IMPLEMENTS FOR OUTDOOR SPORTS AND ATHLETICS
=Stilts.=--There is very little to say about the manufacture of stilts.
The construction is obvious (Figs. 195 and 196), the size and
arrangement depending on your own size and skill. The handles can either
be long, or reach up as high as the hand, or short and strapped to the
legs.
[Illustration FIG. 195.]
[Illustration FIG. 196.]
=Tilt or See-Saw.=--One of small size is shown in Fig. 197. The exact
proportions given are not necessary, provided you make it strong and so
that it will not tip over.
[Illustration FIG. 197.]
[Illustration FIG. 198.]
Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_,
_Nailing_, in Part V., and look up any other references.
[Illustration FIG. 199.]
[Illustration FIG. 200.]
First make the standard (Fig. 198) of any sound plank 1-1/4" to 2" thick
and 12" or more in width. Get out the pieces to the dimensions before
beginning to put together, the ends of the braces H being cut at a mitre
(see _Mitring_). Square the line EF across the plank B at the middle
(Fig. 199). Drive three or four stout wire nails (3" to 4" long,
according to the thickness of the plank) nearly through the plank on
this line. Stand the piece A on end under these nails and drive them
through firmly into it (Fig. 200), keeping the two boards at right
angles. Bore holes with a 1/4" bit (see _Boring_) in each end of the
pieces H, as shown, taking pains not to get them too near the edge.
Screw these braces in place with screws from 2-1/4" to 3-1/4" long
(according to the thickness of the plank), keeping the piece A at right
angles with the plank B (see _Screws_). Screw this frame on the
cross-pieces C and D, as shown. Nails can be used throughout, but screws
are better. With plane, draw-knife, or spoke-shave (see _Part V._ for
these tools), round the top edge of A.
[Illustration FIG. 201.]
The tilting-plank should be of spruce, ash, hard pine, or any strong
wood, and had best be from 1-1/2" to 2" thick, according to the length,
which can be 12' or 14'. It should of course be planed. Next get out a
few cleats 7/8" square, or thicker, and screw them on the under side of
the tilting-plank at the middle (Fig. 201, which shows the under side of
the plank), so that the spaces between them will be a little wider than
the thickness of the upright piece A--just enough to allow the plank to
tilt freely. Nail strips on the edge, to keep the plank from slipping
off sideways, shaving a little from the edges of A at the top if
necessary. Finally run over the edges with a plane (see _Plane_), and
sandpaper the plank to prevent slivers.
Simply paint or oil and varnish (see _Painting_ or _Finishing_).
A larger and more elaborate affair, adjustable to different heights, is
shown in Fig. 202.
[Illustration FIG. 202.]
* * * * *
First get out the main pieces to the dimensions (Figs. 203, 204, 205).
The upright pieces should be mortised into the planks on which they rest
(Fig. 206) (see _Mortising_). Gauge a line lengthways along the centre
of each side of the uprights (see _Gauge_) and mark points (say 6"
apart) on these lines for holes for the iron rod on which the
tilting-plank rests, taking pains to place them alike on the two
uprights. Then bore 3/4" or 1/2" holes (see _Boring_), according to the
size of rod you can get. Next fit the cross bar at the top. This can
simply be nailed down or fitted between the uprights (Fig. 207), or made
with a shoulder (Fig. 208), which will add to the stiffness of the
frame. The rest of the construction of the standard is plain, and
similar to that just described.
[Illustration FIG. 203.]
[Illustration FIG. 204.]
[Illustration FIG. 205.]
[Illustration FIG. 206.]
[Illustration FIG. 207.]
[Illustration FIG. 208.]
Iron rods can be used for braces, if you wish (Fig. 209).
The tilting-plank should be 16' or 18' long, and of 2" plank. A thread
with nut on one end of the iron rod on which the plank rests will keep
the rod from slipping out of place. The plank can be fastened to the rod
by iron straps or even staples, or a box-like bearing can be quickly
made (Fig. 210). Washers can be placed between the plank and the
uprights if necessary. Smooth the edges with a plane (see _Plane_) and
sandpaper the plank. Simply paint or oil and varnish (see _Painting_ and
_Finishing_).
[Illustration FIG. 209.]
[Illustration FIG. 210.]
* * * * *
=Skis.=--To make as perfect skis as possible they should be of rift
stock, that is, split out instead of sawed; but this may seldom be
practicable for you and is not really necessary. Good straight-grained
sawed stock will answer, but be sure that you get clear, strong
stock--_air-dried_ if possible. Always avoid kiln-dried stock for
anything which is to be put to sudden and violent strain, if you can get
that which has been naturally seasoned (see Chapter III.).
Ash is very good (white ash the best); spruce, light and strong; oak,
strong but heavy. Any strong and elastic wood will do, if not too heavy.
If you can get stock which is naturally sprung in a good curve upward
and is satisfactory in other respects, take it, for a convex curve
upward underneath the foot gives spring and elasticity and helps prevent
the skis from becoming hollowed too much by the weight of the body. This
curve is not necessary, but the better ones are purposely so made. Skis
are sometimes used in very rude forms--as two strips of wood with the
front ends shaved down and bent up at an angle. Small ones can even be
made of staves from barrels, but these are very unsatisfactory.
* * * * *
Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_,
_Draw-knife_, _Plane_, _Spokeshave_, in Part V., and look up any other
references.
[Illustration FIG. 211.]
[Illustration FIG. 212.]
[Illustration FIG. 213.]
[Illustration FIG. 214.]
