slight angle, which

weakens the knife.

An immense variety of work can be done with a common pocket- or

jack-knife, which is the best _emergency_ tool for either the beginner

or the skilled workman. One great thing about whittling is that you

cannot rely on squares, rules, or compasses to get your work right, but

must be independent, think quickly, look sharply, and rely on your own

faculties. A knife is so easy to sharpen that there is not much excuse

for using a dull one. See _Sharpening_.

In cutting, always keep your left hand _behind_ the blade, and as a

general rule cut _from_ you, for the tool may slip and cut you instead

of the wood. There are cases where you have to cut towards you, but

there is never any need of getting your left hand in front of the

cutting-edge.

=Level.=--A spirit-level is important for some work, but not often

necessary for the beginner, as a substitute can easily be made. A

horizontal or level line being at right angles with a vertical line, a

home-made level can be made by using the principle of the plumb-line, as

shown on page 96. When the plumb-line hangs freely on the line _ab_,

which is at right angles to _cd_, the latter line (_cd_) must of course

be level. The frame should be several feet long for levelling large

work, as it can be adjusted more accurately than if small.

=Linseed Oil.=--See _Finishing_ and _Painting_.

=Locks.=--Use locks of good quality or none at all. Never put very cheap

locks on good work. There are many varieties of locks, some to be

screwed on the outside of the wood, others to be sunk in recesses cut in

the side of the wood, others still to be let into mortises--chest-locks,

door-locks, cupboard-locks, drawer-locks, etc.

To fit a chest- or box-lock (not a mortise-lock), place the lock in the

right position, mark around the part required to be sunk in the wood,

which can be cut away with gouge and chisel, the keyhole having been

bored quite through the wood and trimmed to a neat outline which will

conform to the shape of the key. When the lock has been screwed in its

recess, put the "hasp," or part which is to be on the lid, into its

place in the lock, just where it will be when the chest is locked. Then

close the lid, and by slightly pressing you can make a mark on it to

show where to put the hasp. Sometimes you can mark the place with a

pencil, or by putting transfer-paper between the hasp and the wood, or

by rubbing blackened grease on the plate of the hasp. The plate of the

hasp should be sunk in the lid to be flush with the surface, and may

then be screwed on, bearing in mind the thickness of the lid when

selecting the screws. A mortise-lock is fitted in a similar way, but let

into a mortise (see _Mortising_).

To fit a common drawer-lock, determine the place for the keyhole and

place the lock in position on the inside as before. With a pencil mark

the outline of the box-part of the lock, which bears against the wood.

Cut away the wood within this line, making a recess slightly deeper than

the thickness of the box-part of the lock. The hole must be bored for

the key, as before. Put the lock into place and mark the outline of the

outer plate, not merely on the inside of the drawer front but also on

the top edge. Cut away the wood with the chisel to let the plate sink

flush with the wood. When the keyhole is shaped, try the lock and if it

works, screw it on. Close the drawer and turn the key hard to raise the

bolts (the tops of which have been previously rubbed with blackened

grease, such as can be scraped from an oil-stone, or using transfer

paper), which, pressing against the wood, will mark the places for the

mortises into which they are to slide. Cut these mortises and the drawer

can be locked.

The variety of locks and their arrangement in regard to fitting is so

great that it will be best for you to examine a well-fitted lock for the

same purpose that the lock you have to fit is intended, for one rule

cannot be given for all cases.

=Mallet.=--The mallet, which is merely a hammer with a wooden head, is

made in various forms and sizes, from the big beetle of the wood-chopper

to the ladies' carving mallet. It is used to strike the wooden

tool-handles.

For heavy work a mallet with the handle put through the head from the

outside, like the handle of a pickaxe, is good because the head cannot

come off. A rounded head with the handle on the end (like a

potato-masher) saves having to notice how you hold it, as it is equally

effective in any position. A mallet of this type can be turned all in

one piece. Hickory or lignum-vitæ or any dense, hard wood is good for a

mallet.

You do not gain force by using the mallet instead of the hammer, but the

softer and more yielding blow of the mallet saves the tool-handle.

=Marking.=--For all rough work the ordinary carpenter's pencil,

sharpened flatways, like a screw-driver, is the most convenient and

durable instrument. For nicer work, where you need more accurate lines,

the common round pencil (medium hard or rather soft) is all you need,

but for nice, close work (such as marking accurate joints), a knife, the

corner of a chisel, a marking-awl, or a scriber of some sort is

necessary. There is no need to buy any tool for this, although they are

to be had--nothing is better than a common pocket-knife or a chisel.

Keep your pencils sharp by rubbing them on a piece of fine sandpaper, or

an old file.

[Illustration Fig. 565.]

In scribing with the chisel, the edge is drawn along with one corner

slightly raised and the flat side next the straight-edge, holding the

tool either like a pencil or for deeper scoring as in Fig. 565.

In all marking and scribing, whether with pencil, awl, knife, chisel, or

other tool, be sure that the marking edge is kept close up to the rule,

straight-edge, or square, as it will often tend to follow the grain of

the wood and run off the line, and will sometimes force the

straight-edge or square out of position if the latter is not held

firmly.

Do not try to stop lines which meet at a given point, but let them cross

one another when they will not show in the finished work, as it is

quicker to do so and the crossing of two lines marks a point more

accurately than a dot. For work to be finished, however, scoring the

surface with lines should be avoided wherever they will show, as they

will become conspicuous after the work is finished.

[Illustration THIN RULE--FINE WORK. FIG. 566.]

[Illustration THICK RULE--ROUGH WORK. FIG. 567.]

In marking lines with a _straight-edge_ or ruler you must be careful

that it does not slip. If it is long you can put weights on it. To mark

a line _accurately_ through given points, the ruler should not quite

touch the points, but be pushed almost up to them and equally distant

from each (Fig. 566). This will give you a clear view of both points so

that you can be sure that the pencil or whatever you mark with will go

as nearly as possible through the centre of each. Bearing the pencil

against the edge of the ruler, you can slant it a trifle till the

pencil-point will just coincide with the given point on the wood, and,

keeping the same inclination, move the pencil along the ruler, and it

should also go through the second given point. This applies to a regular

ruler with a comparatively thin edge, and to fine work only. In marking

by a thick edge, or where extreme nicety is not required, you will of

course put the straight-edge right up to the points and run the

pencil-point along in the angle (Fig. 567).

Besides marking lines, the straight-edge (in some form), is used to

determine whether a surface is true. See _Straight-edge_.

For rough, off-hand marking, particularly on undressed stock, chalk is

often best. Sticks, shaped like school-crayons, of graphite or some

black composition, are good for rough marking.

The _chalk-line_ is used for distances too great to be covered

conveniently by a straight-edge and in places where the latter could not

so well be used. The chalk-line is a chalked cord drawn taut between the

two points to be connected. It is better to use a small cord than a

large one, and blue chalk is often preferred to white. Fasten one end of

the cord with a loop around an awl or nail at one end of the desired

line, and from this point chalk the cord, holding it between the thumb

and the chalk so that the cord will bear on the flat side of the chalk

in such a way as to wear it away evenly without cutting it in two. Then

draw the chalked cord tight to the other end of the desired line and,

holding the end down with one hand, lift the cord from as near the

middle as practicable with the thumb and forefinger of the other hand

and let it snap back on to the surface. The cord should be raised

squarely from the work and not pulled slantingly to one side or the line

will not be straight.

=Marking-Awl.=--See _Awl_.

=Marking-Gauge.=--See _Gauge_.

=Matching-Plane.=--See _Plane_.

=Measurements and Measuring.=--For various suggestions, see _Rule_, and

also pages 47, 48, 50, 167 (footnote), 244, and 261.

=Mirror-Plates.=--A good way to fasten such articles as mirrors,

cabinets, etc., to the wall is by mirror-plates, which you can buy or

make yourself of brass. These should be sunk in the wood so as to be

flush with the back side of the shelves. After being fitted, they should

be taken off during the process of finishing the work.

=Mitre.=--See _Mitring_.

=Mitre-Board.=--See _Mitring_ and also page 92.

=Mitre-Box.=--If you can afford it, an iron mitre-box which will cut at

various angles will be very useful. You can make one yourself of wood.

You can get a carpenter to make you one for a small sum, but the iron

ones are better. See page 90.

=Mitre Shooting-Board.=--See page 94.

=Mitring.=--A common joint is the mitre (Fig. 568). Its only advantage

is that it shows nothing but a line at the angle and the "end wood" is

entirely concealed. It is a weak joint at best, even when made by a

skilled workman, and is particularly hard for an amateur to make well.

The slightest variation in one of the corners of a frame or box throws

the whole structure out of shape and in attempting to correct the error

the other joints are apt to be opened, and if the whole is finally got

together in a fashion it is often after bother enough to have

accomplished much good work in some other way.

[Illustration FIG. 568.]

[Illustration FIG. 569.]

[Illustration FIG. 570.]

