6" thwart between the gunwales or a little lower, and in the middle of
this thwart bore a hole for a small mast, putting below and slightly
forward upon the floor a block with a smaller hole. Sailing does not
amount to very much in a boat of this sort, but a small sail is often
very useful when going before the wind and adds to the fun.
This makes a very useful and safe boat for a couple of boys for river or
pond work.
If you wish to make a larger one you will have no difficulty after
studying the process given above. The only difference need be in the
dimensions.
For one 12' long you could make the beam at the gunwale (outside) 3' 6"
and at the bottom 2' 10", the beam at the bottom of the ends (outside)
2' 10" (same as amidships)--the ends to flare upward at the same angle
as at the centre, the boards for the sides being 14" wide.
For one 14' long, you could make the beam 4' at the gunwale, 3' 4" at
the bottom, the same at the ends, and the sides could be made of boards
15" wide. Stock 3/4" thick is sufficiently heavy for the sides of a boat
14' long.
The seats for a larger boat than that described can be arranged to rest
as shown in Fig. 417, and an extra mould or cross-board not far from
each end can be used, as shown.
[Illustration FIG. 417.]
[Illustration FIG. 418.]
A piece of keel or skag can be added at the stern end, if desired, as
shown in Fig. 418. This will assist in rowing straight. Fit a piece of
7/8" board to the curve of the bottom, keeping the straight edge
parallel with the top. Square off the end in line with the stern, nail
the skag firmly to the bottom, and nail a stern-post, 7/8" × 1-1/4" or
1-1/2", securely to the stern and the skag. A rudder can be hung to the
stern-post if desired. A centre-board is sometimes added to a punt,
being arranged in the way shown on page 330. A lee-board is often used
on punts and scows. It is merely a centre-board lowered outside of the
boat instead of in the centre.
[Illustration FIG. 419.]
=Small Rowboat.=--A simple form of skiff, or common flat-bottomed
rowboat (Fig. 419), called by various names, is similar to the punt at
the stern, and the mode of construction is similar. The boards for the
sides are not cut away on the bottom at the bow, as in the punt, but are
left full width and drawn together to form a sharp bow. The ends are
usually, but not always, cut off with a slight slant at the bow, which
gives a rake to the stem (Fig. 420).
[Illustration FIG. 420.]
* * * * *
Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_,
_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any other
references.
Care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from
knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. Pine is excellent.
Any good wood can, however, be used.
Make a middle mould (Fig. 421), as in the case of the punt just
described, and proceed with the construction in a similar manner, until
you come to the bow.
[Illustration FIG. 421.]
[Illustration FIG. 422.]
Screw the sides to the stern-piece (Fig. 422) without driving the screws
completely in, but leaving a little play to the joint (see _Screws_).
Next put the middle mould in place by lines previously squared across
each side. Nail the middle mould in position. Then, letting someone draw
the bow ends of the sides together (or if you are alone, binding them
together temporarily), release the stern-piece and plane its ends to
make close joints with the side pieces, as in the case of the punt
already described. When these joints are fitted, paint them with white
lead and screw or nail the sides securely (and permanently) to the stern
board.
Draw the fore-ends together and fit a piece of hard wood in the angle at
the bow as shown in Fig. 423. You can cut this piece approximately to
shape with a hatchet and then plane the surface down until you get an
accurate fit. When you have made it fit, paint it and also the sides
where they bear against it. Afterward screw or nail the sides firmly to
this stem-piece, letting each end of the stem project a little. Screws
are best (brass screws if for salt water), but nails can be used. Do not
drive them all in line, but add a second row farther from the edge and
alternately arranged. If a piece of hard wood is not available, a block
of soft wood can be used, but it should be somewhat larger.
[Illustration FIG. 423.]
Another pattern of stem-piece can be used (Fig. 424). Much pains should
be taken in making this post. The rabbets on each side should be cut
with care, trying to get the sides alike and to cut accurately to the
lines marked. When the cutting is nearly done, put the piece in place
and you can then note any changes which may be required to make tight
joints. When you finally have a good fit, paint and fasten in place as
described above.
[Illustration FIG. 424.]
[Illustration FIG. 425.]
Still another form of stem-piece is shown in Fig. 425. One side of the
boat must be got out longer than the other to allow for the lapping over
at the bow, the stem-post being first fastened to the shorter side and
then trimmed if necessary, until the side which laps over fits
accurately.
When the boat is fastened together to this extent, it will frequently be
found that the bottom has too much curvature lengthways, according to
the degree to which the sides flare outward and bend up at the ends.
This you can remedy by trimming off the sides in the middle, first
carefully marking the desired line. Measure accurately, in doing this,
to be sure that the two sides will be alike. In removing the superfluous
wood do not attack it hastily with hatchet or draw-knife, for wood often
splits in a way surprisingly different from the direction in which the
grain appears to run (see _Paring_). It is sometimes best to remove the
wood with the splitting-saw, but stop all such processes some distance
outside of the line, and rely upon the plane for the final shaping.
The lower edges must be bevelled off accurately, ready for the bottom
boards, the same as in the case of the punt (Fig. 415). Next nail on the
bottom, using common boarding or sheathing as in the case of the punt
just described, and put in the stiffening strip of board along the
middle of the floor.
If the middle mould comes in such a position that it will be in the way
if left in place permanently, you can simply tack it into position with
a couple of nails at each end, leaving the heads protruding enough to
draw them out easily. When you have put in the seats and any other
braces necessary to ensure the sides keeping their position, you can
draw the nails and take out the centre mould.
Fit seats at bow and stern, putting them two or three inches below the
gunwale and resting them on cleats.
In case you use the stem-piece shown in Fig. 423, saw or plane off the
projecting ends of the sides at the bow smoothly and screw (or nail) on
a cutwater made of some hard wood and with a sharp edge. Fasten strips
along the gunwale,--"wale strips,"--as already shown.
A skag can be put on at the stern, if desired, as described on page 307.
Such a boat can be sailed by adding a centre-board (see page 330) or by
bolting on a keel several inches in depth. A small sail-boat can be made
in this way by making the stern narrower, proportionately, the sides
higher, and decking over the bow and stern. The decking can extend over
all the top, if desired, except a well-hole around which can be fitted a
coaming or wash board. The keel can be of plank fitted carefully to the
shape of the bottom, its lower edge being horizontal towards the after
part, which will make it quite deep at the stern. A rudder should be
added for sailing.
* * * * *
[Illustration FIG. 426.]
=Skiff or Flat-bottomed Canoe.=--A double-ended skiff, batteau, or
flat-bottomed canoe (Fig. 426), known by various names, can be easily
made by simply carrying the process already described a little further,
and drawing the sides together at the stern as well as at the bow, thus
forming a boat sharp at both ends. This is an excellent type for the
amateur, whether in the form of a small canoe or a quite good-sized boat
for rowing, or even light sailing. Such a boat is light, easily
propelled, buoyant, does not pound the waves when meeting them so much
as the punt, and the sharp stern is good when running before a sea.
* * * * *
Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_,
_Saw_, _Plane_, _Nailing_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any other
references.
Care must be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from
knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. Pine is excellent,
but almost any good wood can be used for a boat of this sort.
The sides can be bent into place around a mould in the middle and
brought together at _both_ ends and two end-posts fitted. In other
respects the process differs so little from the preceding that complete
description is needless.
The two stem-pieces, which you can fit in the manner already shown,
will, theoretically, be alike. Practically, there should not be more
than a very trifling difference required in their shape. Having found
the shape for one, get the other out just like it. If it does not fit
perfectly, it can be trimmed until it does fit; but if the first one
fits right and the second fails to do so by more than a trifling degree,
you had best look the boat over and verify your work, and you may find
that you have cut something too long or too short or got something in
the wrong place. Paint the ends of these sides where they will be in
contact with the stem and stern with white lead.
The sides and ends can be put together as follows: Take either side,
screw it securely to the stem-pieces at each end. Dip the screw points
in white-lead paint. Next screw either end of the other side to the
corresponding stem-piece, which will leave the sides separated at an
acute angle, with one end of one side not yet fastened to its
corresponding bow- or stern-post. The ends being alike it does not
matter which is called the bow or stern. To fasten this remaining joint,
it will be necessary to spring or bend the sides. If you have someone to
help you, you can easily put the midship frame into position and bend
the sides around it until the unfastened end comes into the correct
position against the stem-piece, to which it can be held and screwed
firmly. If you can get no help, you can hold the sides in position by
using a rope doubled and inserting sticks at top and bottom by which the
rope can be twisted and shortened (see _Clamps_).
Another way is to put a box or joist, perhaps a couple of feet long,
between the sides, to prevent making too much strain on the end
fastenings, and, having secured the unfastened end, the frames can then
be laid flat, the sides drawn farther apart, and the midship frame
forced into position. The latter will be in position when it agrees with
the lines previously drawn on the sides and when the bottom is flush
with the inner corners of the lower edges of the sides. Nail the sides
to it with 1-3/4" or 2" nails, or it can finally be removed if not
needed for stiffness.
The remaining details do not differ from those previously described. The
rowlocks can be placed wherever desired in the way already described,
but if the boat should be too narrow for this arrangement, they can be
fastened to outriggers, which the blacksmith can easily contrive.
* * * * *
A flat-bottomed canoe can be made on this same principle, the only
difference being to have less beam and to use a paddle or paddles
instead of oars.
* * * * *
A very successful small canoe, suitable for quiet waters, can be made of
quite thin wood (perhaps 3/8" to 1/2" in thickness), the outside being
covered with canvas. In case of building so light a craft as this,
however, it is best to insert regular ribs at distances of about a foot
to give the necessary stiffness, and to lay the bottom boards
lengthways. The ribs can be bought in any large town on the water, or
you can fashion them yourself. Natural bends are always preferable, but
you can make knees (on the general principle shown in Fig. 433) of
straight-grained stock, which, though clumsier and not so strong, will
serve the purpose. Care must be taken in fastening on the bottom not to
split either the bottom or the sides. But the canvas will be the main
reliance in keeping the boat tight. The canvas can be put on in three
pieces, first the sides, and then the bottom. Cover the sides down to
the bottom and let the bottom piece lap up over the sides two or three
inches and the edges be turned under. Stiffen the gunwale by a strip.
A light, removable board, or grating of slats, should be laid inside
along the bottom, on the cross-frames.
If well made and kept well painted so as to protect the canvas from wear
at the exposed points, a light canoe of this sort will last many years
and be a very useful boat. It must be kept out of the water and under
cover when not in use.
[Illustration FIG. 427.]
* * * * *
A simple and cheap flat-bottomed canoe (Figs. 427 and 428), but not
canvas-covered, is not difficult to make by the process already
described. First make the frames and the stem- and stern-posts, then get
out the sides. These parts are put together and then the bottom is put
on, the well-hole coaming fitted, the boat decked, and finally the minor
fittings added.
[Illustration FIG. 428.]
* * * * *
First make the centre frame like Fig. 429, the bottom strip being of
7/8" stock, 1-1/4" deep, and the side pieces of 3/4" board. Screw the
pieces together with two screws at each angle. Care must be taken to
make this frame symmetrical or the boat will be one-sided. You can draw
the outline of the frame carefully on a piece of stiff brown paper,
drawing a vertical centre line and measuring both ways for accuracy. Lay
this pattern on the bench top, or on a smooth floor, and place the
pieces for the frame on the drawing so that the outer edges just
coincide with the outline of the drawing. Hold them firmly in position
and screw the angles securely together. Tack a waste piece across near
the top to help keep the frame in shape until in position. Next get out
two frames like Fig. 430, taking the dimensions from your plan, two more
like Fig. 431, and two like Fig. 432. To make the stem- and stern-posts,
take two pieces of joist, about 2" × 4" and of sufficient length, and
with the chisel and saw cut a rabbet on each side of each piece, on the
principle shown in Fig. 424. Give these rabbets a good coat of
white-lead paint.
[Illustration FIG. 429.]
[Illustration FIG. 430.]
[Illustration FIG. 431.]
[Illustration FIG. 432.]
The sides are got out in the way already shown. On them mark the
position for the centre mould. Insert and nail into place the two next
largest frames, at the proper places, and so on until all are in
position. All, except the centre one, will require to have their edges
slightly bevelled with the plane to fit the sides. You can do this best
as you put them in place. Paint the edges of the frames with white lead
before nailing them in position. Next fit pieces of 1/2" board to form
the coaming around the well-hole, and fasten them to the three middle
frames. The details of this you can easily arrange for yourself. The
general idea is expressed in Figs. 427 and 434.
Before proceeding further with the deck, thoroughly paint the whole of
the inside of the boat with white lead, working it well into all the
joints and cracks. After giving it a few days to dry, look the inside
over carefully for any holes or defects to be stopped. After filling any
there may be, give the entire inside another coat, working it well into
all crevices as before. Do not neglect this part of the work, as it will
not be easy to get at the inside (except in the middle) after the deck
is put on.
On the middle of the deck stretch strips of 1/2" wood about 4" wide from
the coaming of the well to the stem- and stern-posts, tapering the
pieces as they approach the ends and resting them on the tops of the
frames, to which they should be firmly nailed.
If you wish to sail, a stiff brace or thwart can be put in for the mast,
with a block for a step.
One or more strips, 1" × 1/2", can now be placed longitudinally on each
side of the deck and nailed to the frames.
Additional deck-beams, running from gunwale to gunwale, and having the
requisite arch or convexity, can be put in if needed. A few brackets can
also be put under the deck, reaching from the sides to the coaming, if
needed.