First get out the pieces of the required size. The length for a man is
usually about 8' and the width about 4", though they are used even as
long as 12' or 13'. From 5' to 8' long and from 3-1/2" to 4" wide will
probably be right for you, but the dimensions depend on your size, of
course. Next taper the forward ends, as shown in Fig. 211. You can mark
both edges alike by drawing the curve free-hand or with a spline (see
_Spline_) on a piece of stiff paper, from which you can cut out a
pattern for drawing the curve on the wood. Next make the pieces thinner
towards the ends (Fig. 212), noticing that the forward end is thinner
than the after end and is shaved down more quickly so that the stock may
be thin where the toe bends up. This requires great care unless the
grain is very straight, for a little hasty slashing will make too deep a
cut (see _Paring_, etc.). Good forms are shown in Figs. 213 and 214, the
former showing sections at the middle and the latter nearer the ends,
but as the toe is approached the top should become flat for ease in
bending. This shaping can best be done by the draw-knife, spoke-shave,
or plane.
[Illustration FIG. 215.]
[Illustration FIG. 216.]
[Illustration FIG. 217.]
Bend the points of the toes upwards about 6" above the horizontal line
to ensure their riding clear of obstructions, but there is no gain in
curling them up a foot. For the process of bending, see _Bending Wood_.
Then turning the skis over, gauge (see _Gauge_) parallel lines for the
grooves on the bottom. Work the grooves out with the gouge or with the
saw and chisel (see _Gouge_ and _Grooving_) unless you chance to have
the plane designed for this purpose.[20] Make these grooves shallower as
they approach the toe, leaving no groove where the toe bends up.
[Illustration FIG. 218.]
[Illustration FIG. 219.]
[Illustration FIG. 220.]
[Illustration FIG. 221.]
Balance the skis lengthways on a stick or your finger and put stout
leather straps just forward of the balancing point. These can be riveted
or even screwed to the edges of the skis (Fig. 215), but a better way is
to put them through slots cut in the wood (Fig. 216). Gauge accurately
for the slots, marking on both edges, and bore in from both sides (see
_Boring_). The slots must then be cleaned out with chisel and file (see
_Mortising_). An easier way and fully as strong is to cut grooves (Fig.
217) with saw and chisel and cover them with thin strips securely
screwed on (Fig. 218). Some use a second lighter strap to go above the
heel. This can be screwed to the edges if you use it. Strips screwed
across under the instep (Figs. 219 and 220), or behind the heel (Fig.
221), to prevent the foot sliding back are sometimes used.[21] For
racing the Norwegian skis are turned up at the rear end also.
[Illustration FIG. 222.]
The pole, like the skis, must be of light, strong stuff, and can be
round or eight-sided (see _Rounding Sticks_). To shape the tapering end
make the stick uniformly eight-sided for the whole length first and then
plane each side down at the end to get the taper. The hole in the disk
must not be quite so large as the diameter of the pole, so that it
cannot slip up farther than the tapering part (Fig. 222). Many dispense
with the disk.
Finally smooth skis and pole with scraper (see _Scraper_) or glass, and
sandpaper (see _Sandpaper_), and finish with plenty of raw linseed oil
or with oil, shellac, and varnish, in successive coats (see
_Finishing_). If open-grained wood is used it can be filled to good
advantage with a coat of good wood-filler well rubbed in (see
_Finishing_), and the bottoms can also be rubbed with wax or tallow, if
you wish.
* * * * *
=Toboggan.=--This is now commonly made of narrow strips, in principle
much like several skis placed side by side--an easier form to make than
the older pattern, formed of one or two wide pieces, as originally made
by the Indians.
White oak and hickory are probably the best woods. Ash, maple, birch,
basswood, or any hard wood which can be bent and has elasticity can be
used. As in the case of the ski, to make the best possible the pieces
should be rift, or split out, rather than sawed, to ensure straight
grain; but, as this may be out of the question for you, be sure to
select the straightest-grained clear stock you can find, for, besides
the bending of the ends, there is great strain put upon it in coasting.
For the same reason use air-dried stock and avoid kiln-dried if
possible.
Probably the best and most scientific way to fasten the parts of a
toboggan together is the old way adopted by the Indians of binding or
lashing with thongs. This gives great elasticity and allows the toboggan
to adjust itself to the inequalities of the surface to a greater degree
than is possible with the tightly fastened joints now in use. You can
try this way instead of that given below, if you prefer, but be sure to
cut little grooves in the bottom for the thongs or cords to fit in, or
they will be quickly worn through.
* * * * *
Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_,
_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.
[Illustration FIG. 223.]
The size can vary from 3' long by 1' wide to 10' or 12' long by 20" to
22" wide; 4' long by 15" or 16" wide is good for a single toboggan; 8'
long by 18" is a good size for three or more persons. You will probably
find the stock most readily in the form of 12' boards. One-half inch in
the rough will be thick enough, though you may have to take inch (rough)
or 7/8" (planed) boards. Let us make an 8' toboggan (Fig. 223). Have the
stock planed and sawed in strips about 10' long, 2-1/2" wide, and not
less than 1/4" nor more than 3/8" in thickness. If they are tapered a
little in thickness for 12" or 15" at the forward end they can be bent
more easily, but do not shave them down too much (see _Plane_ and
_Drawshave_). Smooth the bottom surfaces of the strips with plane and
scraper (see _Scraper_). It is hardly necessary to plane the upper
surfaces by hand, as the planer will leave them fairly smooth, though
they will look a little nicer smoothed by hand. Plane the edges. Next
get out eight cross-bars or cleats 18" long × 3/8" thick and from 1-1/2"
to 3" wide. If wide they can be tapered at the edges, and if narrow, the
edges should be rounded (Fig. 224). Get out also two or three cleats 18"
long, 1/4" thick, and 1-1/4" wide, and one piece 18" long and about 3/4"
× 7/8" (half of a hardwood broomstick will do).