The mitre is particularly unscientific for wide pieces used flatways

(Fig. 569), as the inevitable expansion and contraction of the pieces is

very apt to cause an open joint. If the wood is not quite dry, so that

it shrinks, the joint may open permanently toward the inside corner, for

when the wood shrinks in width the pieces will become narrower and so

separate at the joint, leaving a crack, tapering from the inner to the

outer corner. Even if the wood is thoroughly seasoned it will expand and

contract more or less. When it expands, the joint will tend to open at

the outer corner (Fig. 570). When it contracts it will tend to open, as

just shown (Fig. 571), at the inner corner.

[Illustration FIG. 571.]

[Illustration FIG. 572.]

[Illustration FIG. 573.]

Of course there are some cases, as in making a picture frame of prepared

"mouldings," when mitring is the only way in which the frame can be put

together, and there are some other cases in which it is the most proper

and suitable joint, but as a general rule, for amateur work,

particularly in framing where strength is a consideration, avoid the

mitre. Other and better forms for anything like a box are shown in Figs.

554, 555, 556, 557.

The mitre is sometimes strengthened for box work and the like by fitting

a spline or tongue with the grain running across and not lengthways of

the joint (Fig. 572.) This, properly glued under pressure, makes a good

joint and one much superior to the plain mitre. But, though easy to do

with machinery, it is a slow and careful job to make such a joint by

hand, and if a case arises where you wish it done you had best take the

work to a factory, where a circular saw is all that is needed.

The principle of halving shown in Figs. 539 and 543, can also be applied

to a mitred joint.

Saw-kerfs are often made (Figs. 573 and 574) into which small strips are

tightly fitted and glued. This is a good way and easily done, once

having got the mitre properly put together. A combination of the mitre

with the joint shown in Fig. 555 is shown in Fig. 575. See also

_Dovetailing_ and _Joints_.

[Illustration FIG. 574.]

[Illustration FIG. 575.]

[Illustration FIG. 576.]

To lay off a mitre, or the lines by which to cut the intersection of any

two pieces at any angle, a simple way is that shown in Fig. 576. The

pieces are laid one above the other at the desired angle. Then the

points of intersection are marked on each edge. Lines connecting these

points will give the desired angles for sawing. The square can be used

to help in determining the points accurately and to project them to the

upper side of the top piece.

=Mortise and Tenon.=--See _Mortising_.

=Mortise-Chisel.=--See _Chisel_.

=Mortise-Gauge.=--See _Gauge_.

=Mortising (Mortise and Tenon).=--If you can get out two pieces and fit

them together accurately with a mortise-and-tenon joint, and do the work

well, you will be competent to handle a great many of the difficulties

of ordinary wood-work.

You will often have occasion to use this joint. The mortise is the hole

in one of the two pieces to be joined. The tenon is the pin or

projection in the other piece, shaped to fit the mortise.

[Illustration FIG. 577.]

[Illustration FIG. 578.]

[Illustration FIG. 579.]

To lay out a mortise and tenon (Fig. 577), select and mark the working

faces for each piece. First take the piece in which the mortise is to be

cut (Fig. 578). Square two lines, _ab_ and _cd_, across the face and the

same distance apart as the width of the piece on which the tenon is to

be cut. Carry these lines across the side X (_ae_ and _cf_) and also

across the side opposite to X (that is, the side where the tenon will

come through).

Next take the tenon-piece (Fig. 579) and measure from the end a distance

a little greater than the width of the face of the mortise-piece, and at

this point square a line, _gh_, across the face of the tenon-piece.

Continue this line, _gi_, around the piece, with the square.

Now take the gauge and, setting it at the distance from the face settled

upon for the mortise, scribe the line _jk_ on the side X and also on the

side opposite X. Also from the face of the tenon-piece, without changing

the gauge, mark the line _lm_ on the side X, on the opposite side, and

on the end. Set the gauge to measure from the face to the other side of

the mortise,--that is, add the width of the mortise to the figure at

which the gauge was set,--and scribe another set of lines, _op_ and

_rs_, in the same manner as before, remembering to gauge all the time

from the same face.

In the coarser kinds of work, where marks on the surface do no harm, the

gauge marks can be run across the other lines, as being easier and more

distinct, but in fine work, especially that which is to be finished,

care should be taken not to make scratches that will be seen when the

work is finished. The parts to be cut away are indicated by cross marks

(Fig. 580) and it will be seen at once that the tenon and mortise are

laid out correctly.

[Illustration FIG. 580.]

To cut, take first the mortise-piece and fasten it securely by vise or

clamp in a convenient position. The simplest way to remove the wood is

to bore a series of holes with a bit of a diameter as nearly the width

of the mortise as you have (Fig. 580), but a trifle smaller. This

removes a large part of the wood with but slight danger of splitting.

The rest can easily be trimmed away to the lines with the chisel, taking

care not to jam the chisel down lengthways of the mortise when the

latter is blocked with chips or firm wood, or the wood may split off at

the side of the mortise.

To cut out the wood with the chisel only (or to trim the ends of the

mortise after using the bit), bear in mind the way the chisel acts when

you drive it into the wood. If both sides of the chisel were bevelled

(as is the case with carving chisels), it would tend to go straight down

into the wood, and if held vertically would make a vertical cut (Fig.

581), but the chisels you use for mortising are flat on one side and

bevelled on the other. Being one-sided in this way, the edge of the tool

is forced by the inclined bevel to slide off, so to speak, more or less,

in the direction of the side which is flat. You can prove this easily by

holding a chisel across the grain of a board and driving it in. If you

hold the tool lightly, you will see that as you drive it in it will

incline to cut under, always on the side which is flat (Fig. 581).

[Illustration FIG. 581.]

[Illustration FIG. 582.]

This shows how to go to work to cut a mortise so as to keep the sides

square and true. If you put the chisel at the end, flat side outward,

the cut will tend to run under and make the hole too large below the

surface. If you turn the tool the other way, it tends to slip in towards

the middle of the mortise. So, to cut out the wood, take a chisel just a

trifle less in width than the mortise, and, beginning near the middle of

the mortise, hold the chisel as in Fig. 582 and make successive cuts,

working toward the end, first in one direction and then in the other,

giving the chisel handle a slight pull toward the centre of the mortise

each time you move it, to loosen the chips (Fig. 583). You can thus work

safely toward the ends, which will be left slanting (Fig. 584).

[Illustration FIG. 583.]

[Illustration FIG. 584.]

[Illustration FIG. 585.]

After cutting about half through the piece in this way, turn it over and

repeat the process from the other side, the result being a hole like

that shown in Fig. 585. Now turn the chisel around with the flat side

toward either end of the hole, and you can pare down the ends to the

line without danger of undercutting (Fig. 585).

Care must be taken not to jam the chisel down lengthways of the grain

until the hole is practically cleared of wood, or the side of the

mortise may be split off. Use the chisel lengthways of the grain only at

the end of the process, to pare the sides of the mortise evenly, with

light strokes, down to the line.

In all the use of the chisel, take pains to hold it vertically as

regards the _sides_ of the mortise--that is, do not tip it over

sideways, or the mortise will be slanting or too wide at the bottom.

The common firmer- or paring-chisel can be used for all light mortising,

but for heavy work the regular mortising-chisel should be used (see

_Chisel_).

To cut the tenon, simply saw carefully on the line _gh_ and its opposite

(Fig. 579) and then on the lines _lm_ and _rs_. Be careful not to cut

beyond the line, so as to make the tenon too small. It is easy to trim

it a little with the chisel if it is too large. Cut a little bevel

around the end of the tenon, so that it will drive through smoothly

without catching and tearing the sides or ends of the mortise. When it

goes through properly and the tenon and shoulder fit snugly, the

projecting end of the tenon can be sawed off after the whole job is

done.

The tenon should be just large enough to drive through with a slight

pressure and fit snugly without any wobbling around. It should not be so

tight as to require much force to drive it home, or there will be danger

of splitting out the sides of the mortise.

[Illustration FIG. 586.]

[Illustration FIG. 587.]

[Illustration FIG. 588.]

There is no absolute rule as to how wide to make the mortise and tenon

in proportion to the width of the pieces. It depends on the kind of

work, the kinds of wood, the kind of strain to be put on the joint, and

various circumstances too complex to be gone into here. If the tenon is

very thin it will be weaker than the sides of the mortise (Fig. 586). If

very thick, the sides of the mortise will be too thin and will be weaker

than the tenon (Fig. 587). One third of the width is as thin as a tenon

is often made. It will then sometimes be weaker than the sides of the

mortise, as you can see from Fig. 588. But it all depends on what the

joint is for. If it is to stand violent wrenching, the tenon in this

case might break before the mortise-cheeks, and had best be made a

little thicker, with the sides of the mortise a little thinner; but, on

the other hand, if the joint is merely to hold the tenon-piece in

position, as in case of a post resting on a sill, one third is plenty

wide enough for the tenon, as it will be best not to weaken the sill by

cutting any larger mortise than is necessary. Sometimes the tenon-piece

is simply let in to the other piece for its full width. This is called

housing (Fig. 589). Two thirds of the width of the piece is thicker than

you will be likely to have occasion to make a tenon, as this leaves the

cheeks of the mortise very thin. It is wholly a matter of judgment

(between, say, one third and two thirds of the width), according to the

conditions of each job.

[Illustration FIG. 589.]