A keel about one inch square, or deeper at the centre, if desired, can
be fitted along the entire length of the bottom. It had best be fastened
on with screws. If your boat is to be used in deep water only, you can
make the keel 3" or 4" deep in the middle, rockering it up towards the
ends, and the boat can be sailed without a centre-board.
Cover the deck with canvas, fastened with small tacks to the coaming and
to the sides. The edges of the canvas can be drawn down over the gunwale
for about half an inch, the edge being finally covered by a gunwale
strip screwed from stem- to stern-post. A piece of half-round 7/8"
moulding is good, although any small strip will do. Dampen the canvas
and then give it at least two coats of paint. A wooden deck can be put
on if preferred.
* * * * *
=Canvas-covered Canoes.=--To make a really good canoe wholly of wood
requires a degree of skill much greater than can be expected of the
beginner, or than is attained by the average amateur. Any boy or amateur
can, however, with the help of canvas and with a very few tools and at
slight expense, make some simple varieties which will serve the purpose
satisfactorily. The canoe is sharp at both ends, requires only a paddle,
and is light enough to be easily handled ashore. If carefully made, a
canvas canoe will be strong, durable, and not difficult to mend, though
repairs are seldom necessary if proper care is taken. If canvas of good
quality is used, it will not be easily punctured or torn as one might
think, but will stand an amount of banging around, running into snags,
dragging over obstacles, and abuse generally, that would badly injure
any but the best of wooden canoes.
The variety of designs for canoes which has developed or been evolved
from the more primitive forms is in these days almost endless, and the
number of types from which to choose is confusing. The purpose for which
the canoe is to be used will help you somewhat in selecting the
type--whether for paddling only, or sailing, or for cruising and general
use, and whether for a river or small pond, or for the deep and rough
water of a lake or bay. All these matters must be considered in
determining the beam, depth, shape of the midship section, the draught,
degree of sheer, whether to have keel, centre-board, or neither, and
other points. This is too complex a subject to be treated in a hand-book
on wood-working, and you can easily obtain the desired information, as
well as detailed instructions for drawing the plans, from some good book
on the subject.
A caution against making the framework too light and without sufficient
stiffness may not be out of place. One frequently sees canoes, made by
young boys, of such flimsy pieces and covered with such weak cloth that
one is surprised that they can live in the quietest mill-pond, which is
really testimony to the tenacious strength of a canvas-covered boat when
properly made. A certain degree of flexibility is one of the desirable
features of these boats, but they should always have sufficient
stiffness to maintain their general shape in all weathers and in all
waters to which a canoe is suited; therefore be sure to make a frame
which will keep its shape of itself without relying upon the canvas to
hold it together.
It is quite common to see these boats which (otherwise well built) lack
stiffness lengthways--that is, in the longitudinal vertical section.
Such boats after a little use become bent up in the middle, or
"hog-backed." This is entirely unnecessary. Be sure, before putting on
the canvas, that your frame is stiff enough lengthways to keep its shape
permanently. If by any fault in your planning you find that it is not
so, be sure to add extra stiffening braces inside before putting on the
canvas, or your boat will probably be a failure.[40]
Canvas-covered boats should always be kept out of the water and under
cover when not in use, as long-continued exposure to the water will be
injurious.
An easily constructed paddling canoe, 14' or 15' long, and with beam
about 30", will first be described.
It should be understood by the novice that this first form of
construction here given is not that adopted by the professional
boat-builder. It is given simply as a process by which one untrained in
the more regular methods of construction can turn out a cheap and
serviceable canoe, and at the same time acquire experience which will be
of use if he should later attempt the more scientific, but also more
difficult, details of construction used by regular boat-builders.
* * * * *
Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_,
_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any other
references.
* * * * *
Care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from
knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry.
[Illustration FIG. 433.]
Having made your working drawings for a canoe of the size and
proportions which you may think best to adopt, begin the actual work by
getting out moulds (Fig. 433) upon exactly the same principle as in the
case of the flat-bottomed canoe just described, except that they will be
of curved outline, as this is to be a round-bottomed boat. Get out also
a bottom strip or keelson with stem- and stern-pieces, which can be
alike.
[Illustration FIG. 434.]
[Illustration FIG. 435.]
The arrangement and method of fitting these parts is evident from the
illustrations. The keelson can be laid along the edge of a plank or some
flat surface and blocked up towards the ends to give the desired degree
of curvature or rocker. First fit in place the centre mould and then the
two at the ends of the well-hole (Fig. 434), with the stem- and
stern-posts (Fig. 435). These can be temporarily tacked or stayed in
place until you are sure the positions are right. The coaming frame or
wash board around the well-hole can now be put on, which will hold the
three middle frames securely, and the two deck-strips running lengthways
from the well-coaming to the tops of the stem- and stern-posts can be
attached (Fig. 435). Next fit the two gunwale-strips, putting in also
the remaining moulds or frames. After this the lengthways ribbands are
to be fitted around the moulds from bow to stern (Figs. 435 and 435a,
showing section at end of well). This will complete the shape of the
boat.
Great care must be taken with all this adjusting of the framework,
measuring, sighting, and testing in every way you can think of, to see
that all the curves are "fair," without sharp or irregular turns, and
also to see that both sides of the boat are alike. This is very
important. The pieces may be all of the correct lengths, but still the
boat may be one-sided, or twisted, or have a list.
[Illustration FIG. 435a.]
[Illustration FIG. 436.]
A glance at Fig. 436 will show (as an exaggerated example) that pieces
of the right dimensions can easily be put together in such a way that
the boat may be ill-shaped,--an unfortunate result which is sometimes
seen in home-made boats, due to lack of care in testing the angles and
curves when putting the work together.
The ends of these strips will be more securely fastened to the stem- and
stern-posts if depressions or "gains" are cut in the posts to receive
them (Fig. 437), but this is not absolutely necessary if the ends are
properly bevelled and carefully screwed to the stem- and stern-posts.
[Illustration FIG. 437.]
For additional stiffness, insert a series of ribs (Fig. 435), from 3" to
6" apart, according to their size and stiffness, from bow to stern.
Barrel-hooping can be used and if sound is excellent, or strips of ash,
oak, or elm, about 7/8" × 1/4", can be used. It will not be necessary to
bend these around a form. Those near the middle can be at once bent into
place. As the ends of the boat are approached, the ribs will require to
be rendered more pliable before being put in place (see _Bending Wood_).
The ribs can be nailed or screwed to the keel and finally be fastened to
the ribbands, at their intersection, with copper nails clinched or
riveted. Cheaper fastenings can be used, however, but copper is the
best.
To hold such pieces in place temporarily, clamps can be easily made
which will be sufficiently strong for the purpose (see Fig. 548).
When all these parts are fastened together, the frame will be complete.
To make a first-class job, the entire frame should be thoroughly
painted, or at least given a soaking coat of oil, or it can be
varnished.
For the canvas, get firm, closely-woven duck or sail-cloth of good
quality and of sufficient width to reach from gunwale to gunwale. It is
not necessary or advantageous to get the heaviest-weight grade, but
beware of covering your boat with light drilling or the like, which,
although you can make it water-tight, will not be sufficiently durable
for anything but a boat for temporary use.
Find the middle of the canvas, lengthways, and stretch it on this line
directly along the keel, the frame of the boat being placed bottom up.
Tack at each end, and then, starting at the middle, strain the canvas
around the boat, working along a little way at a time towards each end
alternately and tacking to the top or inside of the gunwale as you
proceed. Do not try to cover the top with the same piece as the bottom.
If you can get a large needle and some stout cord, you can pull the
canvas into place by lacing the edges across the top or deck of the
boat, working from the middle towards the ends. In lieu of a needle use
an awl or a nail. By lacing in this way and by manipulating the canvas
with the hands you can, if you are careful, stretch it to fit the frame
so that it will be smooth to a point considerably above the water-line.
At the upper part, as you approach the deck line or gunwale, you may be
unable to prevent some fulness, which you can dispose of by pleating if
necessary. At the ends some little folding under may also be required,
but you need have no great difficulty in adjusting the canvas neatly and
so as to make tight joints. It is a good plan to cut a shallow rabbet on
each side of the stem- and stern-posts, just deep enough so that when
the edge of the canvas is folded under and tacked, the surface of the
canvas will be flush with the side of the post (Fig. 437). Small tacks
should be used--not large carpet-tacks. Copper are best, but galvanized
ones can be used. In all parts where leakage could occur, the tacks
should be driven closely together, so that their heads touch, seeing
that a good coat of lead is laid on the wood underneath. After the
bottom of the canoe has been covered, the deck can be treated in the
same way.
When the canvas is all on, dampen it slightly and paint thoroughly,
painting, also, the coaming around the well-hole and the exposed parts
of the stem- and stern-posts (see _Painting_). The dampening is supposed
to cause the first coat of paint to penetrate the canvas more thoroughly
than if the canvas is quite dry. Oil is sometimes applied before
painting. After it has dried thoroughly, apply another coat. Do not
spare the paint, for though the canvas absorbs a great deal, which adds
to the weight of the boat as well as to the cost, it is really essential
in making a good canvas-covered boat that it be well painted.
A light removable flooring, or grating of slats, should be placed on the
bottom of the well, resting on the frames.
* * * * *
To make a canvas canoe with a keel, you have only to make the keel of a
piece of 1-1/4" or 1-1/2" stock (with a depth of, perhaps, 1-1/4" or
1-1/2"), thinning it somewhat towards the ends so that it will join
smoothly with the stem- and stern-posts. It can be fitted to these posts
as shown in Fig. 438, and screwed directly to the keelson.
[Illustration Fig. 438.]
Particular care must be taken that the keel be got out straight and that
it be fitted exactly on the centre line. In this case the canvas may be
put on in two parts, being nailed to the keelson on each side of the
keel; or the canoe can be made as previously described and the keel
simply screwed on outside of the canvas, the latter being first
thoroughly painted. Oak is excellent for a keel, but is rather heavy for
a light canoe. Ash will do. Pine can be used. The keel will wear better
if got out so that the concentric rings (annual rings) of the wood will
be horizontal or parallel with the bottom of the boat and at right
angles to the screws with which the keel is fastened on. If these layers
incline slightly upward at the bow the keel will wear better.
* * * * *
[Illustration FIG. 439.]
A more advanced form of construction, and one more in line with the
methods of a regular boat-builder, is shown in Fig. 439, the essential
difference between this and the form previously described being that
regular bent ribs are substituted for the frames made of board, and the
latter, after serving as moulds around which to build the boat, are
taken out, the bent ribs being sufficiently stout to ensure strength and
stiffness.
If you attempt this method the ribs must be carefully bent (see _Bending
Wood_). Oak, ash, or elm is suitable for ribs. If a cooper's shop is
within reach you can get the material there. It must, of course, be of
good grain and free from flaws.
* * * * *
The process of construction is similar to that already shown. A
suggestion for the arrangement of deck timbers (which can be of oak,
ash, spruce, or any strong wood) is shown in Figs. 439 and 440, and for
putting in a curved wash board or coaming in Fig. 440. For the latter a
thin piece of straight-grained oak, elm, or ash can be used.
* * * * *
[Illustration FIG. 440.]
[Illustration FIG. 441.]
An excellent way to make a canvas-covered canoe is shown in Fig. 441.
The essential principle of this consists in having a stiff gunwale,
stiff keelson (inside the ribs), and ribs stout and numerous enough to
ensure a permanently strong and stiff framework without the assistance
of the lengthways ribbands. The outside is then sheathed with very thin
strips of basswood, pine, or any reasonably strong and light wood
(perhaps 3/16" thick and 2" or 3" wide), fitting them carefully to the
shape, but without any attempt to make water-tight joints. If this boat,
which is complete in all respects except that of being water-tight, is
then covered with canvas as already described, the result will be a
strong, smooth boat, without the irregularities of surface which are a
necessary feature of the unsheathed form.
This method is adopted in making canvas-covered canoes after the model
of the birch-bark canoe, and the result is an admirable boat, which,
while perhaps hardly equal to a genuine "birch" of Indian manufacture,
is certainly the next thing to it for an open paddling canoe. Of course,
if you can work up your design after the model of a real birch, you will
have accomplished as much as you could wish in this line--but to design
and construct a good canoe upon the birch model is not an easy thing for
the beginner to do, and had best not be attempted until after
considerable experience in simpler and less graceful forms. This mode of
construction can well be applied, however, to a canoe of almost any
type. The sheathing can be painted and the canvas laid on the fresh
paint.
Another form of construction is to omit the keelson and fasten the
frames and ribs directly to the top of the keel, having previously cut a
rabbet for the canvas (as in case of the stem- and stern-posts) on each
side of the keel at the top; the canvas by this arrangement being put on
in two parts, one on each side of the keel.
It is, of course, possible to construct a canoe with nothing but two
gunwale-strips, stem- and stern-posts, a strip for a keelson, and a
number of barrel-hoops for ribs; and such affairs are quite often put
together by boys, but they are apt to be of light and flimsy
construction and to lack sufficient stiffness to keep their shape after
being used for a while. A certain degree of flexibility and lack of
rigidity is desirable in a canvas-covered boat, and, in fact, it is to
this quality that it owes much of its merit; but it should have enough
stiffness to hold its general shape permanently.
An extremely simple method is to omit the stem-pieces and simply bend
the keelson up at each end to meet the gunwales at bow and stern, where
all the lengthways pieces can be fastened to a block, canvas being
stretched over the whole as already described. A canoe which turns up so
excessively on the bottom at bow and stern has some disadvantages, but
still a useful and cheap boat can readily be made in this way. It should
have a quite flat cross-section in the middle.