[Illustration FIG. 224.]
The long strips must now be bent at the forward end (see _Bending
Wood_). After they are bent take the eight cleats and, laying one across
the strips as it is to go, mark points for three holes at each strip
(Fig. 224). Bore 3/16" or 1/4" holes in the cross strips and countersink
them very carefully (see _Boring_ and _Countersink_), so that the heads
of the screws will be very slightly lower than the surface--sunk barely
enough to prevent any corners or edges from sticking above the surface.
Take great care not to countersink too deeply, for the long strips are
so thin that the screws may come through on the under side. Mark and
bore the other seven cleats by this first one.
Now take one cleat, to be put on at the rear end 8' from the beginning
of the curve. Screw one end of this cleat in place (see _Screws_), test
with the square, and screw the other end. Then put in the intermediate
screws, driving them all firmly home, and saw off the ends of the long
strips just beyond this cleat. Square lines across every foot to the
curve at the front, and screw on the other cleats. The length of the
screws (which can be quite stout) should be such that they will almost,
but not quite, go through to the under side of the toboggan. Be careful
about this or the points will have to be filed off. Then screw the
smaller cleats on the inside of the curve. Screw the remaining (stouter)
cleat on the outside of the curve at the place where the curve is to
end, and then saw off the projecting ends of the strips by this cleat.
By thongs, belt-lacing, or strong cord at the ends of the cleat last put
on fasten the curve (which will naturally tend to straighten somewhat)
in the required position to the cleat beneath (Fig. 225).
[Illustration FIG. 225.]
Side hand-rails can be fastened at each side on top of the cross-cleats
(Fig. 223). A common way is to make every other cross-cleat thicker (say
7/8") and fasten the side bars to these with large and stout screw-eyes,
or notches can be cut on the under side of these thicker cleats before
they are screwed on, and by passing thongs or cord through these notches
the side-bars can be lashed in place. The side bars you can plane round
or eight-sided (see _Rounding Sticks_) out of strips of any strong wood.
Sandpaper the bottom and finish with plenty of raw linseed oil, or with
oil, shellac, and varnish, in successive coats (see _Finishing_). If
open-grained wood is used it can be filled to good advantage with a coat
of good wood-filler well rubbed in (see _Finishing_), and the bottom can
be waxed or rubbed with tallow, if you wish.
[Illustration FIG. 226.]
If you are willing to put in the labour you can bevel or slope off one
side of each of the long strips (except the two outer ones) so as to
leave the strip thickest in the middle (Fig. 226). Unless you are
willing to take pains enough to do it nicely (which will take some
time), it will be best not to attempt it at all, or to have it done at a
mill. If you have a good hill you can go well enough with the flat
strips and it is not important to round them unless you are scoring
fractions of a second against time. Another way is to curve the
cross-cleats slightly (Fig. 226), leaving the long strips flat.
Some toboggans are made with low runners about an inch high.
[Illustration FIG. 227.]
You can, as you may know, patch up a sort of toboggan of barrel-staves,
with which, though not a very workmanlike arrangement, you can have a
lot of fun at no expense. You can get a high speed with this simple
contrivance (Fig. 227) on a _steep_ hill. It is not good, however,
unless the pitch is steep. You can even get a good deal of sport from
this apparatus in the summer on a _very steep_ grassy knoll.
=Wooden Guns and Pistols.=--A gun on the principle of that shown in Fig.
228, the projectile power being furnished by elastic (rubber) cord, is
easily made.
[Illustration FIG. 228.]
* * * * *
Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square,_, _Saw_,
_Spokeshave_, _Knife_, in Part V., and look up any other references.
First saw the outline of the gun from a straight-grained pine or
whitewood board. This can be quickly and cheaply done at any
wood-working mill. The gun can then be finally shaped with the
spoke-shave and knife. The rasp and file can be used (see _Rasp_ and
_File_.). Much of the shaping can be done with the draw-knife (see
_Draw-knife_), and, in fact, the whole can be whittled out with a knife
if other tools are wanting.
[Illustration FIG. 229.]
[Illustration FIG. 230.]
The most difficult parts of the work are the groove for the arrow and
the arrangement of the trigger. Much care is needed to cut an accurate
groove with a gouge (see _Gouge_), and, unless you are skilled, you can
get a truer result by having this done by a carpenter or at a mill. A
mortise (see _Mortising_) must be cut for the trigger long enough to
allow it sufficient play (Fig. 229). The arrangement of the trigger is
shown in Fig. 229. The elastic underneath the barrel (at the lower end
of the trigger) must be sufficiently powerful (combined with its
additional leverage) to balance the elastic which propels the arrow, so
that the trigger will remain in position and hold the upper elastic
drawn, until the pressure of the finger on the trigger releases it.
[Illustration FIG. 231.]
[Illustration FIG. 232.]
[Illustration FIG. 233.]
The barrel of the gun is sometimes built of three pieces (Fig. 230,
showing section) of thinner stock, which obviates the grooving but makes
more work otherwise. The groove can be left open on top (Fig. 230) or
covered with a thin strip (Figs. 231 and 232). In the latter case a
depression must be made in the barrel, so that when the strip is put on
there will be a long slot in which the string can play back and forth
(Fig. 232). With this arrangement you can make a notch (Fig. 233) to
hold the cord when drawn. The trigger can be of wood or wire, pivoted on
a screw or nail, so that when pulled the string will be pushed up and
released (Fig. 233).