The length to which a mortise can safely be cut is also a matter of

judgment according to circumstances. If the tenon is thin, the mortise

can be longer than if the tenon is thick, as the cheeks will be thicker

and stronger, but, as a rule, avoid trying to make very long mortises,

unless the tenon is very thin and the wood very strong, as there will

not be strength enough left in the cheeks of the mortise (Fig. 590). Six

times as long as it is wide is about as long as it is well to make a

mortise under ordinary circumstances, though, as just said, it all

depends on the conditions of the particular piece of work.

[Illustration FIG. 590.]

[Illustration FIG. 591.]

When a wide piece is to be mortised into another piece, two or more

tenons are sometimes cut, thus avoiding too long a mortise, but this

will not do for very wide pieces, unless some of the tenons are fitted

loosely, for the expansion and contraction of the wide piece may cause

it to buckle or split if all the mortises fit snugly (Fig. 591).

In such cases as a door-frame or when the end of a board is to be fitted

into the side of a post, a tongue and groove is often used in addition

to the tenon, and this (known as "relishing") is a good way to do (Fig.

592).

[Illustration FIG. 592.]

[Illustration FIG. 593.]

The mortise and tenon given above is a very simple form. Sometimes the

tenon is short and does not go through (Fig. 593). This is a common

form, and is used a great deal in the best work. It is sometimes called

blind mortising, the tenon being known as a "stub" tenon.

Mortise and tenon joints are sometimes merely fitted together, but can

also be glued (see _Gluing_), pinned, wedged, or dovetailed and fastened

with a key.

To pin a mortise and tenon, simply mark a point with square and gauge

upon each side of the piece containing the mortise (Fig. 593), fit the

tenon in place, and bore in from each side (or in rough work bore right

through from one side until the spur appears on the opposite surface)

(see _Boring_). Then drive through a snugly fitting pin and trim off the

projecting ends. The pin should be slightly pointed before driving, on

the same principle that the end of the tenon is bevelled. It is not

necessary to round the pin. An eight-sided one is just as good.

Do not use too large pins. In ship-building, bridge-building, and

old-fashioned house-framing pins and treenails from 1" to 1-3/4" or more

in diameter, are used. Dowels of various sizes will usually answer for

such framing as you may have to do (though a rift-pin is stronger). For

such work as pinning a joint in a chair, you will not need anything

larger than a 1/4" hardwood pin.

You must use judgment as to how near the edge to place the pin. If you

put it too far from the edge, its hold on the tenon will be weak and the

end of the tenon may break out (shear). If you put it too near the edge,

the sides of the mortise may tear or split out.

[Illustration FIG. 594.]

[Illustration FIG. 595.]

Sometimes, particularly in timber work, to insure a snug fit at the

joint, "draw-boring" is resorted to (Fig. 594). The hole for the pin is

not bored through the tenon as just shown, but is bored a trifle nearer

the shoulder of the tenon than the other holes (in the mortise-piece).

The result is that when the pin is driven through it draws the

tenon-piece down to a snug fit at the shoulder. But this has to be done

with judgment. If the hole in the tenon is too much out of line, driving

the pin through tends to split (strictly speaking to _shear_) the end of

the tenon, and too much strain is put on the pin.

In the mortising just shown, there are only two shoulders where the

tenon begins--that is, the tenon is made by only four cuts. This is good

for all common or rough work. In nice work a shoulder is also cut at

each edge of the tenon (Fig. 595). This makes a neater-looking joint, as

these shoulders cover the ends of the mortise completely. When the joint

comes at the end of the mortise-piece, the tenon can extend to the edge

on the outside and the mortise be cut clear out to the end, forming an

open mortise-and-tenon joint (Fig. 543), or a wide shoulder can be left

on the outside of the tenon--the tenon itself being made narrower (Fig.

596). This course is adopted in doors and frames of various kinds (see

Fig. 334).

[Illustration FIG. 596.]

[Illustration FIG. 597.]

[Illustration FIG. 598.]

[Illustration FIG. 599.]

[Illustration FIG. 600.]

A good way to fasten tenons is to wedge them. This can be done whether

the tenon goes through the mortise-piece or only part way, as in a blind

joint. The wedges can be driven between the tenon and the ends of the

mortise (Fig. 597), or, as is often better, driven into cuts made in the

tenon itself, thus spreading the tenon toward the end, dovetail fashion,

making it extremely difficult, or impossible, to pull it out of the

mortise. Before wedging, the mortise should be cut under or enlarged

toward the side on which the tenon comes through (Fig. 598). The wedges

can then be dipped in glue and driven as in Fig. 599. To spread the

tenons themselves, one or two or even three saw-cuts should be made in

the tenon, lengthways and farther than the wedges will extend (Fig.

600). The tenon and mortise having been properly glued, the tenon is

fitted in place, and the wedges, previously prepared of some strong wood

and tapering quite gradually, are dipped in the glue and driven down

into the saw-cuts, thus spreading the end of the tenon into a dovetail

until it fills the mortise (Fig. 601). It is often best to drive the

outer wedges nearer the edge of the tenon than is shown in Fig. 600,

lest the tenon-piece be split.

[Illustration FIG. 601.]

[Illustration FIG. 602.]

The process is much the same when the tenon does not go through the

mortise-piece (Fig. 602). The mortise is undercut as before, and

saw-cuts are made in the end of the tenon. The wedges are carefully

planned and cut so that, when the tenon is finally in place, they will

be of the right size to spread it so as to fit the mortise. The wedges

must not be too long, so as to interfere with the tenon being driven

home or to break off. When you are sure the whole will go into place and

fit snugly, glue everything, start the wedges in the cracks, and drive

the tenon quickly to place. This will of course drive in the wedges,

which will spread the tenon at the end and fix it firmly. In fact, if

well done, you cannot get it out again.

There are other forms of mortise and tenon, but they will be seldom

required by the amateur. See _Joints_.

=Nailing.=--To drive nails, hold the hammer near the end of the handle.

Do not, as is often done by boys and amateurs, grasp it close to the

head. The nearer the end of the handle you take hold, the harder blow

you can strike, just as the longer the handle, the harder the blow. Use

light strokes--mere taps--in starting the nail. After you are sure it is

going straight you can then use more force to drive it home. Do not try

to sink the nail-head quite flush with the wood. Leave that for the

nail-set. You may think that any slight depression you may make if the

hammer strikes the wood will be too slight to be seen, but that is not

so, as the slightest dent or depression will probably show in finished

work.

The head of the hammer should be swung back and forth through an arc of

a circle of which the wrist is the centre. Do this carefully and

steadily and you will send the nail in quicker and straighter than when

you flourish the hammer wildly around in the air and bring it down with

a ferocious bang somewhere in the vicinity of the nail, as boys of all

ages have been known to do.

Now, remembering that the hammer-head will (and should) swing around in

an arc of which your wrist is the centre, you must see that your wrist

is in such a position that the hammer-head can strike the nail

squarely--that is, the hammer-handle, when the head rests squarely on

the nail-head, must be in a line parallel with the flat surface of the

top of the nail (Fig. 603). If the wrist is much above or below this

line, the nail will be struck slantingly, and either be driven crooked

or bent (Fig. 604).

[Illustration FIG. 603.]

[Illustration FIG. 604.]

First place the hammer in the correct driving position, and then swing

it back and forth as nearly in the same curve as you can. Practise this

motion a little on a soft piece of board to see how squarely you can

dent the board and how nearly you can hit the same dent with successive

strokes.

Frequently a nail does not drive straight, but becomes bent and goes in

the wrong direction. If you withdraw it do not, as a rule, try to drive

another in the same hole, but start it in another place. Sometimes a

nail will be bent because the face of the hammer-head has glue or grease

on it. In such a case rub it on a piece of fine sandpaper or in the

ashes or the ground.

Holes should always be bored when there is any chance of splitting, or

when _slender_ nails are driven into _hard_ wood (lest they bend), but

remember that the hole, particularly in the inner piece, should not be

quite as large as the nail. With nails having large heads it does not

matter in hard wood if the holes in the outer piece are about as large

as the nails, provided the latter drive tightly into the inner piece.

[Illustration RIGHT. WRONG. FIG. 605.]

The hole made by a brad-awl is better, when it does not split the wood,

than one made by a bit or drill, because it does not remove the wood but

merely presses it aside, so that when the nail is driven the fibres tend

to spring back to their original position and close in around the nail,

helping to hold it in place.

In driving the old-fashioned nails, which have two sides parallel, while

the other two incline toward the point or taper, they should be used on

the same principle on which you use the brad-awl. If placed the other

way, the wedge shape of the nail will tend to separate the fibres and

split the wood (Fig. 605). With nails having two sides smooth and two

rough, as you pick them up you can tell by the fingers which way to hold

them, the rough sides going across the grain and the smooth sides with

it.

Nails will drive into hard wood easier if you touch the points to

grease, tallow, lard, or soap.

[Illustration FIG. 606.]

[Illustration FIG. 607.]

[Illustration FIG. 608.]