Most canoes can be sailed on the wind, often very successfully, by
having a deep keel--which can be rockered or increased in depth towards
the middle--or by adding a centre-board. But the latter is quite a nice
operation, particularly so in case of making your first boat (see page
330).
* * * * *
The holes and the steps for the masts should be arranged before the
canvas is put on, fitting extra thwarts across if needed, and it is a
good plan to fit tubes for the masts. In case of sailing, the steering
can be done with the paddle, or a rudder can be used (in which case a
straight stern-post should be put in, for which a knee is good) and
lines be led forward to the well-hole from a yoke at the top of the
rudder. Many arrangements have been devised for steering sailing-canoes,
but these details, as well as those for the rigging, can be found in any
good book on the subject. If you are a novice, begin with a simple
leg-of-mutton sail (Fig. 448).
* * * * *
It is better to buy oars than to try to make them. You may, however,
have occasion to make a paddle. A good shape is shown in Fig. 442, but
you can choose from a variety of forms.
[Illustration FIG. 442.]
* * * * *
The length can readily be determined from some paddle which suits you or
you can experiment with a strip of wood. Five inches is a good width,
and 5' to 5-1/2' a good length, but these are matters of individual
preference. Spruce is a good wood for your first attempt at
paddle-making. It makes a good paddle and is easier to work than birch,
beech, or maple, or any of the harder woods. Pine can be used. Use a
centre line in making your pattern. After the pattern is marked on the
wood have the outline sawed at a mill or do it yourself with the
turning-saw, or make a series of saw-kerfs to the line with the hand-saw
and remove the superfluous wood with the draw-knife, spoke-shave, or
chisel (see _Paring_). Having the outline correct, mark a line along the
middle of the edge of the blade, and gradually and carefully shave the
surfaces down towards this middle line, also tapering the thickness
towards the ends. The draw-knife, spoke-shave, plane, rasp, file,
scraper, and sandpaper can be used (see all of these tools in Part V.
and also _Paring_ and _Rounding Sticks_). Great care is needed to trim a
paddle nicely to shape. A little hasty cutting may ruin the work.
[Illustration FIG. 443.]
The double-bladed paddle can be made of a single piece, or two pieces
can be joined by a ferrule (Fig. 443). The double-bladed paddle can be
from about 7' to 8' or 9' long and the blades are made broader and
shorter than that of the single paddle. A couple of round rubber rings
on each end of the handle will stop some of the dripping of water from
the blades as they are raised.
=Small Sail-boat.=--The boat shown in Fig. 444 is a good form for the
amateur to attempt, and makes a serviceable craft for sheltered waters.
From twelve to sixteen feet is a good length, and the beam should be
wide, as shown. The depth can be from twelve to sixteen inches.
* * * * *
Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_,
_Plane_, _Nailing_, in Part V., and look up any other references.
Care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from
knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. Pine is excellent.
[Illustration FIG. 444.]
The general principle of construction does not differ from that of the
flat-bottomed boats already described, and detailed directions are
therefore omitted. The sides should each be of one 3/4" or 7/8" board.
The arrangement of the details is obvious. Knees can be used to good
advantage. The deck should be of wood, the boards (1/2") resting on
cross-beams or carlins, reaching from gunwale to gunwale (as already
shown) and slightly arched. Around the well-hole, brackets can be used
(Fig. 445). The deck can be covered with canvas.
[Illustration FIG. 445.]
This boat, as shown in the illustration, is planked across the bottom
like the other flat-bottomed boats already described, but the bottom
boards can run lengthways instead, if preferred. In this case knees
should be inserted, or cross-frames of some kind, to reach across the
bottom and to which the bottom boards can be nailed. The bottom boards
should be not less than 3/4" thick and the edges must be carefully
jointed (see _Jointing_). They can be laid slightly apart and the seams
caulked (see page 302). Strips of flannel laid in thick white-lead paint
can be placed between the edges of the sides and stern and the bottom
boards, or the edges can simply be painted.
[Illustration FIG. 446.]
[Illustration FIG. 447.]
The construction of the case or trunk for the centre-board can be
understood from Figs. 446 and 447. By either method of construction the
trunk consists of two upright posts, or "headledges," cut with shoulders
at the lower end, and sides of board screwed to these posts. A slot is
sawed through the bottom of the boat of sufficient width and length to
give the centre-board free passage--that is, of the dimensions of the
opening at the bottom of the trunk. To cut this slot several holes can
be bored close together until an opening is made sufficiently large to
start the saw. By the arrangement shown in Fig. 446, a plank is taken
and a slot is cut in it enough longer than that in the bottom of the
boat to include the lower ends of the headledges, which should fit
snugly. The sides of the trunk are screwed to this plank from
underneath, and the plank is in turn screwed to the bottom of the boat.
The headledges can be additionally fastened from the edge of the plank,
horizontally. Unless the bottom of the boat is straight, the plank must
be accurately fitted to the curve on the under side,--not an easy task
(see _Scribing_ and _Paring_). All the joints should be laid in thick
white-lead paint, and at the bottom flannel can be laid in the seam,
with lead, or caulking can be resorted to.
By the method shown in Fig. 447, the headledges and sides are fitted to
a board on the bottom, or to the keelson, and, after being put in place,
strips of plank are fitted lengthways on each side at the bottom and
bolted or screwed to the bottom and to the sides of the trunk. The lower
edges of these strips must be fitted to the curve of the bottom and the
whole made tight, as just shown. Much care must be taken with this work
to make tight joints. The inside of the trunk should be painted before
putting together, and holes be bored carefully for all the screws (see
_Boring_ and _Screws_).
The centre-board itself can be of wood or of galvanized plate iron and
is pivoted at the forward lower corner, and can be raised and lowered by
a rod attached to the after corner.
Remember to paint the inside of the boat carefully with at least two
coats before putting on the deck, and also that copper nails and brass
fittings are better than those of galvanized iron (particularly for salt
water) if you can afford them.
The coaming or wash board can be of 1/2" oak, ash, or elm. The deck can
first be laid, lapping slightly over the space to be left open. The line
for the coaming can then be marked on the deck, and the projecting wood
sawed or trimmed to the line, when the coaming can be bent into place
and fastened.
The gunwale-strip, like the stern-post, the rudder, and the tiller,
should be of hard wood, as oak. Hackmatack is good for the stem.
The mast should be of spruce. A strong thwart, with a hole in it, can be
fitted across between the sides, just under the deck, and a block with
another hole fastened to the bottom. The place at which to step the mast
must depend upon the style of rig you adopt.
One who is used to sailing a boat will not seek for information on this
subject in a manual on wood-working, but for the novice it may be well
to state that a leg-of-mutton sail (Fig. 448) is undoubtedly the
simplest, easiest, and safest rig for the beginner, and it will be wise
to learn to manage this rig first. The spritsail (Fig. 449), with or
without the boom, is an easily managed sail, which works well with this
boat. Either of these rigs can be unshipped in a moment, the mast, sail
and all being lifted out when desired. For other styles of rigging you
should consult someone used to sailing or some book on the subject.
[Illustration FIG. 448.]
[Illustration FIG. 449.]
For the painting, see _Painting_, in Part V.
=Small Ice-Boat.=--The main framework of even the most elaborate
ice-boat consists merely of a lengthways centre timber or "backbone" and
a cross-piece or "runner-board" (Fig. 450), the whole resting on three
runners, one of which acts as a rudder.
Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_,
_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.
[Illustration FIG. 450.]
[Illustration FIG. 451.]
A small boat can be made as shown in Fig. 451. The dimensions can easily
be altered. The particular rig given is merely for illustration, for
this is not a book on sailing, and you can find all the facts you need
about rigging in any good book on the subject. If you are a novice you
had best be content with a simple leg-of-mutton sail (Fig. 448), which
is, for the beginner, the safest and most easily managed. A spritsail
(Fig. 449) or some other simple form can be used if desired. If you know
how to sail a boat, you can adopt such rig as you think best.
[Illustration FIG. 452.]
[Illustration FIG. 453.]
First get out the backbone. Get a piece of clear spruce, or pine,
perhaps 12' × 3" × 4". A round spar may be used. Be careful to select
good lumber, as great strain is put upon it. A piece which has naturally
sprung lengthways should be placed with the convex edge upwards. Next
get out the runner-board, perhaps 6-1/2' × 2" × 9", of spruce. Pine is
also good, or any strong wood will do. Choose a clear, sound plank. If
naturally sprung in a bow-like curve, put the convex side upwards.
Smooth the pieces sufficiently to avoid splinters and roughness. Thin
the runner-plank on top each way from the centre down to about an inch
in thickness at each end, if you can have it sawed at the mill. It is
hardly worth while to do this by hand. Fasten the runner-board, at
exactly the middle of its length, across the backbone, at a point
perhaps 6-1/2' from the stern end, with a strap-hanger (Fig. 452)
screwed up with nuts and broad washers on the under side. If you cannot
afford this, put a bolt through both pieces (see _Boring_), tightening
underneath with nut and washer, and putting cleats on the runner-board
(Fig. 453). Be sure that one edge of the runner-board is straight and at
right angles to the backbone. Nail a piece of board, 18" long and 3"
wide, across the stern end of the centre timber. Add the two side pieces
_a b_ and _c d_ (Fig. 450), of 2" spruce joist, nailing them firmly in
place, thus forming the sides of an irregular box (see _Nailing_). Turn
the frame over and nail a bottom on this box, laying the boards
crosswise and nailing to the backbone as well as to the sides and end.
Next, to make the runners, get out six pieces of oak, or other hard,
strong wood, 9" × 3" × 4". Mark with the square from the straightened
edge of the runner-board the positions for the inner blocks, equally
distant from the backbone, screwing them in place (Fig. 454), with one
screw in each. Measure across with a stick from one to the other at
each end to see that they are just parallel, and also test their being
at right angles to the runner-plank, which in turn must be at right
angles to the backbone, in order that the runners may be parallel and
not slewed sideways. Having tightly screwed these inner blocks, brace
them with angle blocks, as shown. The outer blocks can next be fitted,
leaving just space enough for the runners to play freely, but not
loosely, between the blocks. The holes for the pins for the runners can
be bored in the outer pieces before they are screwed on. Then, using
these holes as a guide, those in the inner blocks can be bored in line.
The runners themselves should be carefully made and fitted, for they are
a very vital part of the boat. On the large boats they have usually been
made of oak, with a shoe of cast iron at the bottom attached by bolts,
but this is quite a piece of work for a small boat and you can get the
blacksmith to work out the whole runner, with a hole bored for the
pin-bolt. Make a pattern about 18" or 20" long, rocking _very_ slightly
in the middle and more quickly near the ends. The hole for the pin
should be back of the middle, so that more of the shoe will be in front
of than behind the pin. This is to lessen the shock when the runner
strikes an obstruction. The cutting edge may have an angle of about 45°
for trial (Fig. 455). If too blunt or too sharp you can alter it. It
will take considerable filing to get the edge true, straight, and
uniform (see _Filing_). Finish with an oil-stone.
[Illustration FIG. 454.]
[Illustration FIG. 455.]
The rudder-runner can be a little shorter. Screw a piece of 2" oak plank
on top of the rudder-blocks and on top of this fasten a plate or socket
to which is attached a piece of gas-pipe about a foot long, for a
rudder-post. At the top of the rudder-post screw an elbow and a short
piece of pipe for a tiller (Fig. 456). If suitable gas-pipe cannot be
found, the blacksmith can fix an arrangement that will answer, but it
must be strongly fastened to the rudder-blocks, and there should be some
kind of metal bearing between the wooden top of the rudder and the under
side of the backbone, if nothing more than a washer. The two surfaces of
wood should not rub against each other. Wind the handle of the tiller
with cord, cloth, or bicycle tape.
[Illustration FIG. 456.]
[Illustration FIG. 457.]
Stay the bowsprit (or forward end of the backbone) by stout wires to the
runner-plank. These can best be of wire rope passed through eye-bolts or
attached to iron straps and tightened with turnbuckles, but to save that
expense strong wire can be used. Notches can be cut at the edges of the
runner-plank and the backbone, and wire be wound around to hold rings to
which the wire guys can be fastened, but it is hard to make such an
arrangement taut and to keep it so. Next fasten a mast step with square
hole to the backbone (Fig. 457), forward of the front edge of the
runner-plank. Put in eye-bolts at ends of the runner-plank and at the
bow for shrouds and a few inches from the stern of the backbone for the
main sheet. Wire rope is best for the shrouds, but common wire or rope
can be used. For the mast and spars use natural sticks of spruce. The
sides of the box can be built up higher at the stern with boards, if you
wish, to prevent being thrown off by the sudden movements of the boat. A
rubber washer under the backbone where the rudder-post passes through is
sometimes used to lessen the jar when passing over obstructions. A
curved piece of wood fastened on the under side of the backbone just in
front of the rudder will act as a fender for the rudder, in case of
slight obstructions.
The whole boat can be oiled, painted, or varnished if desired (see
_Finishing_ and _Painting_).
If you use a cat-rig, spritsail, or other rig without any head-sail
before the mast, it would be well to place the runner-plank further
forward.
[Illustration FIG. 458.]
The latest and best way to brace the frame of an ice-boat is to strain
guys of wire rope (Fig. 458), tightened with turnbuckles, omitting the
side pieces, and fastening a car or box to the backbone, but this
arrangement, though lighter and more elastic, is more expensive and not
so easy to make for a small boat as the one just described.