A tube is sometimes fastened to the barrel, as in a real gun, and a
plunger is sometimes fitted to the tube to start the arrows, or bullets
in case they are used (Fig. 234).
[Illustration FIG. 234.]
[Illustration FIG. 235.]
[Illustration FIG. 236.]
The ends of the elastic cord can be fastened to screw-eyes at the
muzzle. A piece of leather thong or cord inserted at the middle of the
upper elastic cord will wear better than the rubber at that point.
Another form of trigger is shown in Fig. 235, which can also be made of
stiff wire (Fig. 236).
[Illustration FIG. 237.]
To finish the gun nicely, it should be scraped (see _Scraper_) and
sandpapered with fine sandpaper (see _Sandpaper_). It can then be
finished with oil and shellac or varnish (see _Shellac_, _Varnish_,
_Finishing_).
These same methods of construction can, of course, be applied to a
pistol.
[Illustration FIG. 238.]
A bow-gun or crossbow (Fig. 237) can be made on the same principle,
using a bow instead of the elastic, and inserting it in a hole made
through an enlargement of the under side of the barrel (Fig. 238).
=Sleds.=--Common sleds can be bought so cheaply that it is hardly worth
while, as a rule, to make them. Many are so poorly made, however, and
will stand so little rough usage, that a few suggestions may be of value
if you should wish to make a really serviceable one yourself.
Take the dimensions from any sled which suits you. Avoid making your
sled too high, however, as one ten or twelve inches high will coast no
better than a low sled, and requires much more bracing to be strong.
* * * * *
Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_,
in Part V., and look up any other references.
[Illustration FIG. 239.]
The runners and cross-pieces should be of straight-grained oak, maple,
ash, or other strong wood; 7/8" stock will do. Mark the runners
carefully on the wood, according to your working-drawing (Fig. 239), and
before sawing them out bore the holes for the rope (see _Boring_). Saw
out the runners, or have them sawed by machine, and see that the curves
are the same on each.
[Illustration FIG. 240.]
Get out three cross-pieces (Fig. 240) about 2" wide, and from 7/8" to
1-1/4" thick, with a shoulder at each end as shown. Mark and cut the
mortises (see _Mortising_) in the runners (Fig. 239).
Put these parts together, forming the frame of the sled (Fig. 241),
driving a pin through each mortise and tenon and adding the L irons
shown in Figs. 241 and 242.
The seat may be thinner than the runners, and is to be fitted between
them and to be screwed to the cross-pieces (see _Screws_). The thickness
of the stock for the seat must be borne in mind when laying out the
mortises in the runners.
[Illustration FIG. 241.]
[Illustration FIG. 242.]
Machine-planed stock is, of course, as smooth as is necessary for a
sled, but smoothing by hand (see _Plane_, _Scraper_, and _Sandpaper_)
will give a nicer surface. The runners can be shod at the blacksmith's
with half-round irons, or round steel can be used with iron at the ends.
In case of steel spring irons the runners can be slightly grooved on the
edge, so far as may be necessary to keep the irons in place. The irons
can be 1/2" to 5/8" in diameter.
Finish with paint (see _Painting_) or with oil, shellac, and varnish
(see _Finishing_).
* * * * *
A "double-runner," "bob," or "traverse" sled can be built to good
advantage. The sleds can be made as just described, or ready-made ones
can be used. See that they are well put together, of the same width, and
securely braced, as the strain upon them is great. The length of the
double-runner is a matter of choice, of course. As to the height and
width, however, if the coasting is straight, smooth, and comparatively
safe there is no objection to a high seat, with a comfortable foot-board
on each side for the passengers' feet, if you wish. But if you are going
to coast on long, rough hills, with sudden curves and pitches to be
taken in uncertainty and at whirlwind speed--the kind of coasting for
real fun and exhilaration--avoid the luxurious top-heavy double-runners
frequently seen. Make the sleds rather broad (18" is not too wide for
the "track" of a 16' sled; which is a very long sled, however), and keep
the height of the top-board down to about 10" or less.
* * * * *
Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_,
in Part V., and look up any other references.
[Illustration FIG. 243.]
The seat-board can be from 8' to 16' long, and about 12" to 14" wide.
Board thickness is sufficient for a short seat, but if long a 1-1/4"
plank should be used. If you have in mind to make a very long sled you
should consider, before beginning, that you must either use a quite
thick plank to get the necessary stiffness, which will add to the weight
of the double-runner, or the plank must be stiffened or "trussed" with
rods beneath like a bridge, which will add to the expense and labour. It
should be of strong, elastic, straight-grained wood, free from bad knots
or defects, as the strain upon it is great. It should not be too
yielding and springy, however, or it may sag inconveniently. Clear hard
Southern pine or ash is good. A plank of stiff spruce of good quality
will do. The rear end can be rounded, as shown (Fig. 243).
Machine-planing is sufficient for the sides of the seat-plank, but the
edges should be planed carefully (see _Plane_), and the angles slightly
rounded off with the plane, spoke-shave, or rasp and file (see
_Spokeshave_, _Rasp_, and _File_) to prevent splinters.
[Illustration FIG. 244.]
[Illustration FIG. 245.]