_"Toe" Nailing._--If you wish nails to hold as much as possible, toe

them--that is, slant them (Fig. 606). You can see at a glance that the

board will be held much tighter than if the nails were driven straight

up and down. Of course you cannot always drive nails this way, and there

are many cases in which you would gain nothing, but it takes only a

moment longer to toe nails, and it is often very useful where you wish

to be sure that the work will hold together. There are many cases where

you cannot nail any other way, as when you fasten a stud to the top of a

sill (Fig. 607), and you can see at once that it is advantageous. Of

course this is not a good method for work which you may wish to take

apart again.

Slanting the nails helps to draw one piece tightly up to another, as is

often desirable for a tight box or a floor (Fig. 608). You can increase

this effect, after you have driven the nail part way in, by drawing the

hammer towards you as you strike, or in the direction towards which the

nail points, thus bending the upper part of it toward the other piece,

which tends to make a tight joint.

_Clinching Nails._--The way to clinch nails is simply to drive them

through against a heavy hammer, or any solid metal object, held on the

other side. As the point comes through it is gradually turned over or

hooked around into the wood and when the head is driven home the point

will be firmly embedded in the wood. Another way is to simply strike the

projecting ends with light, slanting blows. This will gradually bend or

curl the point over to one side, and as it bends over you can pound more

directly downward until the hooked end of the nail is buried in the

wood. Clinching is very useful for many purposes, as in nailing cleats

on a shed door. It is usually best to bend the nails over in the

direction of the grain, rather than across it.

Whether to clinch or toe the nails must depend on the work. Clinching is

better for anything that is to be slammed or subjected to violent

treatment, while in many cases toeing is better, and frequently you

cannot reach the points of the nails to clinch them.

_Blind nailing_ is resorted to in order to have a clear, smooth surface,

as in floors laid with matched-boards. Each board is nailed just above

the tongue, with the nails slanting through the solid part of the board

(Fig. 609). This holds the board down and tends to force it closer to

the adjoining board. The grooved edge of the next board entirely

conceals the nailing and leaves an unbroken surface.

[Illustration FIG. 609.]

[Illustration FIG. 610.]

Another form of concealed nailing, known as "_sliver_" nailing, is

sometimes practised in inside work (sometimes in putting up "inside

finish"). A little shaving is raised with the gouge (an _inside_ gouge

is best) or a narrow chisel, where the nail is to go, and curled away

sufficiently to drive and set the nail (Fig. 610). Hot glue is then

dabbed into the groove, the shaving (which is only raised at one end and

not detached from the wood) is pressed back into place, and the spot

rubbed with sandpaper drawn around a flat block until the shaving is

firmly glued where it belongs. This takes but a moment or two, and when

the work is finally smoothed and finished the place cannot be detected,

if the operation has been properly done. This is convenient to know in

case you have to drive a nail where there is objection to its being

seen.

See _Withdrawing Nails_.

=Nails.=--There are many kinds of nails, many more than is worth while

to specify here, as you will probably use those of wire for most of your

work. When another kind would be preferable (as is the case for some

purposes) it will be specified. The nails in common use before the

introduction of those of wire were known as "cut," being stamped from a

sheet of metal, and "wrought," the latter kind being much older and

originally forged by hand into shape, one by one (hence the name), but

now commonly made by machine. The expressions three-penny, eight-penny,

ten-penny, etc., indicate the length, and come from an old custom of so

designating the lengths, but you need only to call for them by the

length, as 2 inch or 2-3/4 inch, in order to get what you want, and you

can easily select whatever degree of stoutness you need. Copper or

galvanised nails and tacks will be needed for your boat-building, copper

being preferable, particularly for salt water.

[Illustration FIG. 611.]

=Nail-Set, or Punch.=--The nail-set, for sinking nail-heads below the

surface, is quite important, and it is well to have a large one and a

fine one. The end of the set or punch must not be allowed to become

rounding or it will be all the time slipping off the nail-head and

punching holes in the surrounding wood. A slight conical depression in

the end of the set is good. Do not use a file for a nail-set, for the

end is too hard and will dent the face of the hammer-head.

When setting nails, hold the nail-set firmly against the little finger,

placing the latter on the wood close to the head of the nail, as shown

in Fig. 611. This will keep the set from slipping off the nail-head and

damaging the work.

=Nippers.=--A pair of these will often be of use in wood-working

operations.

=Odd-Jobs.=--A very simple combined tool known as "Odd-jobs" can be used

as a marking-gauge, mortise-gauge, scratch-awl, try-square, T-square,

depth-gauge, mitre-square, spirit-level and plumb, inside-square, and

beam-compass. It is well suited to much amateur work, and is cheap.

=Oil.=--Sperm oil is good to use with your oil-stones. Kerosene is good.

Lard oil can be used. All thick and gummy oils should be avoided. Never

use linseed oil or any similar vegetable oil, as it is not a good

lubricator, and gums the stone. Glycerine thinned with turpentine or

alcohol is sometimes used, and even turpentine alone. For oil for

finishing and painting, see _Finishing_ and _Painting_.

=Oil-stone.=--It is very essential to have a good oil-stone. They can be

found of many degrees of fineness. Those of very fine and hard grain,

which give a keen edge but cut very slowly, will not be found so well

adapted to your use as those of moderate coarseness and softness, which

cut faster. The stone known as Red Washita is good to use for

wood-working tools, as it cuts rapidly. It should be free from hard

spots. The Arkansas stone produces a very fine edge, but is of so fine

texture that it is not so well adapted for your tools as a coarser

stone, unless you happen to find a quick-cutting one. The Turkey stone

will produce a keen edge, but is not so good for your use.

Some stones (and excellent ones) cut best with water. When first trying

a new stone use water, and if the surface does not become at all glazed

or polished it will not be necessary for you to use oil.

The stone should always be kept covered when not in use, to protect it

from the dust and dirt. Set it in a block with a cover or make a box for

it. Always wipe it clean after using, to remove the paste of ground

stone, steel, and oil left on the surface.

When an oil-stone becomes unevenly worn, it can be trued by rubbing it

around on a sheet of sandpaper fastened on a flat surface, like the side

of a board. Water can be used in this operation.

In addition to the ordinary flat oil-stone, slips of stone of various

shapes are useful, a common and useful form being that shown in Fig.

612, wedge-shaped on one edge and convex on the other. If you have

V-tools, carving gouges, or other tools sharpened on the inside, you

must have slips of stone of various shapes with which to sharpen them.

See _Oil_ and _Sharpening_.

[Illustration FIG. 612.]

=Painting.=--You can paint your work very satisfactorily--perhaps not

quite as well or quickly as a skilled painter by trade, but well enough

for all practical purposes if you observe carefully a few simple

principles. If you disregard them and think, like many amateurs, that

anyone can paint right off the first time without any knowledge or

thought, your painting will be botch-work.

Keep your work well painted. It is cheaper in the end to paint

frequently and keep the work protected from the decay and damage due to

exposure--not to speak of the better appearance.

Do not use cheap paint, unless, of course, for some cheap or temporary

purpose, and it is most important that the first or "priming" coat

should be of good quality. If you are obliged to use inferior paint at

all, use the best for the first coat and the poorer quality outside

rather than the reverse, but it is economy of money and time to use good

paint throughout.

Prepared liquid paints are the simplest, handiest, and cleanest for

amateur work, and (if you do not try to economise on the quality) the

best for you to use for many purposes, but for outside work (work

exposed to the weather) you can probably do no better than to use the

best quality of white lead and oil,[48] coloured if desired, which costs

less, is more durable, and which you can easily mix yourself, or buy

already mixed of a painter. If you need but a little, you can get a pot

of paint with suitable brush at a paint shop, returning what you do not

use and paying by weight. But if you have much painting to do, it is

better and cheaper to have your own brushes and paint. The prepared

paints of any colour you can also buy in the form of paste, to be

thinned when used, which is usually cheaper than the prepared paint in

liquid form.

The white lead you can buy by the pound, ground and already thinned with

oil, or, what is perhaps more reliable, ground in the form of paste

ready to be thinned with oil or, if for inside work, with turpentine.

White lead, which is also the basis or an ingredient of the prepared

paints, is a poisonous and unhealthful substance. There is, however, but

slight danger (practically none) from such painting as you will do. But

it is well to wear old clothes when you paint, and carefully wash the

hands and face as soon as the work is done, and in case of continued

indoor painting to see that the room is well ventilated. The mere odour

from a can of paint is enough to make some people feel ill, as you may

know, while it can be used for a long time by others apparently without

harm.

In regard to coloured paints, the simplest way is to buy your colours

ready mixed in oil, to be thinned for use, or in liquid form of any

desired colour, prepared to use upon opening the can. You can, however,

colour or tint your paint yourself with various dry colours, which you

can buy in the form of powder at the paint shops for a few cents. It

takes but very little of most colours. Do not stir these dry colours

directly into your paint, but first mix them with oil or turpentine.

It requires considerable knowledge of colours and their combinations to

know how to mix different colours or shades to produce some particular

shade, or to match some tint, but when the exact shade makes no

difference you will have no great difficulty in producing the colour you

wish. Test the shade of your paint on a piece of wood. The way it looks

in the paint-pot is often very deceptive. In making a shade darker,

especially when tinting white paint, be careful to add but a very

little of the darker pigment at first and be sure that it is thoroughly

mixed, or you will be likely to find after you have begun to paint that

you have a much darker shade than you intended. It is surprising how

small a quantity is sometimes needed to tint a whole canful of white

paint--the merest dab of chrome yellow will tint a quart of white paint

to a good cream shade. Remember that it is much easier to add a little

more colour if the result is not dark enough than to lighten the shade

if too dark.