A somewhat simpler way to arrange the framework is shown in Figs. 459,
460, and 461. In place of the runners already described a cheaper
arrangement can be made by the blacksmith of 5/8" bar iron, steeled, and
bent up at the ends, as shown in Fig. 461.
A much smaller affair can be made by simply arranging two pieces of
joist or plank in the form of a cross (bracing them so far as may be
necessary), putting cleats under each end of the shorter cross-piece or
runner-board and fastening common skates to the cleats, using another
pivoted skate at the stern for a rudder. The runners of the skates
should be ground, or filed, as shown above.
[Illustration FIG. 459.]
[Illustration FIG. 460.]
[Illustration FIG. 461.]
The details of such a small ice-boat you can work out for yourself by
modifying and simplifying according to your ingenuity the suggestions
for a larger boat given above. The hardest part to fix is the
rudder-post and tiller. Some iron arrangement is best, but something can
be contrived in the following manner, which is not, however, recommended
as very satisfactory. Fasten the rudder skate upon a piece of board in
which is cut a mortise. Into this mortise a short piece of hard wood,
like a large broomstick with squared end, is fitted for a rudder-post.
The upper end of the rudder-post, squared just like the lower end, is
fitted into a mortise cut in the tiller piece. A washer should be placed
between the skate-block and the backbone, and the rudder-post should
turn freely in the hole in the backbone, but not loosely enough to
wobble around. Cut the mortise in the tiller and fit to the post before
cutting off and shaping the tiller, to avoid danger of splitting. An
extra block may have to be put under the backbone at the rudder to level
the boat so that the skates will bear properly on the ice, for if the
stern is much lower, so that they drag by the heels, the boat will not
sail properly. Wooden arrangements of this sort are, however, only
justifiable as makeshifts, and require good workmanship to be strong and
effective.
[Illustration]
=House-Boat.=--A house-boat consists of two parts, one of which (the
boat) is essentially like the scow or flat boat already described, and
the other (the house) is usually much the same as some of the little
structures described in Part III. (_House-building for Beginners_),
however expensively and elaborately it may be arranged and fitted up.
The advantages of the house-boat for camping, shooting, fishing, and for
some kinds of excursions are too well known to require explanation. It
is an excellent thing for two or more to build together. It may not be
out of place to suggest that, in the desire to have the house
sufficiently large and convenient, you should not be misled into making
plans which will necessitate building a large boat. Dimensions (on
paper) for such things are quite deceptive, and to build a large boat,
even of such a simple type as the scow or flatboat, is quite a serious
undertaking for the beginner--as regards both labour and expense.
* * * * *
If you can find a scow or flatboat already built, of suitable dimensions
and which is sufficiently tight, or can be made so by caulking, you have
only to proceed to build the house upon it. If, however, the boat as
well as the house is to be built, you can proceed to build the boat in
the way already described (page 299). Additional suggestions may be
found in Figs. 462 and 463.
Before beginning read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_,
_Plane_, _Nailing_, in Part V., and look up any other references.
[Illustration FIG. 462.]
Two-inch plank should be used for these boats, which are intended to be
from 14' to 20' long. After putting together the sides, ends, and
bottom, as already described, 2" × 4" joists can be laid lengthways on
the bottom, as shown, which will afford an underpinning for the house,
will distribute the weight over the bottom, keep the floor raised above
the water which may leak in or collect from the rain, and also stiffen
the structure of the boat. Before laying these joists, notches should be
cut on the under edges with the saw or hatchet, in several places, to
allow the water to pass through, as in the case of the boats already
described.
[Illustration FIG. 463.]
The illustrations show a general system of construction for the house,
which can be followed, or you can make such alterations as you think
desirable. In addition to the suggestions in the accompanying
illustrations, further details and suggestions will be found in Part
III. (_House-building for Beginners_). Most of the details are matters
of personal preference, and can readily be arranged without more
detailed description. The roof had best be covered with canvas, put on
as one piece (being sewed previously if necessary). If laid in paint and
then given two or three coats of paint, much as in the case of the
canvas-sheathed canoes already described, a tight and durable roof will
be the result. After the edges of the canvas are tacked under the edge
of the roof, strips of moulding can be nailed around under the edge.
An even simpler way to make the roof is to have it flat, but slanting
slightly towards either bow or stern. An inclination of 3" is enough,
with tight canvas roof, to shed the water.
The remaining details of the construction of the house have already been
treated. The interior arrangements you can contrive as desired.
Either, or both, of the ends can be decked over, or the whole can first
be decked over and the house built on the deck. In this case, access to
the hull, for stowage, can be had by hatches, or trap-doors inside the
house. If both the ends are to be decked, the hull can very well have
one or two lengthways divisions of plank, for stiffness and
strength,--that is, insert between the ends one or two pieces of the
size and shape of the sides, in which case the lengthways joist already
spoken of will be omitted. This is a good way. In case of decking, nail
a strip of moulding on the outside along the juncture of the house and
the deck, so as to make a tight joint, which should be well painted.
If one or both ends are undecked, a removable grating of slats (a part
of which is shown in Fig. 462) will be useful.
It is well to have at least one window at the bow end of the house, for
the boat will of course lie with bow towards the wind and it will be a
good thing when housed in a storm to be able to see to windward, as you
cannot well keep the door at that end open, while the after door will
usually be sufficiently sheltered to be left open. Many modifications of
these simple plans can be made. The roof can be extended over either
end, which is easily done without altering the system of construction.
This is very convenient under some circumstances, and will add but
little to the expense. The frame can even be covered with canvas, but
this will be inferior to wood, except in point of lightness. A solid
roof is best, however, in any case.
Sweeps must, of course, be provided for rowing, sculling, or steering,
and a mast can easily be added, on which sufficient sail can be hoisted
to be quite a help in going before the wind. If a mast is used, the door
at the bow end of the house can be at one side of the end so that the
mast can be close to the house, to which it can be fastened. A rudder
can be added, if desired, with a skag.
The whole craft should be thoroughly painted (see _Painting_).
Houses are sometimes built on rafts. This will do very well if the raft
is a good one, like a float. A float can be easily made, if you have the
materials, by laying a thick flooring on logs or heavy timbers and
providing greater buoyancy than such a platform naturally has by
fastening under it, between the timbers, as many empty and sealed
barrels or casks (oil-barrels are good) as may be necessary. When the
float is stationary and under ordinary circumstances, there is, of
course, no need to fasten the casks in any way except to fence them
around so that they cannot roll or slide out, as their buoyancy will
prevent their escaping, but it is easy to fasten them by chains or
otherwise if needed. This makes an excellent foundation on which to
build a house, and has some advantages over a boat for a stationary
arrangement, but is obviously not as well suited for moving around as a
scow or flatboat.
FOOTNOTES:
[40] Unless too heavily loaded, a canvas-covered canoe will float in
case of a capsize, but some form of air-chambers is desirable and a safe
precaution in any small boat. It is hardly safe to rely upon your
ability to build water-tight compartments in the ends of canvas (or
wooden) boats, as is sometimes recommended--that is, as a part of the
regular construction of the boat. It is not easy for an amateur to do
this. It is better to have the air-tight compartments made separately
and independent of the boat itself. Copper boxes or air-tanks fitted to
the space at the ends are the best and the only really reliable
expedient, but they are expensive. Light wooden boxes covered with
canvas and thoroughly painted can be used, as well as galvanised boxes
or even varnish cans sealed and painted. Any such contrivance can be
made tight at first, but is always liable to become leaky (except by the
use of copper tanks), particularly as it is usually concealed from
examination.
PART V
_COMMON TOOLS AND THEIR USE, WITH SOME EVERY-DAY OPERATIONS_
CHAPTER XVI
=Anvil.=--An anvil is often useful and is sometimes combined with a
vise. It should have a flat steel surface and also a tapering, rounded
(conical) point. An old flat-iron does quite well.
=Auger-Bit.=--See _Bits_.
[Illustration FIG. 464.]
=Awl.=--The _Brad-awl_ is the simplest boring tool you will use. Unlike
gimlets and bits, it does not take out any wood, but merely presses it
aside out of the way, which is good for nail and screw holes, because
the elasticity of the woody fibres tends to make them spring back and
close around the nail or screw, thus helping to keep it in place. The
awl should always be a trifle smaller than the nail. Bore with the
cutting edge across the grain of the wood, on the same principle as in
driving nails (Fig. 464), lest the wedge shape of the tool cause the
wood to split (see _Nailing_). Press the awl straight down in this
position until the point is well into the wood, when you can twist it a
little, at the same time pushing it further into the wood. There is
always risk of splitting thin wood near an edge, unless you use great
care. The brad-awl can be sharpened easily. See _Sharpening_ and also
_Boring_.
Do not buy combination awls with "tool-chest handles," filled with an
assortment of awls and little chisels, gouges, screw-drivers, saws, etc.
Such affairs are sometimes useful, but the loose tools are apt to become
lost or broken, and the money can be used to better advantage in other
ways.
It is well to have a variety of sizes of awls, fitted into _hardwood_
handles. An awl handle into which awls of various sizes can be fitted,
somewhat as a brace holds bits, answers very well, if you have to carry
your tools from place to place, but for shop-work it is more convenient
to have each awl in a separate handle.
The _Marking-awl_ or _Scratch-awl_ is simply an awl with a round, sharp
point used for marking in carpentry, but for very close work a knife or
chisel is better. See _Marking_.
=Axe.=--This is such a common tool that it needs no description, and is,
moreover, seldom required for amateur work.
=Back-Saw.=--See _Saw_.
[Illustration FIG. 465.]
[Illustration FIG. 466.]
=Beading.=--A tool for scraping beading, reeds, and the like, can be
made by filing the reverse of the shape required on the edge of a piece
of saw-blade steel, taken from a broken saw or scraper, and inserting
this blade in a kerf sawed in the end of a piece of wood (Fig. 465). To
change the position of the blade, one or both of the screws can be
loosened and then tightened after the blade has been adjusted. This tool
is pushed forward with both hands, much like a scraper, the shoulder of
the block bearing against the edge of the board as in using the gauge
(Fig. 466). Tools for this purpose can be bought.
It usually produces the best effect not to carry this beading to the
extreme ends of an edge, but to stop a short distance from the ends and
with a chisel cut the beads to a square and abrupt end (Fig. 305). See
_Plane_.
=Bending Wood.=--To bend a piece (without steaming or boiling) which is
to be fastened so that but one side will show, make a series of
saw-cuts of equal depth (Fig. 467) across the piece, and partly through
it, on the back side (the side which will not show), first running a
gauge line along the edge (see _Gauge_), that the cuts may be of equal
depth. This will practically, so far as bending is concerned, make the
piece thinner, and it can readily be bent and fastened in position. The
nearer together and the deeper the cuts are the more the piece can be
bent--that is, up to the breaking-point. Hot water can be used on the
face side. Such curves can sometimes be strengthened by driving wedges,
with glue, into the saw-kerfs after the piece is bent to the desired
curve (Fig. 468).
[Illustration FIG. 467.]
[Illustration FIG. 468.]
To make a small piece of wood pliable, so that it will bend to any
reasonable extent (which, however, depends much upon the kind of wood),
soak it for some time in boiling water, when it can usually be bent into
the desired shape. It must be securely held in position until the
moisture has entirely left it, or it will spring back to (or towards)
its original shape. This drying will take from several hours to several
days, according to the size of the piece and the condition of the
atmosphere. There is almost always a tendency to spring back a little
towards the original shape, so it is well to bend a piece a little more
than you wish it to remain, except where it is to be fastened so that it
cannot spring back.
Wood which naturally bends easily (particularly thin pieces) can often
be made pliable enough by simply soaking in cold water, but hot water is
usually more effective. Anything which you cannot manage with the hot
water you can take to a mill or a ship-yard and have steamed in a
regular steam-chest, which is really nothing, in principle, but a big
wooden or iron box, with a steam-pipe running into it, in which the
pieces are kept until the steam has made them pliable. Wood is now bent
for many purposes by "end pressure," but this is impracticable for the
amateur.
To bend the ends of pieces like skis, hockies, etc., a big kettle or
common wash-boiler full of boiling water can be used. An apparatus for
long sticks, as ribs for a canoe, can be made with a piece of iron pipe
of suitable size. Plug one end tightly and stick it firmly in the
ground, so that the pipe is fixed in a slanting direction. Put water in
the pipe, build a fire underneath, put the sticks in the pipe, stuff a
rag loosely in the upper end and the apparatus will be in working order
(Fig. 469).
[Illustration FIG. 469.]
You must often have some sort of form or mould for bending the piece and
for holding it while drying. For some kinds of bending, where there is
no occasion to be accurate, you can often bend a piece around some
corner or common object, as a barrel, log, etc., and tie it in place
until dry, or fasten it with cleats, but for nice work you should make a
form or mould. If you wish to bend ribs, for instance, which should be
accurate in shape, you can cut a piece of board or plank to fit the
concave side of the desired curve. Fasten this piece upon any flat
surface, as an old plank, and bore holes for wooden pins around the
curve at such a distance from the pattern piece or mould that the piece
to be bent can be firmly wedged against it, as shown in Fig. 470; or you
can attach blocks instead of pins--any arrangement by which the bent
piece can be wedged in place. A strap of hoop iron or other metal or
even a thin piece of wood can be placed outside of the stick to be bent,
to prevent the wood splitting or splintering on the outside, as it is
liable to do if bent much, unless of good quality and straight grain,
but there is no need of doing this in many cases.