To enable the front sled to turn properly, get out two pieces of 2"
plank, as shown in Fig. 244, about 3" wide and as long as the width of
the sled, one being tapered toward the ends on the under side. The
tapering is important, as it diminishes the friction when the front sled
is turned. Screw one of these pieces firmly across the top of the front
sled and the other across the lower side of the seat-board (see
_Screws_), a hole being bored through the centre of each cross-piece (as
well as through the seat-board and the top of the front sled) for the
king-bolt upon which the front sled turns. Find these centres accurately
and bore carefully with a bit 1/16" larger than the king-bolt (see
_Boring_). The front sled should turn very freely and easily, and have
plenty of play, but the bolt should not fit loosely enough to make the
double-runner rickety.
A washer can be inserted between the cross-pieces. Sometimes a thick
rubber washer is used to lessen the shock (Fig. 245).
[Illustration FIG. 246.]
To give the ends of the rear sled freedom to play up and down (without
turning sideways) in passing over the inequities of the surface the
arrangement shown in Fig. 243 (and enlarged in Fig. 246) is good. Do not
make this of 7/8" stock. Pieces of plank should be used, the dimensions
being so arranged that the seat-board will be equally raised from the
front and rear sleds. The pins at the ends of the cross-piece should be
not less than 1" in diameter (1-1/4" is better) and should be carefully
cut (see _Paring_ and _Rounding Sticks_). The best way is to have them
turned to fit the holes in the rocker-shaped pieces. The latter should
be long enough (about 1') to prevent danger of the wood breaking apart
near the hole and to allow for screwing firmly to the seat-board.
[Illustration FIG. 247.]
Another way, sometimes adopted, is to use two cross-cleats with two
bolts (queen-bolts) and thick rubber washers (Fig. 247), the bolts being
loose enough in the holes to allow the necessary amount of play. Ropes
or chain can be fastened from the rear sled to the seat-board, to
prevent too much dropping of the former.
[Illustration FIG. 248.]
Many arrangements for steering have been invented. A cleat at the
forward end of the seat-board to brace the feet against, the sled being
guided by the ropes held in the hand (Fig. 248), is a simple way, though
requiring more strength and steadiness of arm, when the coast is rough
or dangerous, than is possessed by many steersmen. The brace for the
feet should be bolted to the seat-board or strongly screwed from above
and beneath. Another equally simple way is to screw the brace for the
feet upon the forward sled (Fig. 243), cutting a shallow gain in the
tops of the runners to hold it more securely. In this way of steering
the arms can reinforce the legs, or the steering can be done by the legs
alone. It is a very effective method, which gives a high degree of
control of the forward sled without cumbersome tackle and leaves the
seat-board free of obstructions.[22]
[Illustration FIG. 252.]
[Illustration FIG. 253.]
In case of a high double-runner, running foot-boards along each side can
be added. A simple way to fasten these is by means of pieces of
strap-iron bent as shown in Fig. 252 and screwed to the under side of
the seat-board, with the foot-boards fastened to the projecting arms
(Fig. 253). The dimensions to which the irons should be bent depend upon
the height and size of the double-runner, but you should take pains that
the space between the edge of the seat-board and the foot-board is such
that the feet cannot become caught.
The problem of contriving a perfectly successful brake for a
double-runner has not yet been solved. Like all other apparatus for
emergencies it should be as simple as possible. Unless it is _sure_ to
work it will be worse than not to have one, as you will come to rely on
it. The steersman is usually the one who first realises the need of
braking, and when practicable he is the one upon whom it naturally
devolves. If he steers with the hands he can brake with the foot against
a lever as shown below, but if he steers with the feet it is pretty
risky business trying to brake also with the foot and, unless you can
contrive some way by which he can safely and quickly brake by hand (not
an easy thing to do), the brake had best be worked by the rider at the
rear. This has some obvious disadvantages. A few ideas are given below,
but are not recommended as thoroughly satisfactory.
[Illustration FIG. 254.]
[Illustration FIG. 255.]
The simple and primitive way, so often used in the country by drivers of
heavily loaded sleds, of dropping a chain under the runner is an
effective method of braking, provided you have some sure method of
dropping the chain under the runners. Fig. 254 shows a method which can
be worked from either the forward or rear end of the double-runner. In
the plan, or top view (Fig. 254), the details of the arrangement (being
beneath the seat) would ordinarily be represented by dotted lines, but
in this case, on account of the small size of the drawing, they are
shown by full lines, as they would look if the seat-board were
transparent. A way of holding up the middle of the chain is shown in
Fig. 255. A small block _a_, perhaps 3" long, is screwed to the under
side of the seat and the chain is held against it by the pivoted bar _b_
(which is pivoted to the seat-board by a bolt and is kept in position by
the spring), and on the under side of which a piece of metal is screwed
at one end, which prevents the chain from dropping. The end of the bar
_b_ is connected by a wire with the lever in front. When the lever is
pushed by the steersman's foot the bar _b_ is pulled away from the block
_a_ and the chain falls by its own weight under the runners of the rear
sled, which quickly brings the double-runner to a standstill. Fig. 256
shows the bar held in position by the spring. Fig. 257 shows the
position of the bar after the lever has been pressed, with the open
space which allows the chain to drop. The same apparatus can be worked
from the rear end of the double-runner by simply having the wire to be
pulled led back (Fig. 258), where it can be worked directly by the hand
or you can contrive a lever to be raised.
[Illustration FIG. 256.]
[Illustration FIG. 257.]
[Illustration FIG. 258.]