Linseed oil (either raw or boiled) is required with which to mix the

lead and thin it to the proper consistency. Raw oil is best for outside

work that is exposed to the weather, as it is more penetrating and more

adhesive, although slower in drying than boiled oil. Boiled oil does

very well for inside work where it is not exposed to the weather. There

is some difference of opinion, however, in regard to the use of the two

kinds.

Turpentine is also used for thinning paint. It makes the paint flow

easily and is freely used for that reason, but it probably detracts from

the durability of all paint if used lavishly and should never be used

for outside work. It is commonly used for inside work and causes the

paint to work more freely and smoothly from the brush and to dry more

quickly. It gives the paint that dull, soft, or "dead" appearance often

desired in inside work, instead of the shiny surface which is produced

when mixed with linseed oil alone.

It is usual to add to the paint something else, known as a "dryer," to

cause it to dry more quickly. Japan is one of the best of these

preparations, but be careful to use very little of any form of dryer, as

it is undoubtedly injurious to the durability of the paint and liable to

cause cracking and checking. Avoid all kinds of "chain-lightning"

dryers. Do not add a dryer to the colour until just before you use the

paint and only to the amount you are to use at one time.

Another ingredient, which is not injurious to use, is zinc, but zinc

paints are considered inferior. Red lead is commonly used to paint iron

and is considered very durable for that purpose. Black japan varnish is

often used. Iron must always be dry and it will be better to have it

warm also.

Be sure that your work is thoroughly dry before beginning to paint, else

the wood will be liable to decay, or the paint to peel, or both. Do not

paint wood before it is thoroughly seasoned. Look the work over

carefully and see that it is ready in all respects, before applying the

paint. See that the surface is free from dust.

Look over the work for any knots or streaks of resinous or pitchy matter

and wash them with a coat or two of shellac, to "kill" the turpentine

and prevent its oozing through and spoiling the paint.

Try to mix enough, and only enough, paint for the coat you are about to

put on, but do not mix a great quantity in advance with the idea of

keeping it on hand.

The first coat should be thin rather than thick--with plenty of oil to

saturate the wood. The oil will be quickly drawn into the wood, and you

can readily see that the first coat should be thin to properly soak into

the surface. If thick, the paint will not be sufficiently absorbed, but

the oil will soak in quickly, leaving too much residue of the pigment on

the outside. Work this first coat well into the wood. Take up but little

paint, and draw the brush carefully over the edge of the pail,[49] or

over a wire stretched across the top, to remove any superfluity of

paint, and begin the painting at the highest part of the work, or the

part farthest from you, to prevent spattering or dripping paint over the

freshly covered surface. Begin, also, at one end or side of the surface,

working toward the other end or side, drawing the brush back and forth

both ways to distribute the paint as evenly and smoothly as possible,

and try not to leave any part of a surface untouched until another time,

or it will be likely to show a "lap" where you end and begin--that is,

if you cannot cover the work entirely at one time, leave off where there

is some natural line or break in the work. Finish the side or the end

and do not leave off right in the middle of a flat surface. This does

not matter quite so much in the priming, but will show plainly in the

later coats.

After this coat has had time to dry thoroughly, carefully putty the

holes and cracks. Remember never to use the putty until after at least

one coat of paint has been applied and dried. The reason for this is

that the fresh wood will quickly absorb the oil from the putty, leaving

it dry and crumbly, while if a coat of paint has been put on first and

dried, the wood will be already charged, so to speak; the pores will be

more or less choked up and the bulk of the oil will remain in the putty.

Paint with the grain of the wood, or the long way of the work, using a

large brush for large surfaces and finishing all corners, mouldings, and

edges with a small brush. In doors or panel-work first paint the panels,

then the rails, then the styles (see Fig. 505). You will thus follow the

construction of the work and the grain of the wood, and where you daub

the paint beyond the part you are painting (as you will have to do), the

daub will be wiped out neatly when you paint the next part.

Paint joints in outside work, tenons and mortises, shoulders, etc.,

before putting together, with good white lead. It is not always

customary to paint the hidden parts of joints before putting together,

particularly in cheap work, but it is well to do so in all work which

you wish to have endure, in all framework exposed to water and the

weather, and in boat-building. Exposed work quickly decays at the joints

and seams because the water and dampness collect in such places and do

not run off or evaporate as readily as from a smooth surface, so the

more you can protect these hidden parts with paint, the better, and the

labour is but slight.

When you have paint left in the paint-pot which you wish to keep for use

another time, pour just enough raw linseed oil over the top to cover it

completely. This thin layer of oil will exclude the air and keep the

paint from hardening. When you wish to use it again, pour off the oil or

stir it into the paint, according to whether the latter requires more

oil or not. When you get through painting, if you are going to do more

in a short time, it will do to leave the brush in the paint, but do not

leave it standing or resting on the bottom of the can, as that tends to

bend the ends of the bristles and get the brush out of shape. Rig a wire

hook on the handle and hang the brush so that the bristles will be

covered by the paint, but without touching the bottom. If you are not

going to use the brush again for some time, it should be cleaned and put

away. Turpentine is often used, but kerosene answers every purpose. Be

careful to wash out all the paint, however, as a very little left

between the bristles will stick them together so as sometimes to ruin

the brush. Another way to keep brushes which are in use is to hang them

from the handles in a can partially filled with oil, the whole being

kept covered. Water can be used instead of oil. Arrange it so that the

hairs will be just covered.

The first coat especially should be given plenty of time to dry, for it

is the _foundation_ and _basis_ of the whole operation and the firmness

and durability of the painting depends much upon it.

Each succeeding coat should have plenty of time to dry before applying

another, bearing in mind that applying a second coat, before the first

is fully hard, excludes the air from the under layer of paint and causes

it to dry much more slowly than if left exposed as it should be. In such

cases, the outside surface may often seem to be dry and hard while the

paint underneath remains comparatively soft. When the first layer

finally does dry, the tendency is to crack the surface of the outside,

which has dried first. You can find an extreme illustration of this

point in some old paint and varnish shop where some convenient place on

the wall has been taken against which to slap and work brushes. You can

find daubs of old paint and varnish, sometimes an inch thick, made up in

this way of hundreds of layers slapped on before the previous ones were

dry, the inside remaining soft in some cases after twenty years.

Paint dries, as a rule, more quickly in a warm temperature than where it

is cold, and more quickly where it is dry than where it is damp. So, if

you are obliged to paint where it is cold or damp, you will be justified

in using more dryer than where it is warm and dry.

Sandpaper _nice_ inside work after the first coat and between each two

successive coats. Pumice can be used for old inside work to be

repainted. Steel wool can also be used.

Keep a rag with you, when painting, to wipe off the spattering which you

will be sure to make. It is not easy to get daubs of paint off after

they are hard.

Turpentine will take the paint from your hands, but common kerosene will

clean them satisfactorily when the paint is fresh, and is probably

better for the hands.

=Panels.=--See _Doors_ and _Panels_.

=Panel-Saw.=--See _Saw_.

=Paring.=--In paring or trimming a piece of wood to a line, if there is

much surplus wood to be removed, you can sometimes chop pretty boldly

with the hatchet until you get near the line, provided you watch the

direction of the grain carefully to see that the split cannot run up to

the line; sometimes you can chop safely in one direction but not in the

opposite (Fig. 613), but as a rule keep well away from the line for the

first cut. Even wood that appears to be quite straight-grained will

often split differently from the way you expect.

[Illustration FIG. 613.]

[Illustration FIG. 614.]

[Illustration FIG. 615.]

To trim a piece of wood, like the edge of a board, down to a line, with

a hatchet, for instance, you can first score the piece with a series of

short cuts, stopping short of the line, to break up the grain of the

wood, and then trim these loosened chips off down to the line with the

plane, chisel, draw-knife, or whatever tool may be suitable. The main

point is to cut in such a direction that the grain will not cause the

cuts to extend farther than the line or to run into the main piece of

wood (Fig. 614). The same principle can be applied often in trimming and

removing superfluous wood with a chisel, a draw-knife, or a knife. The

cuts can often be made with the saw to better advantage (Fig. 614). It

takes a little more time to make these cross-cuts with hatchet, knife,

chisel, or saw than to whack away furiously lengthways, as if you were

chopping kindling, but after you have spoiled a few pieces by splitting

beyond the line you will conclude that the former is the more

workmanlike and reliable way.

This same principle is applicable to making chamfers or bevels with a

chisel or knife (Fig. 615). You will find frequent occasion to apply

this principle of breaking the grain into small pieces before making the

final cuts in many kinds of work. It is in constant use in "roughing

out" carving.

[Illustration FIG. 616.]

To trim to a curve as shown in Fig. 616, begin at the edge just

_outside_ of the end of the curve and work _with_ the grain from _a_ to

_b_. It is often a help in such cases to first remove part of the wood

with the saw, as on the lines _bc_ and then _ef._ Finally trim the

curve smoothly close to the line. Frequently this can be done to better

advantage with the work held in the vise instead of lying horizontally

on the bench.