[Illustration FIG. 470.]
[Illustration FIG. 471.]
Another way is to have the mould or form in two parts, as the two parts
of a board or plank through which the curve has been sawed (Fig. 471).
The piece to be bent is put between the two forms, which are then
pressed together by clamps, wedges, or a lever. This is a good way for
short pieces which cannot easily be bent, or which do not readily cling
to the required curve.
Another form of bending-mould is shown (an inverted view) in Fig. 472.
In this case the pieces to be bent are held in place by easily made
clamps.
[Illustration FIG. 472.]
[Illustration FIG. 473.]
A simple way to make a form for bending strips is to cut the curve out
of a piece of plank, or boards nailed together (Fig. 473). The end of
the strip is then caught against the cleat and the piece bent around the
curve. If it tends to spring off the curve, you must contrive some way
to clamp, wedge, or even tie it in place. As a piece must be left on the
form until dry and set, if you have a number to bend, it may be better
to make a form wide enough to bend them all at once. Take any boards,
or build a curved addition on the end of a box, and contrive a wider
form on the same principle (Fig. 474).
For ribs, and the like, the stock should be got out so that the annual
layers will be at right angles to the direction of the nails with which
the pieces are to be fastened, or parallel with the curved sides of the
pieces.
[Illustration FIG. 474.]
=Bevel.=--This is similar to the square, but with a movable blade which
can be set at any angle. When permanently fixed at an angle of 45°, it
is called a _mitre-square_. The bevel is useful, not merely to mark any
desired angle, but to repeat some angle already formed, to which you
apply it, moving the blade until it fits the angle, when the tool can be
applied to another piece and the angle repeated. The directions about
holding the head of the square close to the edge apply also to the use
of the bevel (see _Square_).
[Illustration FIG. 475.]
To obtain an angle of 45° with the bevel, place it against the inside
edge of the large steel square (Fig. 475), setting the blade at such an
angle that it will intercept equal distances on both arms of the square.
On this same principle, for other angles, observe the figures
intercepted by the blade, as shown in Fig. 476. Note that for this angle
the figures are 2 and 4, and you can get the angle again at any time by
setting the bevel at those figures. You can also set the bevel by laying
off the required angle with compasses on a straight-edged board, to
which the bevel can be applied. The angle should be so laid out on the
board that it will not be necessary to try to set the point of the
compasses exactly at the edge, which is of course impossible. See
_Bevelling_.
[Illustration FIG. 476.]
=Bevelling.=--To bevel the edge of a piece with the chisel, draw-knife,
spoke-shave, plane, or even knife, first mark parallel lines to work to
with a pencil-gauge (see _Gauge_) rather than a spur-gauge, so as not to
leave a scratch to disfigure the work after the bevel or chamfer is cut
(Figs. 477 and 485). Then pare the edge down gradually to these lines,
or prepare the way by first scoring the wood with cuts (Fig. 615), being
sure to trim off in the direction of the grain; but in bevelling both
end and side, as in Fig. 478, first cut the end, because of possible
chipping at the corner, and in cutting the end you can work from each
corner towards the centre. In paring a bevel across the grain, push the
chisel as shown in Fig. 479, as it is the easiest and cleanest way to
cut, and prevents splintering.
[Illustration FIG. 477.]
[Illustration FIG. 478.]
[Illustration RIGHT. WRONG. FIG. 479.]
A simple bevel (Figs. 477 and 478) is usually best made with the plane,
whenever there is room to use it. Plane bevels in end wood from both
edges and you can often slant the plane to good advantage like the
chisel in Fig. 479. See also _Chamfering_.
=Bit-Brace or Bit-Stock.=--This tool requires no description. The
_ratchet_ brace is useful for boring in awkward places where it is
difficult to use a common bit-stock. There is also a contrivance for
extending the bit-brace to bore in places which cannot be reached by the
common brace alone, but this you will seldom require. An angular
bit-stock, with a "universal angle" adjustment, is useful. By this the
bit can be pointed in different directions, while the bit-stock is
turned continuously in the ordinary way, thus enabling a hole to be
conveniently bored in an out-of-the-way corner. See _Boring_.
=Bits.=--The _auger-bit_ (the sizes of which are arranged by sixteenths
of an inch) so commonly used with the bit-brace, consists, at the
cutting end, of a spur, two scoring-nibs, and two cutting-lips. You will
see from Fig. 480 that the spur _a_, acting like a gimlet point or a
screw (which it is), starts the bit by drawing it into the wood so that
the scoring-nibs _b_ make a circular cut around the circumference. As
this cut deepens, the cutting-lips _c_ slice away the wood to be removed
in the form of shavings, which are brought to the surface as the boring
proceeds.
This bit can be sharpened with a file, the scoring-nibs being sharpened
from the inside, lest they be made to score a circle too small for the
rest of the bit, while the cutting-lips are filed from the under side.
[Illustration FIG. 480.]
[Illustration FIG. 481.]
The _centre-bit_ is a useful tool, particularly for very thin stock. The
spear-like point _a_ (Fig. 481), acting as a centre, the point _b_ cuts
a deep ring, and the edge _c_, which is bent so as to form a flat
chisel, scoops out the pieces of wood, and so a round and smooth hole is
made. This bit does not cut very well with the grain. It can be
sharpened with a small oil-stone. It is well to bore a trial hole with
this bit in a piece of waste wood when exactness is required, because
the spur is not exactly in the centre, so that the hole cut is a trifle
wider than the diameter of the bit.
The _expansion-bit_ has an adjustable contrivance that enables it to
bore holes of various sizes, but such tools are hardly necessary for
beginners, though very convenient and often used by carpenters.
The _gimlet-bit_ is a common form, but is easily dulled and bent and is
likely to split delicate work. The _quill-bit_ is excellent, except for
end grain. _Shell-bit_, _gouge-bit_, _pod-bit_, _spoon-bit_,
_duck's-bill-bit_, etc., are names applied to simple tools good for
boring small holes. They are easily sharpened with a stone, work quickly
and leave a smooth hole, but do not cut so well in end grain. They are
not as much in use as formerly, the twist-drill taking their place for
many purposes.
_Reamers_, or tapering bits (half-round, square, octagonal, conical),
are useful to enlarge holes and occasionally to make them conical.
Reamers for metal are also useful.
For other forms of boring implements, see _Awls_ and _Twist-drill_. See
also _Boring_ and _Countersink_.
=Block-Plane.=--See _Plane_.
=Boards or Planks, Laying Exposed.=--In laying boards or planks to be
exposed to the weather, place them (unless they are from the middle of
the tree) so as to have the outer side exposed--that is, the side
farthest from the heart should be put outside or uppermost. If put the
other way the action of the atmosphere, water, etc., will tend to
separate and loosen the layers and fibres (Fig. 482).
[Illustration FIG. 482.]
=Boring.=--In boring with the bit-brace, after the bit has gone a short
distance into the wood, stop and, keeping the brace in position, test
carefully from in front and from one side to see whether the bit is at
right angles to the surface. Repeat this test and alter the position of
the brace as many times as may be necessary until you are sure that the
bit is going through at the right angle. A common way to do this is to
stand squarely in front of the work and judge by the eye whether the bit
is at right angles with the work, and then to stand at either side at
right angles to the first position and judge of the angle again. The
direction of the bit can be tested more accurately by applying the
square. Few people can bore accurately without some such test.
[Illustration FIG. 483.]
Some workmen rest the chin on the left hand on top of the handle of the
brace, to steady it (Fig. 483), and to increase the pressure, and
sometimes the shoulder is applied.
To remove a bit from the wood, give the brace a turn or two backward,
which will loosen the spur, and then either pull the bit straight out,
if it can be done easily without turning the brace, or, as you pull it
out, keep turning the brace as if boring, thus bringing out the chips,
which, if you remove the bit by turning the brace backward, will be left
in the hole.
In boring through a board or timber, watch to see when the spur of the
bit begins to come through on the other side; when it does, turn the
piece over and bore in from that side, or clamp a piece of waste wood on
the other side and bore right through into it. Either way will prevent
splintering or a ragged or "burred" edge, where the bit leaves the wood.
In boring a hole of any depth with the grain, _i.e._, in the end of a
piece of wood, withdraw the bit, after it has entered the wood a short
distance, to clear the chips from the hole, reinsert, bore, and withdraw
again, and continue in this way until you reach the required depth. This
will save injuring the bit, and will make the boring easier.
In boring with small bits, particularly when there is danger of
splitting, as with the gimlet-bit, draw out the bit and chips once in a
while.
When the position of a hole must be exact on both sides of the wood it
is well to mark the position accurately on each side and bore from each
side until the holes meet.
Frequently holes must not be bored through a piece, but must stop at a
certain depth. Suppose you have to make a dozen holes 2" deep. Take a
wooden tube if you have one, or bore a hole through a block of wood of
such length that when pressed against the jaws of the brace two inches
of the end of the bit will project beyond the tube or block (Fig. 484).
Then bore until the end of the tube touches the surface of the wood,
when the hole will, of course, be 2" deep. Metal attachments can be
bought for this purpose. See _Awl_, _Bits_, _Twist-drill_.
[Illustration FIG. 484.]
To cut a hole larger than any bit you have, bore a series of smaller
holes just within the circumference of the desired circle, and trim to
the line with the gouge or finish with keyhole or compass-saw.
=Bow-Saw.=--See _Saw_.
=Brad-awl.=--See _Awl_.
=Bruises, To Take Out.=--Small bruises in wood can be taken out by
wetting the place with warm water, or even with cold water, and rubbing
down the grain with sandpaper if necessary. If that is not sufficient, a
hot iron, as a flat-iron, held near the bruise, the latter being covered
with wet blotting paper or several thicknesses of brown paper, will
often remove a quite large dent. The operation can be repeated until it
has no further effect.
=Brushes.=--It is well to have a brush of some sort for cleaning off
work, the bench, etc. A sash brush is good.
For most of your painting, shellacing, etc., you will usually get along
better with small flat brushes than with large round ones, except for
very coarse work. Those with flattened handles are convenient. From one
to two inches in diameter will usually be large enough, unless for such
work as painting the outside of a house, when something larger will save
time. For painting small or narrow surfaces, the brushes used for
"drawing" sashes are good, and for drawing lines "pencil" brushes will
be required. A good brush for glue can be made by soaking one end of a
piece of rattan in hot water and then pounding the softened part, when
the fibres will separate, making a stiff brush.
=Bull-Nosed Plane=--See _Plane_.
=Calipers.=--Calipers, which are "inside" or "outside," according to
whether they are to find the diameter of a hole or the outside diameter
of an object, are very important in some work, as turning, but, though
very useful at times, are not nearly as important for the work of the
beginner as compasses.
=Carving-Chisel.=--See _Carving Tools_.
=Carving Tools.=--A few carving tools are often very useful for general
wood-work. It is convenient to have these carving tools fitted in
handles of a different pattern from your other tools. An octagonal shape
is good. A _carving-chisel_ is very useful in working on odd-shaped
pieces, because the cutting edge is bevelled on both sides. A carver's
_skew_ chisel will be, perhaps, more generally useful for your work than
one ground squarely across. A _parting-tool_, sometimes called a "V
tool," is occasionally convenient, though hardly a necessity for most
plain work. A small _veining-tool_ (like a very small gouge) is often
useful.
=Centre-Bit.=--See _Bits_.
=Chalk-Line.=--See _Marking_.
=Chamfering.=--A chamfer is the surface formed by cutting away the angle
made by two faces of a piece of wood.
[Illustration FIG. 485.]
In cutting the _ends_ of a stop-chamfer (Fig. 485), take care not to cut
quite down to the line at first, as you will be very apt to cut a little
too deep and leave a tool mark which cannot be removed. In the case of
long stop-chamfers, use the plane whenever you can, so far as it can be
used without hitting the wood at the ends. The draw-knife can often be
used to remove the wood, being followed by the plane. The plane can be
used slantingly, so as to cut nearer the ends, and a bull-nosed plane
will cut nearer still, but the extreme ends will have to be trimmed to
shape with the chisel or other tool. See also _Bevelling_ and _Paring_.
=Chisel.=--The _firmer-chisel_ is meant for light hand-work, for paring
off wood and trimming to shape, and can be used for light mortising,
though the mortise-chisel is intended for that purpose. It is often an
advantage to have the long edges of such a chisel bevelled on the same
side as the cutting basil, as it can be used more conveniently in some
places. Taking off the corner of the basil when grinding, often answers
the purpose.
The _framing-chisel_ is stouter than the firmer, has a stronger handle
to stand heavy blows of the mallet, and is meant, as the name indicates,
for framing, mortising, and other heavy work.[41] See _Mortising_.
[Illustration FIG. 486.]
[Illustration FIG. 487.]
The _straight-bent chisel_ is shaped as shown in Fig. 487, and is very
useful for cleaning out corners, grooves, and other places where the
common firmer-chisel cannot be used to advantage.
A _skew-chisel_ is simply ground slanting, instead of squarely across,
and is useful for corners and odd work. See _Carving Tools_.
There are other forms, seldom needed by the amateur, as the
_corner-chisel_, which is used for cutting or paring angles and corners.
Those chisels and gouges which have the handles fitted into sockets at
the upper end of the iron, instead of the iron being stuck into the
handle, and with ferrules at the upper end where they are struck by the
mallet are, of course, the strongest for heavy work, although the
lighter handles are just as good for light work.