A method of braking sometimes used is by means of a crooked lever formed
from an iron rod, one end of which is pulled up by the hand while the
lower part has one or more prongs which dig into the surface and stop
the sled. Fig. 259 shows a form sometimes used, and Fig. 260 a top view
showing position of the handle and prongs when not in use. Any
blacksmith can arrange this apparatus, which is attached to the rear
sled. A similar arrangement can be contrived to work by the steersman's
foot if desired. One prong, attached to the under side of the
seat-board, can be arranged as suggested (side view) in Fig. 260a.
[Illustration FIG. 259.]
[Illustration FIG. 260.]
The double-runner should be thoroughly oiled, and a coat of shellac,
followed after a day or two by a coat of varnish, will add much to its
durability as well as to its appearance. Lubricate the working parts
with soap or tallow.
If you have a gong, it should be worked by someone other than the
steersman.
The rear sled is sometimes arranged to swivel like the front sled and to
be steered by a second steersman, somewhat after the fashion of a long
hook-and-ladder truck. This gives good command of the double-runner on
curves.
[Illustration FIG. 260a.]
* * * * *
=Gymnastic Apparatus.=--It will, in most cases, be out of the question
for you to attempt to put up any building roomy enough for a "gym," but
sometimes a number of you can club together and get the use of some
vacant room in which satisfactory apparatus can be fitted at moderate
expense. Some of it may be rather primitive compared with the mechanism
of a modern college gymnasium, but will answer the purpose so far as
getting up muscle is concerned. Most of you can find a place for one or
more pieces of apparatus, either indoors or out. Much outdoor apparatus
can be supported on posts driven into the ground, or even by fastening
to trees. The outdoor apparatus is usually easier and cheaper to make,
but has the obvious disadvantages of not being usable in bad weather or
winter, to any great extent, and will not last so long on account of
exposure to the weather. If, however, you fix things the right way and
take the movable parts indoors during the bad weather, such a "gym" will
last until it is outgrown, or until the next generation grows up to
build a new one. If indoors have the room well ventilated. Often the
second story of a barn makes a capital gymnasium. The few simple pieces
of apparatus given here will be treated independently, as it is of
course impossible to tell how you will be obliged to arrange them. You
can vary the designs or proportions to suit the circumstances.
White ash, hickory, oak, hard pine, and for some purposes fir, spruce,
and white pine, are suitable for gymnastic apparatus. For everything
which is to stand violent strain or wrenching, as the horizontal bars,
vaulting poles, and such things, use _air_-dried stock, if possible,
avoiding kiln-dried, as the latter is more brittle and inelastic, and
often utterly unfit for such uses (see Chapter III.). Of course for such
parts only the toughest woods should be used, as white ash, hickory,
oak, spruce.
* * * * *
=Parallel Bars.=--A useful form (and not beyond the skill of an amateur)
is shown in Fig. 261. The height must, of course, depend upon the
gymnast, and can range from 3' 6" to 5' 6", the width inside (between
the bars) from 14" to 19", and the length from 6' to 8'.
[Illustration FIG. 261.]
Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_,
_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.
The base of the apparatus can be simply made of 2" × 6" planks, as shown
in Fig. 261, and fastened by screws (see _Screws_), or, as shown in Fig.
262, the pieces can be halved at their intersections (see _Halving_), in
which case thicker stock may be used. For a small pair of bars the
planks for the base can be somewhat lighter.
[Illustration FIG. 262.]
The upright posts should be of strong wood not less than 2" × 4" (unless
for a very small pair of bars) and should be mortised at top and bottom,
as shown in Figs. 263 and 264 (see _Mortising_). These joints should be
pinned.
The bars themselves should be of the best white ash (hickory, oak, hard
pine can be used), not less than 2" × 3" (unless for a small pair of
bars). The arrangement and object of the iron braces is plain.
[Illustration FIG. 263.]
[Illustration FIG. 264.]
After the apparatus is all fitted together, take off the bars and
carefully round the top edges for the entire length (see _Rounding
Sticks_). The ends which project beyond the posts can also be rounded on
the under side (_i.e._, made elliptical in section, as shown), if
desired.
Machine-planing is sufficient for this apparatus, except for the bars
themselves, which should be carefully smoothed by hand (see _Plane_,
_Scraper_, _Sandpaper_), although, of course, the whole will appear more
nicely finished if smoothed by hand. The square edges should be "broken"
(_i.e._, slightly bevelled or rounded) so as not to be too sharp in case
of contact with them.
The whole apparatus can be simply oiled thoroughly, or can be given in
addition one or more coats of shellac or varnish (see _Finishing_), but
a coat of oil is sufficient for the bars themselves, as they will be
polished by use.
This arrangement has the advantage of being portable, but of course the
base can be omitted, if desired, and the posts fastened directly to the
floor. If mortises cannot be cut in the floor, blocks can be screwed to
the floor around the base of each post so as to form a socket into which
the post will fit.
Parallel bars can be readily made for outdoor use by simply setting four
upright posts (not less than 3" × 4") firmly in the ground, at the same
distances apart as specified for the movable bars described above, and
fastening the bars to the tops of the posts by mortise and tenon, as
already shown (Fig. 263). The posts should reach 3' or more below
ground, both on account of the frost and to give increased steadiness,
and the earth should be thoroughly tamped down around them with a
sharp-pointed bar or stick. This apparatus should be thoroughly oiled
and can be varnished (see _Finishing_). The posts should be of good
thickness at the ground, but can be tapered toward the top, on the
outside, to the thickness of the bars.
* * * * *
=Horizontal Bar.=--A design suitable for the =amateur= wood-worker is
shown in Fig. 265.