[Illustration FIG. 617. RIGHT. WRONG.]

Paring off superfluous wood down to a given line or trimming off an

irregular edge with the chisel is very easily done provided the grain of

the wood is straight, or runs in the same direction, even if slanting,

as in Fig. 617, because you can then cut with the grain. It is often

better, however, to cut across the grain, or diagonally, with the

chisel, as the wood is less likely to be split by the tool.

When the grain runs in several directions, and keeps cropping up to the

surface and dipping down again as shown in Fig. 701, it becomes more

difficult to pare the surface smoothly with the chisel. In such a case

remember the sliding or drawing stroke and traverse the surface with a

diagonal crossways motion (Fig. 619) that will trim off the fibres with

a slanting stroke without causing them to be torn up. Slant the cut so

that if the wood should tend to split, it will be in the direction of

the part cut away and not towards the piece to be kept--_i.e._, so that

the chips will split and not the body of the wood. Reverse the chisel

and cut in the opposite direction when a change in the direction of the

grain requires it. Some pieces are, however, so extremely irregular that

you cannot do this, but must slice away the best that you can and leave

the rest to other tools. In cutting off a corner or rounding or

bevelling an edge you can use the slanting cut (Fig. 620).

[Illustration FIG. 619.]

[Illustration FIG. 620.]

In using the chisel for paring, let the left hand, which is nearer the

cutting-edge than the right, act as a brake or countercheck or drag to

check the progress of the tool. It is largely by the varying balance of

these two forces--the pushing forward of the tool with the right hand

and the checking and controlling with the left--that correct and

effective control of the tool is gained. The left hand should in many

cases rest upon or grasp the wood as well as the blade. See _Chisel_.

=Paring-Chisel.=--See _Chisel_.

=Parting-Tool.=--See _Carving Tools_.

=Pencil.=--See _Marking_.

=Pincers.=--There are various kinds of _pincers_, _pliers_, and

_nippers_. A pair of common pliers and also cutting nippers will be very

useful.

=Plane.=--A plane is in principle (roughly speaking), as you will

readily see, nothing but a chisel stuck through a block of wood or iron.

Small or narrow surfaces may be smoothed to a certain degree by the

chisel, the knife, or even the hatchet, but for large surfaces something

is needed which can be more exactly controlled than the knife, ax, or

chisel, held in the hands. So, to hold the chisel firmly in one position

and to apply force to it more advantageously, it is firmly fixed in a

block of convenient size and shape and becomes a plane.

A very short block will prevent the chisel cutting deeper at one point

than another, but the tool will follow the irregularities of the surface

and, though it may make the surface smooth, it will not make it level,

or flat; so the block is made longer, that it may not go down into all

the little hollows, but plane off only the higher parts.

The two essential parts of a plane are the _iron_ and the _stock_. The

bottom surface of the stock is called the _sole_ or _face_ (_ab_ in Fig.

621), the wedge-shaped hole where the iron goes is called the _throat_

(_c_), and the slot at the bottom through which the edge of the iron

projects is called the _mouth_ (_d_).

[Illustration FIG. 621.]

Bear in mind that the shape of the cut made by the plane will be a

reversed copy of the shape of the cutting-edge. If the edge is rounding,

the cut will be hollowing. If the edge is hollowing, the cut will be

rounding. If the edge is straight, the cut will be straight. If the edge

is nicked, ridges will be left on the wood.

If buying new, you will do best, as a rule, to get iron planes, though

very good ones can be had with wooden stocks, but with the convenient

appliances of the iron planes. Some workmen still prefer the old wooden

planes, but it is better to buy iron ones.

[Illustration FIG. 622.]

[Illustration FIG. 623.]

The _jack-plane_ is used for coarse work and to rough off the surface

with large shavings, ready for the other planes. Fourteen or fifteen

inches is a good length. The edge of the iron is not ground squarely

across, like the chisel, but is rounded slightly so as to cut deeper in

the middle (Fig. 622). Heavy shavings can be cut and the rough outside

of a piece of wood taken off quicker and easier than with a more

squarely ground iron, but it does not leave the surface smooth, as the

strokes of the jack-plane form a series of hollows and ridges (Fig. 623,

exaggerated). After taking off the rough surface with the iron

projecting considerably, you can of course set the iron finer, and by

going over the work several times you can take off the worst of the

ridges, but without a great deal of labour you can never get a really

smooth surface with a plane that cuts hollows. A common use of the

jack-plane is for "traversing," or planing across the grain, which is

often the quickest and easiest way to reduce a surface to the desired

shape, and for cleaning off where pieces have been glued together. If

you should use a jack-plane to do the work of a fore-plane, have it

ground more squarely across like the fore-plane.

If you use an old-fashioned wooden plane, take the handle in your right

hand, laying your left over the top and side, just a little in front of

the iron, with the thumb towards you and the fingers on the farther

side, as shown in Fig. 624. This position allows you to bear weight on

the fore part of the plane when necessary and to control the tool to the

best advantage. This applies to the old-fashioned wooden planes. If your

plane is iron, there is a handle or knob for the left hand which you

simply grasp in a natural way.

Push the jack-plane forward steadily an arm's-length. Then stop and

start afresh for another arm's-length stroke. When drawing the plane

back tip it on the farther edge. The cap or break-iron can be set quite

far back from the edge for rough work, about one eighth inch, but much

nearer for finer work.

[Illustration FIG. 624.]

In these days when almost everything is planed by machinery with greater

or less smoothness, you will probably not have much use for a jack-plane

unless you find you have a good deal of rough planing to do yourself.

[Illustration FIG. 625.]

The _fore-plane_ or _trying-plane_ is longer and larger than the

jack-plane. Eighteen to twenty-two inches is a good length. It is used

to straighten and level the surface after the worst roughness has been

taken off. The surface having been roughed off by the jack-plane, the

fore-plane is not required to take off such heavy shavings and the iron

is therefore ground squarely across like a chisel, but very slightly

rounded at the corners (Fig. 625). It is held in the same way as the

jack-plane, but the stroke should be long and steady, for the

fore-plane, which is long, will straighten the surface, and smooth it

also. The iron can project more for soft and loose-grained woods than

for hard, and the cap or break-iron should be nearer the edge for hard

woods.

The _jointer_ (22" to 30" in length) or _long jointer_ (from 24" to

30"), is still longer than the fore-plane and correspondingly more

accurate for making a surface level and true, or for shooting the edges

of boards. Twenty-four inches is a good length. It is very useful for

making joints to be glued, and is used in the same way as the

fore-plane, the stroke being continued steadily the whole length of the

piece if possible.

The _smoothing-plane_ is used, as its name indicates, for the final

smoothing of the surface, so far as it can be done with a plane. It is

from five to ten inches long.

It is an invaluable plane to the amateur, and the beginner can get along

very well for a great deal of work with no other, for stock can be

bought ready planed and can easily be trued and jointed, when necessary,

at any wood-working mill or shop at slight expense.

[Illustration FIG. 626.]

A plane with a short stock, as the smoothing-plane, will make your work

smooth, but it is hard to make it straight and level or true with such a

tool, because, being short, it will follow the larger irregularities of

the surface and will only plane off the smaller inequalities. It will go

up and down over the hills and valleys of the wood, so to speak, while a

longer plane cannot do this, but will cut off the tops of the hills

until the surface is made level, as shown in Fig. 626. The

smoothing-plane is therefore merely to _smooth_ the surface after it has

been straightened by a longer plane, or in cases where smoothness only

is essential and it is not required that the surface should be true.

Small pieces can, of course, be straightened and trued by the

smoothing-plane alone.

A wooden smoothing-plane can be held as shown in Fig. 627. An iron plane

can be used by laying the hand naturally over the knob for the purpose.

[Illustration FIG. 627.]

The _block-plane_ is small and is meant chiefly for planing across the

ends of pieces (for planing "end-grain"), but it is also frequently

useful in other directions. The iron is usually set at a more acute

angle with the face of the stock than in the other planes and with the

bevel upwards, and the width of the mouth is often adjustable, which is

a convenience. A block-plane is made which can, by means of a detachable

side, be used as a rabbet-plane. The block-plane makes a quite good

substitute for a smoothing-plane for amateur work and is a very useful

little tool.

The _toothed-plane_ is about the size of the smoothing-plane, but the

iron is corrugated or scored with grooves lengthwise, so that one side

of the cutting-edge of the iron, instead of being smooth, is notched

into little teeth somewhat like a fine saw or the edge of a file, and

the iron is inserted in the body of the plane almost vertically. This

plane makes scratches all along its course instead of taking off

shavings. It is used in veneering and in gluing other surfaces. It can

frequently be used to good advantage to break up the grain where two

edges or surfaces are to be glued together, so that the glue may hold

the two rough surfaces together more strongly, upon somewhat the same

principle that the plastering on a lathed wall holds its place tightly

through the hold it gets on the cracks between the laths, intentionally

left for the purpose. The toothed-plane is used for this purpose in

veneering. The idea upon which this tool is based originated with the

Orientals, who have for ages scratched or toothed the joints of their

wood-work.