Do not let your left hand get in front of the edge of the chisel while
working, for the tool may slip and give you a bad cut, and in most cases
the left hand should be kept on the lower part of the chisel to help
control it, which is not easily done with one hand. In some cases, as in
paring the edge of a piece directly downward towards the bench, it may
be proper to hold the work with the left hand and use the chisel with
the right; but as a rule, particularly for beginners, first see that the
work is securely fastened or held from slipping by vise, clamp, or other
expedient, and then keep the left hand on the chisel, which will steady
and guide the tool, and, incidentally, prevent the hand from being cut.
See _Paring_ and _Sharpening_.
=Circular-plane.=--See _Plane_.
=Clamps.=--Long clamps (cabinet-clamps), shown in the accompanying
illustrations, are extremely useful in making glued joints and in
various clamping operations. Many, of different lengths, are to be found
in wood-working shops. Although much work can be accomplished without
them, if you can afford a pair or more of medium length, or longer, they
will be very useful. Wooden clamps will answer every purpose, although
steel ones are better, but more expensive.
[Illustration FIG. 488.]
To clamp two or more flat pieces together, as in making a "glue-joint,"
or in clamping framework, as a door or picture-frame, lay the work
across the horses, which should be so placed that their tops will be as
nearly level, or in the same plane, as possible, and apply the clamps as
shown in Fig. 488, always putting pieces of waste wood between the edges
of the work and the clamps. Place the clamps so that either the flat
side of the bar or the corner, as shown, will lie against the surface of
the work, thus keeping it from bending towards the bar when the screw is
tightened. The number of clamps to be used must depend on the size of
the work, but there is not usually much danger of an amateur's work
being clamped too securely.[42]
If you have to glue a flexible strip, put a stiff piece outside between
it and the clamp to distribute the pressure.
You will often find by sighting across the surface of the work as you
tighten the clamps, particularly in the case of door-frames,
picture-frames, and the like, that the surface is winding. When this
happens, move one or more corners of the work up or down, as the case
may be, in the clamps, and thus take out the winding. A little
experimenting will show how to do this. In the case of framed work, such
as doors or picture-frames, test the angles with the square as soon as
the joints are brought to a bearing. If the angles are not right, as
will often be the case, move one end of either one or both of the clamps
to the right or left, as the case may be, and you can easily change the
angle until the square shows it to be right, when the screws can be
tightened and the joints should close accurately. In clamping nearly all
kinds of "case" work, such as bookcases, cabinets, boxes, and the like,
these directions about moving the clamps until the angles are correct
and the work free from winding are applicable.
In such cases as that shown in Fig. 488, waste no time in trying to get
the surfaces _exactly_ flush with each other at the joint before
partially tightening the clamps, lest the glue become set. Any slight
alteration can best then be made by tapping with the hammer near the
joint, whenever either piece needs to be raised or lowered, putting a
block under the hammer if the dent will not be removed by planing (see
_Gluing_). The clamps can then be screwed tighter.
[Illustration FIG. 489.]
[Illustration FIG. 490.]
In such cases as gluing the joints of a box, put stout blocks or cleats
over the joints before tightening the clamps (Fig. 489), to distribute
the pressure. This applies to all cases of clamping where the pieces to
be glued are not heavy enough to resist the change of shape from the
pressure of the clamps, and pieces of waste wood are almost always
required in any case to prevent bruising of the work.
You can contrive home-made clamps out of any strong pieces of wood of
suitable length, by nailing or screwing a block at each end (Fig. 490),
when the work can be tightly wedged to a close bearing by driving home
the double wedge shown, using, if necessary, one or more blocks, B, when
you use the clamp for smaller work than that for which it was made. By
keeping such clamps for future use, you will soon have enough to answer
very well until you can afford to buy the regular cabinet-clamps.
On the same principle, a simple clamp, derived from the Orient, can be
made by boring a series of holes in two stout strips--just as the holes
are bored in the sides of a ladder, but nearer together. The work to be
glued is laid on one of these strips in the same way as shown in Fig.
490. The other strip is then placed directly above and stout pins put
through corresponding holes outside of the work, which can then be
wedged against the pins in the way just shown.
Another way, which can be applied to many cases, is to put a stout
cord, doubled, around the work, and inserting a stick between the two
parts of the string, turn it around until, the doubled cord thus
becoming shortened, the parts of the work are drawn together. This can
only be done where there is room to swing the stick around, as, for
example, to tighten the rounds of a chair by drawing the legs together
(Fig. 491).
[Illustration FIG. 491.]
[Illustration FIG. 492.]
You can often apply pressure, when no more convenient means are at hand,
by making use of the elasticity of a board or pole. Suppose, for
example, you need to press two blocks tightly together, as shown in Fig.
492. Place them on the bench or floor and spring in a board or pole
between the top of the upper block and a beam of the floor above, as
shown. Of course this board must be a little longer than merely to reach
between the two points, as it must be sprung into place bent, when in
the effort to straighten itself out again it will cause pressure on the
blocks. Pieces should be placed outside the blocks when scarring of the
surface is to be avoided. The pressure can be applied in any direction,
always supposing that you have something firm to press against.
Pressure can often be obtained by a lever, and many applications of the
wedge will suggest themselves in your work. Even if you have a shopful
of clamps and hand-screws and vises, these applications of the simple
mechanical powers often come into play (see Fig. 390). See also page 71.
Adjustable wood-carver's clamps can be bought for holding pieces in
position on the bench, and are useful, but by no means necessary, as
common clamps, or various devices, can be used.
The small iron clamps which can be used in place of hand-screws are very
useful.
For other suggestions about clamping, see _Hand-screws_.
[Illustration FIG. 493.]
[Illustration FIG. 494.]
=Cleating.=--A simple way to join two or more pieces of board or plank
to make a wider piece is to cleat them. If short, they can be cleated
across the ends. This can also be done to keep a single board from
warping (Fig. 493). Such a cleat should not be glued unless the width is
very slight, on account of the expansion and contraction across the
board being so much greater than that lengthways of the cleat (see pages
50-53). Screws (which are best), nails, or dowels should be used, as
they will give some play to the pieces. A groove can also be made in the
cleat, into which a tongue on the end of the board is fitted. Grooves
can be cut in both cleat and board and a tongue or spline inserted (Fig.
494). These are operations best done by machinery. This end-cleating
does very well on small work and where the tendency to warp is not too
great. For heavier work, as doors, cleats on the side are better, but
they are sometimes in the way, and not always desirable on the ground of
looks. This is a strong way. Side cleats should be fastened with screws
(see _Screws_) or clinched nails (see _Nailing_), but not with glue, for
the same reason as in the case of end cleats. If the cleat is wide
enough, do not put the screws in a straight line, but "alternate" them
(Fig. 368). See _Jointing_ and _Doors and Panels_.
=Clinching-Nails.=--See _Nailing_.
=Compasses.=--Wing compasses, or those with arc and set-screw, are easy
to adjust accurately and will not slip, but, whatever kind you get, be
sure that the points stay where you put them and do not spring away or
wobble around.
The chief uses of this tool are to strike circles, to lay off angles and
arcs, to take off measurements from a rule or some object, to lay off
measurements, and to "scribe" in places where a gauge can not be used
(see _Scribing_). In using compasses, particularly those which are not
set by a screw, hold them and swing them around by the top at the hinged
joint, rather than grasp them near the points, which may cause them to
move or slip.
[Illustration FIG. 495.]
Circles or circular arcs can be struck roughly, as you doubtless know,
with a string and a nail at the centre, the string being loose around
the nail. This method is not very accurate, for obvious reasons, and is
only suitable for rough work. A more accurate way is to drive two nails
through a strip of wood at a distance apart just equal to the radius of
the required circle, one nail being driven into the wood to act as the
centre, the other doing the marking (Fig. 495). Instead of the marking
nail a hole can be bored for a pencil. You can use a stick of this sort
repeatedly by changing the position of the centre nail, or of the
marking point. The same can be done with a brad or stout pin and a
pencil, using stiff paper, card-board, or zinc instead of a stick. By
such expedients you can do a great deal of work without buying
compasses.
=Compass-Saw.=--See _Saw_.
[Illustration FIG. 496.]
=Corner-Blocks.=--These are merely small pieces of pine, or other wood
which holds glue well, with two adjacent surfaces at right angles. Hot
glue is applied to them and they are rubbed into interior angles of
cabinet-work, to strengthen and stiffen the work (Fig. 496), and are
very useful for this purpose. They are got out in short pieces,
lengthways of the grain, and can be freely used in places where they
will not show, as inside of the base-board in Fig. 304. The shape can be
varied according to the conditions of the joint. Apply hot glue
plentifully, place the block where it is to go, and rub it back and
forth several times, when it can be left for the glue to dry.
=Corner-Chisel.=--See _Chisel_.
=Countersink.=--This tool, to be used with the bit-brace, for enlarging
the outer part of a hole, thus forming a cavity or depression for
receiving the head of a screw (Fig. 497), is quite important, as being
much more convenient than to use gouge, chisel, or knife for the
purpose. See page 205.
[Illustration FIG. 497.]
The rose form of countersink is common and good. The Clark double-cut
countersink (for wood only) cuts smoothly and is easily sharpened. A
countersink for metal is useful.
=Cracks, To Stop.=--See _Holes_, _To Stop_.
=Cross-Cut Saw.=--See _Saw_.
=Cutting-Pliers.=--A pair of these will often be useful in connection
with wood-working operations.
=Dents, To Take Out.=--See _Bruises_.
=Dividers.=--See _Compasses_.
=Doors and Panels.=--It is important to have some understanding of the
theory of framing panels, doors, and the like. The simplest form of door
is, of course, a piece of board. This will do for some cases, but it is
liable to warp or wind,--if a large door, sometimes to such a degree as
to be useless. It is also, if large, liable to swell or shrink so as to
be either too loose or too tight, and to break. Cleating can be resorted
to (see _Cleating_), but will not prevent the swelling and shrinking,
nor is a cleated door especially ornamental. Besides, there are limits
to the width of ordinary boards. Several boards can, however, be joined,
edge to edge, and cleated on one side, in which way a large door can be
made (Fig. 405), and, if the boards are not fitted too closely together,
there may be no trouble caused by the swelling and shrinking. Another
way to make a very _strong_ door is to make it of two thicknesses, or
layers, one running up and down and the other crossways, or diagonally,
the two thicknesses being firmly nailed or screwed together.
[Illustration FIG. 498.]
[Illustration FIG. 499.]
[Illustration FIG. 500.]
[Illustration FIG. 501.]
[Illustration FIG. 502.]
[Illustration FIG. 503.]
All such arrangements are, however, suited for the rougher class of
work. When we come to nicer work we must have something more scientific,
that will swell and shrink as little as possible and that will look
better. So, instead of using a broad flat surface with the boards all
running one way, we try to overcome the faults of the flat door by
framing the pieces together. Suppose, for a theoretical case, that you
make a door like Fig. 498. It will not warp or curl because of the
cleats at the top and bottom, but it will swell and shrink in width
because there is such a wide surface of board to be affected by the
atmosphere, etc., and it may become winding. To lessen these objections
the middle part of the board can be removed--all but a strip at each
edge (Fig. 499). It will not now swell and shrink much in width because
most of the board has been removed. This frame will hold its shape quite
well, but it is only a frame, not a door. How can you fill up this open
frame to make a door, so as to avoid the trouble about warping, winding,
swelling, and shrinking? First, however, as this frame is considerably
taller than it is wide, you will readily see that it will be a better
arrangement to make it as shown in Fig. 500, with the cross-pieces
between the uprights, according to the usual custom in such cases.
Suppose, now, that you fill up the open space with a _thin_ board,
fastened on one side (Fig. 501), instead of the thick wood which
occupied the space at first. The thin board will tend to warp and twist,
but, being thin, it will not exert force enough to change the shape of
the thick frame. That will prevent the warping and winding from doing
much harm. If the screw-holes in this thin piece are reasonably loose,
they will allow play enough for the board to expand and contract without
putting any strain on the frame. This arrangement does not, however,
look very nice on the side to which the board is screwed, though it can
be used in some situations. Suppose, finally, that you cut a groove
around the inside edge of the frame of the door (Fig. 502) into which
this thin board can be fitted loosely, making the groove deep enough to
give the board room to shrink and swell in width without dropping out or
pushing against the frame. You now have a complete door (Fig. 503), and
the warping, winding, swelling, and shrinking will do as little harm as
possible. That is all there is to the theory of framing doors, panels,
and the like.
[Illustration RIGHT. WRONG. FIG. 504.]
The panel should fit closely into the groove, but at the same time be
loose enough to slide in and out as it expands and contracts, and should
not be wide enough to reach to the bottom of the grooves, but room be
left for all possible change in width, as shown in Fig. 504, which shows
sections on the line AB. All this is important and has many applications
to other things than doors. It is not very uncommon for amateurs,
ignorant of these simple principles, to make a door-frame properly, but
in fitting the panel to make it the full width of the space from the
bottom of one groove to the bottom of the opposite, and also to make it
such a snug fit in the groove as to be stuck tight, all with the idea of
making such a good fit as to prevent any of the gaping cracks so often
seen, but really taking the very course to ruin the work. So important
is it that the panel should have play, that it is quite common in nice
work to rub wax or tallow around the edge of the panel, lest some of the
glue from the joints of the frame should cause it to stick when the
frame is glued up. If the panel is badly fitted or stuck, it may buckle
or split, or the frame be split or forced apart at the joints.