* * * * *
Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_,
_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.
First make the upright posts or guides. These are somewhat like a trough
in shape, side boards about 6" wide being screwed (see _Screws_) on the
sides of a 2" × 3" joist. Fig. 266 shows sections in the middle and at
each end, blocks being inserted at the ends for strength. The joist can
be of any strong wood. The side boards, which serve as guides for the
bar, had best be of hard wood. Hard pine, oak, maple, ash, or any strong
wood can be used. You will require two of the joists and four side
boards, all sawed squarely off the exact height of the room.[23]
The usual way would be to get out the pieces a little too long and,
after they are fastened together, to saw off the ends so as to give the
required length. Gauge lines on each side of the upright pieces (see
_Gauge_) and intersect these lines at regular distances by others
squared across and around three sides of the uprights, thus determining
the places for the holes for the pins which hold the bar in position.
These can be bored from each side with a 3/8" bit (see _Boring_).
[Illustration FIG. 265.]
[Illustration FIG. 266.]
Another way sometimes adopted when you have one or two stout timbers on
hand or already in position for the posts is to screw two upright cleats
of plank to the inner side of each timber, thus forming the groove for
the bar, as shown in section in Fig. 267.
[Illustration FIG. 267.]
The uprights can now be fastened in place, taking care to have them
exactly vertical and in line with each other. The distance apart will
depend on the length of the bar. The uprights can of course be mortised
into the floor, or the wood-work above, if the conditions admit, but it
will usually answer every purpose to hold each end in place by four
cleats firmly screwed to the floor or ceiling. It is usually simpler to
have these uprights extend to the ceiling, but this is not necessary,
and in some cases it may be advisable to brace them to the floor only,
by wooden or iron braces, in some of the ways already shown, or they can
be guyed with wire rope and turnbuckles.
The bar you had best have made or buy already made, in which case you
can arrange the dimensions and position of the uprights to fit the bar.
It can be from 5' in length to perhaps 6' 9" (6' is a good length), and
should be not less than 1-3/4" in diameter, +nor over+ 2".
It should be of the best clear, straight-grained white ash or hickory
(air-dried, not kiln-dried). One having a steel rod for a core is the
best. The ends can be left square and bound with a square ferrule or
band of iron of the right size to slip easily up and down in the grooves
of the upright guides (Fig. 268). Any blacksmith can arrange this, as
well as the pins to hold the bar. This apparatus can be finished in the
same way as the parallel bars just described.
[Illustration FIG. 268.]
[Illustration FIG. 269.]
A suggestion for a post for outdoor apparatus is given in Fig. 269. The
post should be set in the ground at least 3' and the earth well tamped
down around it with a pointed bar or stick. The lower ends of the braces
can themselves be set in the ground or abut against heavier posts set in
the ground. This apparatus should be protected from the weather as in
the cases described above.
=Vaulting Apparatus.=--You can buy iron standards or bases, and of
course the whole apparatus, for high jumping and pole vaulting, but it
is a simple matter to make a pair of uprights that will answer the
purpose satisfactorily (Fig. 270).
* * * * *
Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_,
_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.
Take two straight sticks 10' or 12' long and about 2-1/2" square. Taper
each piece with the plane until about 1-1/2" square at one end. Make
each base of two pieces of board about 4" wide and perhaps 3' long, as
shown in Fig. 270, or halve two pieces of plank (see _Halving_). Mortise
the larger ends of the posts into these bases as shown in Fig. 271 (see
_Mortising_).
[Illustration FIG. 270.]
[Illustration FIG. 271.]
Before fastening the posts to the standards, mark a line along the
middle of one side of each post. On this line lay off feet and inches
from the bottom and carefully bore a quarter-inch hole through the posts
at each of these points (except, of course, those near the ground) for
the pins which are to support the cross-bar or cord (see _Boring_). Then
fit the posts in the mortises and brace them by three braces each. The
ends of the braces can be cut at a mitre and screwed in place, or the
blacksmith will make iron braces for a small sum (Fig. 271). Finish like
the other apparatus already described.
Vaulting poles should be round, very straight-grained, from air-dried
(not kiln-dried) stock of light, strong wood, as spruce, free from knots
or any cross-grained, weak spots. The thickness should of course depend
on the length, but should not be less than 1-1/4" for an 8' pole (which
is quite short), and the pole should taper toward each end (see
_Rounding Sticks_).
* * * * *
=Spring-Board.=--A form not difficult to make is shown in Fig. 272. The
framework can be made of any strong wood, but the spring-board itself
should be of the best quality of clear, straight-grained white ash.
* * * * *
Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_,
_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.
First make the base or framework. Get out two pieces of 2" × 3" plank
for the outside pieces (to stand on edge) and +screw blocks+ of
the same plank at each end to raise the pieces from the ground as shown.
Place these pieces so that they spread apart slightly at the forward
end (Fig. 272), being about 22" apart at the rear end. Fit a cross-tie
to connect these stringers at about 2' from the forward end.
[Illustration FIG. 272.]
Another cross-bar, resting on the stringers, is placed nearer the rear
end, and about 1' from the rear end a piece of 3" × 4" joist is fitted
between the stringers and held in place by a bolt passed through it and
the stringers. This should be loose enough to allow the block to turn.
The spring-board can be made of five strips of 7/8" stock, 4" wide and
6' long, screwed to a cleat at the forward end, and securely bolted to
the block at the rear end.
This apparatus can be finished as in the cases described above.