It can also be used to subdue a refractory piece of crooked grain which

you wish to get smooth, but which may crop to the surface in such a way

that you cannot plane it without chipping the grain. By scratching the

surface thoroughly in all directions with the toothed-plane set very

fine, the obstinate fibres can be broken so that the surface can be

smoothed with the scraper, not using the smoothing-plane. As a matter

of fact, however, if you cannot smooth a piece of wood, the trouble is

_usually_ with the edge of the plane-iron or its adjustment, or with

your manner of planing, for a _very keen_ edge is supposed to be able to

cut the most obstinate grain, unless, of course, the wood is

extraordinarily hard.

The _bull-nosed-plane_ has the iron close to the fore end of the stock,

to work into corners and awkward places which cannot be reached by the

smoothing- or block-planes. The iron is reversed. A very small plane

(perhaps four inches long) of this kind is useful.

The _circular-plane_ is used for planing curved surfaces, the sole being

now made of a thin, flexible metal plate and adjustable so that either

concave or convex surfaces can be smoothed. It is very useful at times,

but is not essential for an amateur.

The _rabbet-plane_, which is used to cut rabbets, as the name indicates,

is a useful tool, but in most cases you can dispense with it by having

rabbets cut at a mill.

A _router_, for cleaning out and smoothing the bottoms of grooves and

depressions, is very useful at times.

There is a variety of other planes for special purposes, as the

_plough_, _matching-planes_, _hollow_ and _round planes_,

_beading-planes_, etc., as well as various _combination_ and

"_universal_" _planes_. Many of these are excellent, but, as a rule, are

not important for the amateur in these days, as the work they do can be

so easily and cheaply done at a mill. You will seldom feel the need of

buying any of them, unless you live where you cannot reach a factory.

[Illustration FIG. 628.]

[Illustration FIG. 629.]

You will find it important to bear in mind the purpose of the cap or

dull iron screwed upon one side of the cutting-iron, in what are called

"double-ironed" planes. A plane with a single iron, like a chisel, will

cut satisfactorily and easily for straight-grained, soft wood, and for

hard wood when planing with the grain, but many pieces of stock are

difficult to plane, because the grain does not run in the same way, but

turns and twists, cropping up to the surface and dipping down again in

all sorts of curious and perplexing ways. In planing them the wood is

likely to be continually chipping or tearing and breaking off below the

surface, instead of planing smoothly like a piece of straight-grained

pine, leaving dents and rough hollows over the surface. The natural

tendency of the plane-iron is to split the wood in front of the iron in

such cases (Fig. 628). To remedy this the plane has a double iron. An

iron or cap with a dull edge is screwed on to the face of the

cutting-iron (Fig. 629) so as to help bend and break off the shavings

before the split gets fairly started (Fig. 630), when the iron can cut

it smoothly off. The thickness of the shavings is greatly exaggerated in

the cuts for the sake of illustration.

[Illustration FIG. 630.]

The cutting edge is said to have "lead" in proportion to the distance it

is in advance of the cap-iron. The cap can be set some little distance

from the edge for the jack-plane, as far as an eighth of an inch, but

with the fore-plane and smoothing-plane it must be set quite close to

the edge, the distance varying according to the character of the wood.

The more crooked or cross-grained the wood, the nearer the dull iron is

brought down towards the edge of the sharp one. The nearer the edge, the

smoother the result, but the harder to work the plane.

[Illustration FIG. 631.]

Something more than the break-iron is required, however, to insure

breaking the shavings. There must be an angle, against which they can be

broken, close in front of the cutting edge and above the shaving. This

angle is the forward edge of the mouth or slot in the sole through which

the iron projects (Fig. 631). Thus the width of the mouth makes a

difference in the smoothness of the surface, for a narrow mouth is

necessary to ensure the shaving being readily broken by the cap. With a

wide mouth, the shaving will not be broken by the cap in time, because

there is no corner against which to break it.

With straight-grained wood this does not make so much difference, but

with crooked and broken grain narrowness of mouth is quite essential to

a smooth surface, provided that the opening is wide enough to allow the

shaving to pass through freely. Rough and knotty wood requires the mouth

very narrow and the iron set very fine (_i.e._, projecting but very

little from the sole) and the cap quite near the edge.

The modern iron planes have simple appliances for setting or adjusting

the projection of the iron from the sole and thus regulating the

thickness of the shaving. If, however, you are obliged to use the

old-fashioned wooden planes, you raise the iron in the same way that you

loosen it for removal, by lightly tapping on the top of the fore end of

the stock, keeping hold of the plane with the left hand so as to prevent

the iron falling through if loosened too much. When the iron is raised

enough, fix it in place by tapping on top of the "chip" (Fig. 621, _e_)

or wedge which holds it in place. To lower the cutting edge, loosen as

before and, checking the edge with the finger, let it project the

required distance, which you can tell about by looking along the sole

(Fig. 632), and fix in place by tapping the "chip" as before. This is

the process used in removing the iron for sharpening and replacing it,

the chip being removed as well as the iron. Any carpenter will show you

the operation. Always hold the plane in the left hand in all these

adjusting operations. Do not strike or tap any part of it while it rests

on the bench or on anything solid.

To smooth a rough piece of wood, use first the jack-plane, to remove the

rough surface and superfluous wood, and then the fore-plane, to

straighten and smooth the surface. If there is no need to have the

surface true, but only smooth, you can omit using the fore-plane and

follow the jack-plane at once by the smoothing-plane. With ordinary

machine-planed stock you do not usually need the jack-plane, though it

is sometimes useful in reducing a piece of wood to a given shape.

Before beginning to plane, see that all dirt or grit which might dull

the tool is brushed from the surface.

Turn the plane over and sight along the sole (Fig. 632), not merely to

see that the iron projects to the required degree, but also to see that

it projects equally, lest one side or corner of the iron should cut more

deeply than the other, and thus make a groove or scratch on the wood

(Fig. 633). The latest iron planes have appliances to adjust any

inequality of this sort, but if your plane is not so arranged a little

tapping on one side of the upper end of the iron will correct the

trouble. Try the plane on a waste piece before beginning on nice work.

[Illustration FIG. 632.]

Plane with the grain, as a rule, and the fibres will be cut off cleanly

where they crop up to the surface and your work will be left smooth. If

you plane against the grain, some of the fibres will tend to splinter or

chip off just below the surface before they are cut off (Fig. 634).

Stand behind the work with the plane before you. Plane with the arms

(and from the shoulder), not with the whole body. Try to shove the plane

straight ahead, also to plane as equally and evenly as possible over the

surface; for while it is comparatively easy to get a surface smooth it

is quite another thing to keep it true or to make it true if warped or

winding.

[Illustration FIG. 633.]

The natural tendency, and a common fault, is to begin and end the stroke

as shown in Fig. 635. Rolling the body back and forth, instead of

pushing steadily with the arms from the shoulder, aggravates this

trouble. The result of this way (which is unconscious at first) is that

the surface after planing is apt to be as shown in Fig. 636. To prevent

this, press down with the _left_ hand on the _forward_ part of the

plane during the _first_ part of the stroke, and with the _right_ hand

on the _rear_ part of the plane during the _last_ part of the stroke

(Fig. 637).

[Illustration RIGHT. WRONG. FIG. 634.]

In planing wood which is dirty or rough, it is best to lift the plane

from the work when drawing it back for a fresh stroke, or to draw it

back so that only the point touches the board, or to draw it back on

edge, but in planing small surfaces of clean wood it is not usually

worth while to take this precaution.

[Illustration FIG. 635.]

[Illustration FIG. 636.]

[Illustration FIG. 637.]

In planing pieces with crooked grain, turn the piece when practicable,

so as to plane as much of it with the grain as you can. But many pieces

are so crooked in grain that you cannot do this. So at times it is well

to turn your plane sideways to get a slicing cut and cross the grain at

an angle (Fig. 638); but as a rule the plane should be pushed straight

forward.

A few drops of oil rubbed over the face of the plane will make it run

more smoothly, particularly on hard wood.

[Illustration FIG. 638.]

Test the accuracy of your planing of broad surfaces with a

straight-edge, the blade of a square, or the edge of the plane itself

(if straight). By applying such a straight-edge across the surface or

lengthways or diagonally you can tell whether your work is straight and

true (Fig. 639). Also "sight" with your eye. If the surface is large or

long, winding-sticks can be used (see _Winding-sticks_). In planing

edges test lengthways with the eye and straight-edge of some sort, and

crossways by applying the try-square (Fig. 640). (See _Jointing_.)

[Illustration FIG. 639.]

It is, of course, harder to plane a broad surface, as the side of a

board, than a narrow one, as the edge. When planing a flat surface, as a

board, be careful not to plane off more at the edges than elsewhere

(Fig. 641), as you will be quite likely to do if you allow the plane to

tip sideways over the edge instead of keeping the sole parallel with the

flat surface.

[Illustration FIG. 640.]

When planing across end-grain with the block-plane or smoothing-plane,

either secure a waste piece of wood at the side where the planing ends,

to prevent the edge chipping off, as shown in Fig. 642, or plane from

both edges toward the middle (Fig. 643).