There are many more elaborate ways of arranging the details of
door-framing and panelling (too numerous to be described here, as they
will not often be required by the beginner); but if you understand the
general principles upon which this simple door is put together, you will
understand the principles upon which all panelling is based; and, though
you may never do much of it, it is quite important to have a clear
understanding of the theory, which is really quite simple--for it has
many applications which may save you much trouble, labour, and expense.
The best way to fasten the frame of a door together is by mortise and
tenon (see _Mortising_). This method is almost invariably adopted for
house doors. Dowelling is often used for smaller doors, but is inferior
to the mortise and tenon.
A common way nowadays to make light doors, and such as are not to be
subjected to much strain, is to run the grooves in the stiles through to
the ends and cut tongues or short tenons on the ends of the rails to fit
these grooves, as shown in Figs. 508 and 509. The whole door, panel and
all, can thus be quickly got out and fitted accurately with a circular
saw at any wood-working mill, without any hand-work being required,
except the smoothing of the pieces and the putting together. In this way
you can have a door made for a small sum, smoothing and putting it
together yourself. Such a door is not fitted, however, to stand great
strain. A house door made in that way would last but a short time. Any
heavy door, or one to have much strain, or liable to be slammed, should
be framed with mortise and tenon. You can have grooving for a door-frame
done at the mill very cheaply and do the mortising yourself, or you can
have the mortising done by machine at slight expense. Sometimes the
grooving and mortising are combined,--an excellent way (Fig. 592).
In using any of these methods mark distinctly one side of each piece for
the "face" and lay out all the work from that side only. If the job is
to be taken to a mill, see that the work is all gauged from the face
side.
[Illustration FIG. 505.]
[Illustration FIG. 506.]
In laying out such work never cut off the stiles (Fig. 505) to length at
first. Leave them too long (Fig. 507). The projecting ends will be
useful when you knock the frame apart for gluing, after first putting it
together to see if everything fits. Besides, the extra length makes the
ends stronger for the mortising and less likely to split out. The rails
in door-framing and panelling are usually wider than the stiles.
In laying out a door or panelled frame, place the stiles together, with
the inside edges uppermost, and square lines across the edges to mark
the positions for the rails (Fig. 506). Carry these lines across the
faces of the stiles, and mark the rails and stiles with some symbols to
indicate the way they are to be fitted together (Fig. 507).
[Illustration FIG. 507.]
The whole should be put together once to see that everything is right
before beginning to glue. Before putting together permanently, the panel
and the inside edges of the frame (the edges which come next the panel)
must first be planed and smoothed, as this cannot well be done
afterwards.
Then fit the panel in the grooves of the rails (Fig. 508), glue the
tenons of one end of the rails and the grooves or mortises of the
corresponding stile (see _Gluing_), taking care not to put any glue
where it may cause the panel to stick, and fit these parts into place
(Fig. 509). Drive the rails home. Then glue and fit the other side of
the frame in the same way (Fig. 510)--all being done as quickly as
possible. Finally clamp the frame securely (see _Clamps_). The tongued
and grooved joint represented in the accompanying illustrations is not
as good as a mortise and tenon, as already stated, but is shown as a
simple way for making a light door. Leave the work to dry, and when dry
remove the clamps. Saw off the ends of the stiles, and dress off the
surface of the frame with the plane (see _Plane_), after which you can
smooth with scraper (see _Scraper_) and sandpaper (see _Sandpaper_), and
the door or panel will be done. When there is objection to the end of a
tenon showing on the outside edge of the stile, and a blind mortise is
not desired (see _Mortising_), the end of the tenon can be cut a little
short and the mortise-hole on the edge plugged with a piece of wood,
with the grain running the same way as that of the stile. Fit the piece
with a very trifling bevel on the edges, glue, drive tightly into place,
and when dry smooth off (Fig. 511).
[Illustration FIG. 508.]
[Illustration FIG. 509.]
[Illustration FIG. 510.]
[Illustration FIG. 511.]
It is hardly worth while to work out the grooving or grooved and tongued
joints by hand in these days when it can be so cheaply done by
machinery. If obliged to do it by hand, you should have the proper plane
for the purpose, as it will be very difficult and slow work otherwise.
A panel is sometimes made flush with either side of the frame, by having
a deep rabbet on that side, as in the case of a desk lid, for instance,
but this is a form which can well be avoided by the beginner.
=Dovetailing.=--This is an operation requiring considerable skill to do
well and, with the exception of an occasional single dovetail, is not
frequently required in the work of the beginner. It is, however, a
valuable, workmanlike accomplishment and a thoroughly scientific method,
of which the amateur should have some understanding, even if he should
never use it.
[Illustration FIG. 512.]
[Illustration FIG. 513.]
The _common_ form, such as is used in joining the sides of a box (Fig.
512), can be done as follows: Mark the lines _ab_ (Fig. 513) completely
around each piece, at a distance from the end equal to the thickness of
the stock. Lay off the lines _cd_ on the end of the piece A. Lay off the
oblique lines _ec_ on both sides of the piece. With the back-saw cut by
these oblique lines (_ec_) to the lines _ab_. Fasten the piece in the
vise, end upward, for the sawing. With the chisel, cut out the parts to
be removed (marked _m_), as in cutting a mortise (see _Mortising_),
undercutting very slightly at the end (Fig. 302). When this cutting has
been cleanly done, lay the piece A on the end of the piece B in the way
it is finally to go, so that the pins just cut will rest exactly in
position across the end of the piece B. Mark around the pins, forming
the oblique lines _fg_, from the ends of which square the lines _gh_ on
both sides of the piece. Remove the wood as before, taking care not to
cut on the wrong sides of the lines which mark the pins, or the
dovetailing may come together too loosely. When exactly fitted, apply
glue, fit together, and when dry smooth off with plane, scraper, and
sandpaper, as may be required.
[Illustration FIG. 514.]
_Lap_ or _drawer_ dovetailing (Fig. 514) is similar to the preceding
form, but the ends of the pins or dovetails on the piece forming the
side of the drawer are shortened, and the recesses in the front piece
which are to receive them are not cut through. First the side piece A
(Fig. 515) is marked and cut on the principle just shown, the pins being
shorter; then the piece B is marked and cut to fit.
Practised workmen in dovetailing usually (unless symmetry of the pins is
required) determine the bevels for the pins of the first piece by eye,
but the beginner would best not attempt to lay off angles or saw by eye.
[Illustration FIG. 515.]
_Mitre_ dovetailing (_blind_ or _secret_ dovetailing) is used in cases
where it is desired to conceal the dovetails, the result looking like an
ordinary mitred joint, but this is difficult work for the beginner.
=Dovetail Saw.=--See _Saw_ (_Back-Saw_).
=Dowelling.=--Dowels are merely round sticks of different diameters and
usually of hard wood. They can be bought ready made and can be used
instead of nails or screws, or instead of mortising, dovetailing, etc.
They can be used simply as pins or in many cases can be split and
wedged, though the holes must be tapered with a gouge if wedges of much
thickness are to be used (Fig. 516).
[Illustration FIG. 516.]
A common use of dowels is to fasten the frames of tables, chairs,
bedsteads, and various domestic articles.
The use of dowels for such purposes is not to be recommended, however,
although very common in cheap work and in much work which is not cheap
in price. The mortise and tenon is usually much to be preferred.
Dowelling, to be really good, has to be skilfully done, while it is a
very common way to stick the work together in any manner that will look
right on the outside. A dowelled joint is not, as a rule, as scientific
a form of construction as a well-planned mortise and tenon,--a statement
which you can easily prove for yourself by comparing some article of
your grandmother's or great-grandmother's time, and which is still
strong, with some modern dowelled chair, which is in so many cases all
to pieces and thrown on the woodpile after a short term of service. The
gaping joints and dropping apart of modern dowelled work can be seen on
every hand. There are some cases, however, where the use of dowels is
scientific and just what is required. For example, split dowels, wedged
dovetail fashion like wedged tenons, are often very useful (see
_Mortising_).
[Illustration FIG. 517.]
[Illustration FIG. 518.]
To find the centres for boring, so that the holes bored in the two
pieces shall be in line, you can cut off the heads of some small wire
brads so that they will be pointed at both ends. Stick the brads into
one piece where the centres of the holes should be. Then press this
piece against the other in the position it is to take when the work is
done and the brads will of course prick holes in the second piece
exactly corresponding to those in the first piece (Fig. 517). Instead of
brads, small shot can be used in a similar manner. It is well to take a
round-pointed awl, or some such tool, and carefully prick a small hole
with it at each of the points marked. This is to start the spur of the
bit exactly at the point, as the spur sometimes has a way of working off
to one side, so that the hole may not be in exactly the right place. The
hardest part, however, is to bore the holes exactly at right angles to
the surface, as a slight deviation in either or both may make a bad
angle where the two holes meet. You can sometimes lay the pieces flat on
the bench and arrange boards or blocks so as to guide the bit straight.
The dowels must be thoroughly dry. It is better to have them a trifle
too large, rather than too small, for you can easily trim them down to a
snug fit. Scratch them lengthways with the toothed-plane, or with the
edge of a file. Countersink a little hollow around the opening of each
hole (see _Countersink_), to catch the surplus glue which would
otherwise form a rim around the dowel (Fig. 517). Before gluing you
should fit the work together once, as it is very awkward to make changes
after the gluing is begun. When the parts fit accurately, take the joint
apart for gluing. Brush a little glue around the inside of one of the
holes, dip one end of a dowel in the glue and drive into place. Wipe off
the superfluous glue and repeat the process with each of the dowels in
that half of the joint. Leave this to dry a day, or more if you can.
Then clean any hardened glue from the dowels and glue them, as before,
into the other piece, this time putting glue on the flat surfaces which
are to come together. The whole should be firmly clamped and left to dry
(see _Gluing_ and _Clamps_). Dowels are sometimes used in joining the
edges of pieces, as in Fig. 518, and in many other joints too numerous
to be specified (see _Joints_ and _Jointing_).
Dowelling looks very easy, but it is usually hard for the beginner to
bore the holes straight and to make the pieces fit accurately.
=Dowel-Plate.=--A steel plate with various holes of such sizes that pins
made by driving blocks of wood through them will drive snugly into the
holes made by the corresponding bits. This is useful in fitting dowels.
=Drawers.=--The making of well-fitting and smoothly running drawers is
an operation requiring much skill--more skill than can be expected of
the beginner, or, in fact, than is attained by the average workman. The
beginner should, however, have some understanding of the work, even if
he does not attain a high degree of skill in its execution.
Bear in mind that it is much easier to make a drawer which is narrow and
long (from front to back) run smoothly than one which is wide across the
front, but shallow from front to back.
The more accurately the case which holds the drawers is made, the easier
it is to make smoothly running drawers. In good work having more than
one drawer, a horizontal frame is fitted beneath each drawer for it to
run on. These frames, as well as the whole case, should be free from
winding, and it is also important that the stock for the drawers should
be true. The front and sides of a drawer should be got out to fit very
snugly in their places. The piece for the back is narrower than the
front piece, to allow for the bottom (Fig. 521), and is often cut off at
the top also. The front, sides, and back can be put together with any
suitable form of joint. Dovetailing is by far the best way, but it is
difficult for the beginner (see _Dovetailing_). The joints shown in Fig.
519 can very well be used for ordinary work. These can be quickly made
by machinery (see _Joints_). See also _Gluing_ and _Clamps_.
[Illustration FIG. 519.]
A groove for the bottom must be cut on the inside of the front and of
the sides (Fig. 520). The insides of the pieces must be smoothed before
putting the drawer together. When these parts are fitted, slip the
bottom (previously fitted) into place. It should be got out with the
grain running across the drawer, or parallel with the front (Fig. 521),
and should be glued at the front edge _only_, the rest being free to
swell and shrink, which saves the drawer from injury.
[Illustration FIG. 520.]
[Illustration FIG. 521.]
Be sure that the drawer is rectangular (putting in the bottom will
assist in this) and free from winding. When put together and dry,
carefully smooth the front and the sides. A little trimming with the
plane may be required to make the drawer run freely, but care should be
taken not to plane away too much. A drawer which is a trifle larger at
the back than at the front will run better than if larger in front, as
it will be less likely to bind or catch. Small slides, between which the
drawer runs, are fastened at each side outside the drawer, at the
bottom, and must be adjusted carefully.
Thin blocks or "stops" can be fastened on the cross-frame so that the
inside of the drawer front will strike against them when the drawer has
been pushed in as far as it should go, or the drawer can be stopped at
the back.
A simple way to attach a drawer under a shelf, bench, or table is shown
in Fig. 143. The contrivance shown in Figs. 141 and 142 can sometimes be
used in place of small drawers.
Bayberry tallow is excellent to rub on the sides of drawers.
[Illustration FIG. 522.]
[Illustration FIG. 523.]
=Draw-Knife= or =Draw-Shave=.--The draw-knife or draw-shave is very
useful for slicing off large pieces and for trimming wood into odd
shapes. It can be obtained with folding handles, adjustable at different
angles, for use in places which can not be reached by the blade of the
old-fashioned draw-knife; but the latter is good enough for all ordinary
purposes. Choose a medium-sized or large one. It is in principle simply
a knife or very wide and short-bladed chisel with a handle at each end,
and can be used with the flat side or the bevel against the wood as the
character of the work may require. Having but a short bearing surface to
guide its course, it is very prone to follow the grain and cut deeper
than you wish, so you must take special pains to cut with the grain,
stopping and cutting the other way, whenever necessary. Attachments can
be bought for guiding the draw-knife in chamfering and such cases.