* * * * *
=Vaulting-Horse.=--A simple affair (Fig. 273) can be easily arranged by
making a box, perhaps 5' long and 8" or 10" square, which can be
supported by flaring legs of joist as shown in the illustrations.
[Illustration FIG. 273.]
[Illustration FIG. 274.]
First make the box (see _Box-making_, in Part II.). The corners and
edges should be rounded (Fig. 274), and the whole padded and covered
with such materials as you may have at hand or can afford for the
purpose. Laying out and sawing the bevels for the tops of the legs is
the hardest part of the job. Transfer the bevels carefully from your
working drawing to the wood, and saw as exactly to the lines as you can.
See also _Scribing_. Unless you have had much experience some paring
will probably be required to make all the legs fit. To make the horse
stand evenly see _Scribing_, _Winding-sticks_, etc. The other general
directions given for the apparatus described above will suffice for this
horse.
[Illustration FIG. 275.]
A horse for outdoors (Fig. 275) can be simply made of a log, perhaps 1'
in diameter, smoothed and with the ends rounded, and mounted (by
mortising) upon posts set in the ground (see _Mortising_). The top can
be covered with rubber, as indicated in the illustration.
The posts should be set at least 3' in the ground, and the earth well
tamped around them with a pointed bar or stick.
The apparatus can be finished as in the cases given above.
* * * * *
=Giant Swing.=--This piece of apparatus is excellent for outdoors, and
affords considerable sport (Fig. 276).
[Illustration FIG. 276.]
[Illustration FIG. 277.]
[Illustration FIG. 278.]
You must have a pole or mast from 15' to 25' long and from 6" to 10" in
diameter at the lower end. At the smaller end there should be an iron
ring or ferrule. This can be heated and driven on, when it will shrink
so as to fit tightly and save the end from splitting. The upper end of
the pole should first be squarely sawed off (see _Saw_). The swing
ropes, of which you can have two or four (as you wish), can be fastened
by hooks to a pivot set into the top of the post (see _Boring_), the
latter being firmly set up in the ground. The blacksmith can quickly fix
a pivot with hooks or pins and with a washer, to which you can fasten
the ropes (Fig. 277). The lower ends of the ropes can be fastened at the
proper height to sticks for handles. Loops can also be made in which to
rest one leg if you wish. Of course you must have plenty of room for
swinging around. In setting up the pole dig a hole 3' or 4' deep and
after placing the pole tamp the earth compactly down around it with a
pointed bar or stick.
A cheaper way, but hardly as good, is to drive a 1" or 3/4" rod in the
top of the pole, and get out a stout piece of hard wood, 3" or 4" square
and 1-1/2' or 2' long, with a hole in the middle to fit the rod, and
smaller holes near each end for fastening the ropes by a knot (Fig.
278). A washer can be put under the wooden bar, or the top of the pole
may be slightly rounded.
* * * * *
=Other Apparatus.=--There are, of course, other useful forms of
apparatus involving more or less wood-work, such as hanging poles, fixed
upright and slanting poles or bars, and various contrivances which you
can readily arrange without more special instruction than has been
given.
* * * * *
Ladders are of course good, but it is usually as well for the amateur to
buy these. A suggestion for a framework for hanging rings, trapeze,
poles, rope ladders, and the like, with fixed ladders and horizontal
bar, is given in Fig. 279.
[Illustration FIG. 279.]
Do not make such framework too light. Fasten the joints with bolts
rather than screws or nails, and suspend the hanging apparatus from
eye-bolts passing through the timber and with washers under the nuts.
The dimensions for such framework must depend upon the circumstances.
The suggestions about the construction of the other pieces of apparatus
given above will assist you in designing and constructing something to
suit the circumstances.
FOOTNOTES:
[20] All of this work can be done cheaply at any mill, leaving the
rounding or bevelling of the edges and the bending of the ends for you
to do yourself, and for that matter the rounding or bevelling can be
done by machine.
[21] Mrs. Alec Tweedie says of the way skis are worn in Norway:
"The toes are fastened by a leather strap. Another strap goes round the
heel in a sort of loop fashion, securing the foot, but at the same time
giving the heel full play. A special ski boot is worn over enormously
thick horsehair stockings. This boot has no hard sole at all, and,
instead of being sewn at the sides, the large piece of thick leather
which goes under the foot is brought well over the top and secured to
what might ordinarily be called a leather tongue. At the back of the
boot is a small strap, which is used to fasten the ski securely to the
boot. Once fixed on the ski, the boot is so secure no fall can loosen
it, and the only way to extricate the foot is to undo the three straps."
[22] Various contrivances for steering with a wheel or cross-bar are
sometimes used. These work well if properly attached, and for reasonably
safe coasting can be recommended, but where a "spill" is likely to
occur, it may be well to consider the chance of being injured by these
obstructions in front of the steersman.
[Illustration FIG. 249.]
[Illustration FIG. 250.]
[Illustration FIG. 251.]
Fig. 249 shows the king-post squared at the lower end (and tapering) to
be fitted to a tapering mortise in the cross-cleat of the forward sled
and held down by the screw and nut at the extreme end. A wheel is
attached to the upper end. Any blacksmith can make an arrangement like
this, or the bottom of the king-post can be split (Fig. 250) and screwed
to the front sled, and the top can be made with a bar instead of a wheel
(Fig. 251).
[23] You can get this height by taking two sticks whose combined length
is somewhat greater than the height of the room. By letting the ends lap
over one another in the middle, the sticks can be slipped along on each
other until they just reach from floor to ceiling. Hold them tightly
together (or fasten them with a clamp) when in this position and you
will have the exact length required.