The use of the straight-edge will give the necessary clue to the process

of making warped surfaces true. (See _Truing Surfaces_.)

[Illustration FIG. 641.]

[Illustration FIG. 642.]

Whenever you make nice articles from wood planed by an ordinary cylinder

planer, the wood will seem quite smooth just as it is, but do not

neglect to smooth it carefully so as to take out all the "planer-marks"

or those little corrugations across the grain left by the machine will

often show clear across the room as soon as the work is finished. See

pages 44, 45, and 46, and also _Sharpening_.

[Illustration FIG. 643.]

=Planing.=--See _Plane_, _Jointing_, _Truing Surfaces_.

=Plank, Laying.=--See _Boards_, _Laying_.

=Plough.=--See _Plane_.

=Plumb.=--You can make a plumb-line by merely hanging any weight at the

end of a cord, when the cord will of course be vertical as soon as it

stops swinging (Fig. 644). For convenience in using hang the cord on a

board as shown in Fig. 130. When the cord hangs exactly on the line or

at the apex of the notch the edge of the board will be vertical.

A long board will give a more accurate test than a short one in most

cases, just as a long plane will make a straighter edge than a short

plane, for the long board will bridge over the irregularities of the

surface to be plumbed. For example, to take an exaggerated case, the

post plumbed as at _a_ (Fig. 645) is vertical, taken as a whole; while

the same post plumbed as at _b_ leans over, because the short board

happens to be placed where the surface of the post is not straight.

[Illustration FIG. 644.]

[Illustration FIG. 645.]

[Illustration FIG. 646.]

When the plumb-line is used to determine a point exactly over or under

another point, as in surveying, the bob is shaped with a point like a

top (Fig. 646). For making the plumb, see page 96. (See also _Level_.)

=Pod-Bit.=--See _Bits_.

=Punch= (=for Nails=).--See _Nail-set_.

=Putty.=--Common putty is (or should be) a mixture of linseed oil and

whiting of about the consistency of dough. A mixture of white lead

worked in with the whiting is, however, superior for some purposes, and

is better when but one coat of paint is to be put on after the puttying.

To colour putty, stir the colouring matter in a little oil and then work

and knead it into the putty until the whole is coloured. Keep putty

under water. Do not leave it wrapped in the paper in which you may take

it from the painter's, for the oil will be absorbed by the paper and the

putty will quickly become dry and hard. Use a square-bladed putty-knife

for flat surfaces, and do not use your fingers. See also _Holes, To

Stop_.

=Putty-Knife.=--An old case-knife can be used (better if reshaped

squarely across or to an obtuse angle), or, in fact, any knife, but a

regular putty-knife is best.

=Quill-Bit.=--See _Bits_.

=Rabbet.=--A rabbet is a recess or rectangular groove cut lengthways in

the edge of a piece of board, plank, or other timber (Fig. 284). It is

usually better for the amateur to get such work done at a mill, when

practicable, rather than to do it by hand. The rabbet-plane is, however,

a very useful tool to have. In some cases, as at the end of a piece, the

saw can be used, the lines for the rabbet having been carefully marked

with a knife or chisel. The chisel can also be used to make a rabbet,

much as in cutting a mortise, taking pains when driving the chisel down

next the line not to cut under or jam the wood beyond the line. In the

final trimming to the line, the chisel should be held with the flat side

toward the line. In removing the wood with the chisel, it is often best

to pare across the grain rather than with it (see _Paring_).

A strip of wood can be clamped across the piece exactly on the line as a

guide for the saw and the sawing be done with the heel or rear corner of

the saw, keeping the latter close up to the gauge stick, and pieces are

sometimes even clamped to the saw itself to guide it, but such

arrangements, though useful expedients under some circumstances, are

hardly the most workmanlike methods.

=Rabbet-Plane.=--See _Plane_.

=Rasp.=--The rasp--only used for wood--is a sort of coarse file, but

instead of ridge-like teeth it is studded with projecting points, which

tear off the wood more quickly, but also more roughly, than the file. It

is extremely useful to remove surplus wood and to get curved objects

roughly into shape. One good-sized half-round (or "slab-sided") rasp

will be a great help. See _File_.

=Rasping.=--See _Filing_.

=Reamers.=--See _Bits_.

=Repairing Furniture.=--To repair thoroughly--to make things as strong

as when new and to leave no sign of the mending--often requires more

skill and ingenuity and more general knowledge of wood-working than to

make new articles. Skill in repairing comes not merely from general

knowledge of wood-working, but from experience and ingenuity in applying

your knowledge to new problems. You will rarely have two jobs of

repairing just alike, even if of the same kind, and the variety is

almost endless. It is, therefore, impossible to give rules to cover all

the different cases. In fact, to attempt to give complete directions for

repairing would be to describe the majority of operations used in

wood-working, and the reader is referred to other parts of the book for

whatever information it may contain. Suggestions on one or two points

may, however, be of use.

Suppose the arm of a chair comes off, after having been stuck on with

glue perhaps a dozen times. How is it usually mended each time it comes

off? The family glue-pot, containing the dregs of all the glue used

since it was bought, is put on the stove, a little water poured in, and

as soon as the glue gets warmed into a thick paste a lot of it is daubed

on to the joints, on top of the thick coating they already have, and the

arm pushed as nearly into place as it will go. It is then usually left

for a few hours and sometimes even tied on with a string while the glue

dries. Of course it sticks for a while and then the usual result

follows.

Now how should you go to work to do this properly? First clean off all

the old glue. This is important. You want to put the fresh glue on the

wood, not on top of the old glue; but do not scrape away the wood in

getting off the glue so that the parts will no longer fit. Next, see

whether the pieces will fit together as they should. If they will, then

contrive some way to clamp them in place while the glue is drying.

Sometimes hand-screws will do this, sometimes clamps, sometimes a rope

twisted, and often it will take all your ingenuity to contrive any

arrangement, but clamped they must be if you wish to be sure of a good

job.

[Illustration FIG. 647.]

The pieces often make an angle with one another, or are curved, so that

the clamps or hand-screws will not hold, but slip as fast as you tighten

them. In such a case the method shown in Fig. 647 can often be used.

Screw a hand-screw firmly on each side of the joint, rubbing chalk on

the insides of the jaws to help prevent slipping, and putting on the

hand-screws so that the jaws will be parallel. Then, by using two other

hand-screws, those first put on can be drawn towards one another and the

joint firmly closed. Then proceed to glue the parts as with new work.

For the way to do this see _Gluing_.

In patching old work with new wood, pains should be taken to have the

wood match as well as possible, and, as a rule, pare or trim the new

pieces after they are glued in place rather than before. Staining to

match the older parts is often required (see _Staining_). See also

_Holes, To Stop_.

The repaired joint may never be quite as strong as a new one, therefore

it is well to reinforce it with a block glued and screwed on the under

or inner side, in cases where this can be done without injuring the

appearance, as inside of the frame under a chair, sofa, or table.

It is not uncommon, particularly in work which has come apart several

times, for the tenons to be too small. If you can glue on thin pieces to

make the tenon larger, trimming them afterwards to fit, it will be the

best way; but if the conditions do not admit of this, a little muslin,

laid in glue, can sometimes be wrapped around the tenon as the latter is

fitted to place. The same can sometimes be done with round pins or

dowels. The expedient of splitting and wedging tenons and dowels can

often be applied in repairing (see _Mortising_ and _Dowels_).

Sometimes you may find it necessary to use screws in places where the

heads will show. In such cases first make, when possible, a neat round

or square hole with bit or chisel of sufficient diameter to admit the

head of the screw and deep enough to allow a shallow plug to be inserted

after the screw has been set (see _Holes, To Stop_). The hardest part in

finished work is to make the patch match the rest of the work.

See also _Gluing_, _Clamps_, and whatever other operations may be

required.

=Ripping-Saw.=--See _Saw_.

=Rivets.=--In heading rivets hold another hammer or piece of metal, or

have someone else do so, against the head of the rivet while upsetting

the other end.

=Rounding Sticks.=--It is often required to round sticks for poles,

masts, spars, arrows, and a great many other purposes. First plane the

piece until it is as nearly _square_, in section, as you can make it.

Then use the form shown on page 95, which will hold the squared stick

firmly while you plane off the corners, making it _eight-sided_. Be

careful not to plane the corners off too much, for the eight sides of

the stick should be as nearly alike as possible. Next, if the stick is

large enough, plane off each of the eight corners so that it will be

_sixteen-sided_. This is about as far as you can go in this way, unless

the stick is very large. Set the plane quite fine for taking off these

corners or you may plane off too much before you know it. The rest of

the rounding you must do with light, fine strokes, testing by eye and by

passing your hand over the work (for you can judge a great deal by the

sense of touch). The rasp and file can often be used to good advantage.

The spoke-shave is good for the final smoothing, followed by the scraper

or glass (both of which can be curved) and sandpaper. The latter can be

used crosswise as well as lengthwise. Cut it in strips and pull it back

and forth around the stick, much as bootblacks put the final polish on

shoes with a strip of cloth (Fig. 648).

[Illustration FIG. 648.]