The draw-knife can often be best used with an oblique stroke--either
drawing it sideways across the work at the same time that you pull it
towards you (Fig. 522), or holding it obliquely across the work and
pulling it straight towards you (Fig. 523).
It is one of the most dangerous tools if carelessly left lying around,
and should be kept hung up out of reach of all small children. See
_Paring_, _Bevelling_, and _Chamfering_.
=Draw-Shave.=--See _Draw-knife_.
=Drill.=--Drills for metal only are often useful to the wood-worker, but
the one most important for the amateur is the twist-drill. See
_Twist-drill_.
=Drill-Stock.=--There are various patterns of drill-stocks, some of them
automatic, for holding drills of different sizes for small holes. _Hand
drills_ with revolving handle, like an egg-beater, can be used for small
drills. See _Bit-brace_.
=Duck's-bill-Bit.=--See _Bits_.
=Expansion-Bit.=--See _Bits_.
=File.=--The file is a piece of hard steel with rows of ridges or teeth
cut obliquely on the surface. When cut in one direction only it is
called _single_-cut, but when there are two oblique rows of teeth
crossing each other it is called _double_-cut. These ridges incline
towards the end or point of the tool, so that the file, like the saw,
plane, and scraper, cuts when pushed forward. Files for wood have wider
teeth than those for metal, so do not use a wood file on metal or a
metal file for wood. The slab-sided shape (Fig. 524) is perhaps the most
useful, if you can have but one file. A round "rat-tailed" file is also
useful, and various other shapes if you can have a variety. For metal,
the triangular, flat, the half-round, shown in Fig. 525, and the
rat-tail are best. Files are very important for smoothing or rounding
edges and curving surfaces.
[Illustration FIG. 524.]
[Illustration FIG. 525.]
Before beginning to file, be sure that the wood is firmly secured so
that it will not slip and so that you can use the file with both hands.
Hold the tool with the right hand, thumb uppermost, and steady the end
with the left hand, thumb uppermost (Fig. 526), or with the fingers or
palm. To file squarely across, push the tool steadily and evenly
straight forward, without rocking up and down, and pressing only on the
forward stroke.
[Illustration FIG. 526.]
In filing rounded surfaces, a rocking motion is often helpful and the
way and direction in which to file in such cases must depend upon the
shape of the work and the grain of the wood, as you will quickly learn.
See _Rounding-sticks_.
Press lightly the first time you use a new file, until the fine edges of
the teeth have been worn a little, as a violent filing on the first
strokes may damage the cutting edges of the teeth.
When a file becomes clogged with wood-dust or other substances, soak it
in hot water a little while and then brush with a stiff brush. A
_file-card_ is useful. A piece of dog-fish skin, if you can obtain it,
cuts somewhat like a file or coarse sandpaper, and is useful for curved
surfaces where you wish to use the tools after smoothing.
=Filing.=--See _File_.
=Filing (of Saws).=--See _Sharpening_.
=Finishing.=--To acquire a high degree of proficiency in finishing
indoor wood-work requires long training and practice, but the simpler
processes can be undertaken to good advantage by the beginner.
There are a number of ways from which to choose. Simply rubbing
thoroughly with linseed oil gives a good, soft, permanent finish, which
some prefer to anything else, but you should be sure that all
superfluous oil is rubbed off. Do not hang a recently oiled book-shelf
or cabinet against the wall-paper of the room, for fear of defacing it.
An oil finish, unless rubbed a good deal, has the disadvantage of
getting soiled and collecting dust and dirt, but it is easily
sandpapered and renewed and is certainly in better taste than a coarse,
shiny, cheap varnish.
An old-fashioned way is simply to apply a mixture of turpentine and
beeswax, rubbing it as long as your strength and patience will allow.
Melt some beeswax in a can or saucepan and, when melted and taken from
the stove, pour in enough turpentine to make it the consistency of
paste. Then apply with a brush or cloth and rub in and clean off the
excess with a stiff brush or cloth, scrubbing the work as you would a
stove. This makes a beautiful finish, soft and lustrous. It shows spots,
however, and, though it is so easily applied, it requires continual
renewing and rubbing to be kept in good condition.
To make a hard and durable coating on the surface of the wood some kind
of varnish is required. There is nothing better than shellac for the
purpose of the amateur. It is not very hard to use, and there is
certainly nothing which gives a finish of nicer quality. The surface
dries quickly and the coat hardens more rapidly than most kinds of
varnish. For some cases, as a boat, it is well to shellac first and
finish with good varnish.[43] Shellac is cut (dissolved) in alcohol, and
can be bought prepared, but it is better to cut it yourself, to
diminish the chance of adulteration with cheaper substances. Orange
shellac will do for most of your work. Into an open-mouthed bottle put
some of the shellac (which comes in flakes and looks somewhat like glue)
and pour over it enough grain alcohol (95 per cent. grade) to somewhat
more than cover the shellac. Cork the bottle and leave in a warm place
until the shellac is cut. Shaking will hasten the process. Wood alcohol
can be used and is cheaper, but work done with it is not so good. It is
a deadly poison taken internally and on account of the fumes it is best
not to use it for a long time in a close room. If the tawny tint of the
orange shellac is objectionable, white (bleached) shellac can be used,
but this it is well to buy already prepared. It is a little harder to
use than the coloured kind.
Use a flat bristle-brush and not a soft camel's-hair brush, unless for
the last coat. One from one inch to two inches wide will be probably
suitable for most of your work. For large surfaces, however, a larger
brush is better. After using, always clean the brush thoroughly with
alcohol.
Always shellac in a warm, dry place, free from dust--never where it is
cold and damp; but on the other hand do not leave the work close to a
hot stove or it may blister.
The shellac should be quite thin. It should flow very freely from the
brush. Of the two extremes, it is better to have it too thin rather than
too thick. Three or four thin coats give a much better result than two
coats of thick, gummy shellac. Never try to thin it with anything but
alcohol. Keep the bottle corked to prevent evaporation of the alcohol
and to keep out the dust.
Before beginning to shellac, see that the work is free from dust. Pour a
small quantity of the shellac into a small dish of glass or earthenware,
not of tin. Before applying to the wood, wipe the surplus shellac from
the brush on the edge of the dish, so that it will not drip, and then
lay on the coat as evenly and smoothly as possible, working from the top
or from one end or side, and with the grain, so far as possible.[44] Do
not apply the brush at first exactly at the edge of the surface, lest
the shellac collect too thickly at the edge, but apply the brush first a
little way on the surface and _then_ work from the edge. Work quickly
and lightly. Begin and end the strokes of the brush gradually--lighten
them at the end--so as to avoid a "lap" when the strokes begin again.
Do not work over the coat after it has begun to set or try to patch up
spots. Simply lay it on as well as you can and let it go at that. If it
is not right you will know how to do better next time.
Give each coat plenty of time to harden before applying
another--twenty-four hours is none too long. Do not put on five or six
coats in a day as is sometimes done. The outer coat hinders the drying
of the shellac underneath, by keeping the air from it,--just as with
paints,--and the way to do durable work is not to put on a fresh coat
until the previous one is thoroughly dry and hard. Shellac dries very
quickly so that you can touch it, but does not get really hard
throughout for some time, so do not be in haste to put on a second
coat.[45]
If there are holes, cracks, or defects of any kind to be filled up, this
is the time to do it--after the first coat is hard. One way to do this
is to hold a hot iron close to a piece of shellac directly over the
hole, which will be filled with the melted shellac. The surplus can be
carefully pared off after it is hard. Another way is to use wax coloured
to match the wood. The wax can easily be coloured by melting and adding
a small quantity of whatever dry colour--burnt umber, for instance--may
be required. Do not use putty in such cases.
When the first coat is hard, skim over the surface with very fine
sandpaper (00), to remove any roughnesses, and apply the second coat.
This is sometimes sufficient. If not, sandpaper and shellac again, and a
fourth time if necessary. When you have a sufficient "body" of shellac
on the wood, you can much improve the quality of the surface by rubbing
it down with powdered pumice-stone and oil, which will remove the
"shiny" effect and leave a softer and finer surface. To do this, take a
bit of felt or haircloth, and wet it with thin oil (kerosene will do,
or petroleum, or linseed oil thinned with turpentine or benzine, but
the latter is dangerous to have around), take up a little of the pumice,
and carefully and evenly rub over the surface, with the grain, renewing
the oil and pumice as may be needed, or they can be sprinkled on the
work. But be careful to rub evenly and not too long on any one spot, for
it will be hard to repair the damage if you should rub through to the
wood. Wipe the whole off thoroughly with soft cloth. This process will
be sufficient for most amateur work. For some work simply rubbing down
with the finest sandpaper wet with oil is enough. In using sandpaper for
rubbing down nice work, split it--that is, remove the outer layer of
paper, which will leave the sanded layer thin and pliable and less
likely to scratch or rub through the finish. A handful of tightly
squeezed curled hair can be used.
If varnish is to be used over the shellac as in case of a boat, simply
sandpaper the shellac and do not rub with pumice and oil.
With fine-grained wood, such as cherry, the process given above is all
that will be required, but with coarse, open-grained wood, like oak, a
good many coats will be needed to fill the pores and give a smooth
surface. Therefore a "filler" is often used to fill the pores of the
grain. This is cheap and can be bought in the form of paste (either
light or dark), which you can apply according to the directions on the
can. Rub it into the wood thoroughly, let it stand until it begins to
set, or stiffen, then rub it off with a bit of burlap or any coarse
material, _across the grain_ (lest you wipe it out of the pores). After
it has become hard enough, sandpaper, and clean off any that may remain
on the surface. Then shellac as described. The filler can have the
shade of the wood, or sometimes, as in oak, the figure of the grain can
be brought out finely by using a filler somewhat darker than the hue of
the wood. Be sure to clean off the filler thoroughly, using a tool to
clean out the angles and corners, or the finished surface will have a
cloudy or muddy appearance.
The general directions given for shellacing apply also to the use of
varnish, but varnishing is in some respects harder for the amateur to do
well. Consult the dealer about the kind of varnish and the brush best
suited to the particular piece of work you have in hand. The final coat
of varnish can be rubbed down with pumice or tripoli and water.
Rotten-stone used with oil (petroleum is good) is excellent for giving a
soft polish.
French polishing is often attempted by the amateur, but it should be
learned by taking a lesson from a practical polisher, and not from a
book. The general idea of the process is as follows: A wad or pad of
wool is made and on this is poured thin shellac, adding whatever alcohol
may be necessary. This wet pad is then covered with a piece of clean
linen, a drop of oil put on the outside to prevent the shellac from
sticking, and the pad is then quickly passed over the surface with a
circular motion, or with longer strokes in the form of the figure 8, or
in some cases simply back and forth. After doing this for a while a very
thin coat will have been deposited. This is allowed to dry for a short
time, when the process is repeated, again and again, until a sufficient
body of the polished finish has been formed. The details of the process
vary with different finishers. It is quite easy to polish a small flat
surface or such an object as the arm of a chair, but it is much harder
for an amateur to successfully polish a large flat surface, like a
table-top, except after much practice. A first coating of shellac
applied with the brush and skimmed over with sandpaper will save labour
in the polishing process.
Before refinishing old work it should, if the surface is in bad
condition, be scraped down to the wood, using the scraper and finishing
with sandpaper. A chisel (used like the scraper) is sometimes convenient
to remove a thick body of old varnish. If the surface does not need
scraping, it should be cleaned, either by washing with soapsuds or it
can be scrubbed clean with the finest sandpaper, split, using oil or
water as the case may be, but seeing that the work is wiped off
perfectly dry before applying a new coat. Pumice can be used, as already
described, and a stiff brush, like a nail-or tooth-brush, is excellent
for cleaning out corners and carved work.
For simply brightening and cleaning furniture, a mixture of equal parts
of linseed oil and turpentine with a minute quantity of japan is
excellent. It should be well rubbed and carefully cleaned off. This will
make scratches and bruises less conspicuous, and will make the article
look fresher for a time, but it is only a cleaner and not a substitute
for refinishing.
=Firmer-Chisel.=--See _Chisel_.
=Fore-Plane.=--See _Plane_.
=Framing-Chisel.=--See _Chisel_.
=Gauge.=--There are many kinds of gauges in the market, but they all
depend on the same principle, having a block, head, stock, or fence, to
slide along against the edge of the wood, and a bar, beam, or stem,
which slides through the block, can be set to project from it at any
required distance, and which has near its end a spur or marking point
(Fig. 533). The stem has the divisions of a rule marked upon it, so that
the spur can be readily set at the required distance. In some gauges the
spur or marking point is sharpened to an edge parallel with the head,
rather than to a point, as it is more certain to make a clear, sharp
line, and is best when slightly convex on the side toward the head (Fig.
527). This gives the spur a tendency to run the line _away_ from and not
toward the edge where the head is, thus helping to keep the head close
up to the edge. Sometimes a round point is used, and occasionally a
knife point or blade for cutting thin stock into strips; and sometimes a
wheel with sharpened edge. A form of gauge adapted for gauging from
curved as well as straight edges is also made. Do not trust the accuracy
of the scale marked on a common gauge, for if the spur is at all out of
place, as is sometimes the case, you cannot rely upon the scale. Test by
measuring from the head to the spur with the rule.
[Illustration FIG. 527.]
The _mortise-gauge_ has two spurs, one of which is movable and can be
set at any required distance from the other, so that two lines can be
marked at once, as for a mortise. This is a time-saving tool, and very
convenient, but not a necessity for amateur work.