shall pity him].
6. A possibility: [We fear lest he be too late].
The tenses of the subjunctive require especial notice. In conditional
clauses, the _present_ refers either to present or future time: [Though
the earth be removed, we shall not fear].
The _preterite_ refers to present time. It implies that the supposed case
is not a fact: [If he were here, I should be much pleased].
The _pluperfect_ subjunctive expresses a false supposition in past time:
[If you had been here, this would not have happened].
The phrases with _may, might, can, must, could, would_, and _should_ are
sometimes called the _potential mode_, but the constructions all fall
within either the indicative or the subjunctive uses, and a fourth mode is
only an incumbrance.
+65. The Imperative Mode.+--The imperative is the mode of command and
entreaty. It has but one form for both singular and plural, and but one
tense,--the present. It has but one person,--the second. The subject is
usually omitted. The case of direct address, frequently used with the
imperative, should not be confused with the subject. In, "John, hold my
books," the subject is _you_, understood. Were _John_ the subject, the
verb must be _holds_. _John_ is, here, a compellative, or vocative.
+66. Voice.+--Verbs are said to be in the _active_ voice when they
represent the subject as acting, and in the _passive_ voice when they
represent the subject as being acted upon. Intransitive verbs, from their
very nature, have no passive voice. Transitive verbs may have both voices,
for they may represent the subject either as acting or as being acted
upon.
The direct object in the active voice generally becomes the subject in the
passive; if the subject of the active appears in the passive, it is the
object of the preposition _by_: [My dog loves me (active). I am loved by
my dog (passive)].
Verbs of calling, naming, making, and thinking may take two objects
referring to the same person or thing. The first of these is the direct
object and the second is called the objective complement: [John called him
_a coward_]. The objective complement becomes an attribute complement when
the verb is changed from the active to the passive voice: [He was called
_a coward_ by John].
Certain verbs take both a direct and an indirect object in the active:
[John paid him nine _dollars_]. If the indirect object becomes the subject
in the passive voice, the direct object is known as the _retained object:_
[He was paid nine _dollars_ by John].
+67. Infinitives.+--The infinitive form of the verb is often called a
verbal noun, because it partakes of the nature both of the verb and of the
noun. It is distinguished from the _finite_, or true, verb because it does
not make an assertion, and yet it assumes one. While it has the modifiers
and complements of a verb, it at the same time has the uses of a noun.
There are two infinitives: the _root infinitive_ (commonly preceded by
_to_, the so-called _sign_ of the infinitive), and the _gerund_, or
_infinitive in -ing_.
1. Root infinitive: [_To write_ a theme requires practice].
2. Gerund: [_Riding_ rapidly is dangerous]. In each of these sentences
the infinitive, in its capacity as noun, stands as the subject of the
sentence. In 1, _to write_ shows its verb nature by governing the object
_theme;_ in 2, _riding_ shows its verb nature by taking as a modifier the
adverb _rapidly_.
Each form of the infinitive is found as the subject of a verb, as its
object, as an attribute complement, and as the object of a preposition.
The root infinitive, together with its subject in the objective case, is
used as the object of verbs of knowing, telling, etc.: [I know _him to be
a good boy_]. See also Appendix 85 for adjective and adverbial uses.
The infinitive has two tenses: the _present_ and the _perfect_. The
_present_ tense denotes action which is not completed at the time of the
principal verb: [He tries _to write_. He tried _to write_. He will try _to
write_]. The _perfect_ infinitive denotes action complete with reference
to the time of the principal verb: [I am glad _to have known_ her].
+68. Participles.+--Participles are verbal adjectives: [The girl _playing_
the piano is my cousin]. _Playing_, as an _adjective_, modifies the noun
_girl_; it shows its _verbal_ nature by taking the object _piano_.
The _present participle_ ends in _-ing_. When the _past participle_ has an
ending, it is either _-d, -ed, -t_, or _-en_. The _perfect participle_ is
formed by combining _having_ with a past participle; as, _having gone_.
There is danger of confusing the present participle with the gerund, or
infinitive in _-ing_, unless the adjective character of the one and the
noun character of the other are clearly distinguished: [The boy, _driving_
the cows to pasture, was performing his daily task (participle). _Driving_
the cows to pasture was his daily task (gerund)].
Participles are used to form verb-phrases. The present participle is used
for the formation of the progressive conjugation; the past participle, for
the formation of the compound or perfect tenses. Participles are also used
in all the adjective constructions.
One especial construction requires notice,--the _absolute_ construction,
or the _nominative absolute_, as it is called: [_The ceremony having been
finished_, the people dispersed]. The construction here is equivalent to a
clause denoting _time_ or _cause_ or some _circumstance_ attendant on the
main action of the sentence. The participle is sometimes omitted, but the
substantive must not be, lest the participle be left apparently belonging
to the nearest substantive; as, Walking home, the rain began to fall. As
the sentence stands, _walking_ modifies _rain_.
+69. Conjugation.+--The complete and orderly arrangement of the various
forms of a verb is termed its conjugation. Complete conjugations will be
found in any text-book on English grammar.
The passive voice must not be confused with such a form as the progressive
conjugation of the verb. The passive consists of a form of _to be_ and a
_past participle_: [I am instructed]. The progressive tenses combine some
form of _to be_ with a _present_ participle: [I am instructing].
It may be well to distinguish here between the passive voice and a past
participle used as an attribute complement of the verb _be_. Both have the
same form, but there is a difference of meaning. The passive voice always
shows action received by the subject, while the participle is used only as
an adjective denoting condition: [James _was tired_ by his day's work
(passive voice). James was _tired_ (attribute complement)].
+70. Weak and Strong Conjugations.+--Verbs are divided into two classes as
regards their conjugations. It has been the custom to call all verbs which
form the preterite and past participle by adding _-d_ or _-ed_ to the
present, _regular_ verbs [love, loved, loved], and to call all others
_irregular_. A better classification, based on more careful study of the
history of the English verb, divides verbs into those of the _weak_ and
those of the _strong_ conjugations.
The _weak verbs_ are those which form the preterite by adding _-ed, -d_,
or _-t_ to the present: _love, loved_. There is also infrequently a change
of vowel: _sell, sold_; _teach, taught_.
All verbs which form the preterite without the addition of an ending are
_strong verbs_. There is usually a change of vowel. The termination of the
past participle in _-n_ or _-en_ is a sure indication that a verb is
_strong_. Some verbs show forms of both conjugations.
A complete list of _strong_ verbs cannot be given here, but a few of the
most common will be given, together with a few _weak_ verbs, in the use of
which mistakes occur.
PRESENT PRETERITE PAST PARTICIPLE
am was been
arise rose arisen
bear bore borne, born[1]
begin began begun
bid (command) bade bidden
bite bit bitten
blow blew blown
break broke broken
bring brought brought
burst burst burst
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
climb climbed climbed
come came come
do did done
drink drank drunk[2]
drive drove driven
drown drowned drowned
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
fly flew flown
freeze froze frozen
get got got
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
have had had
hide hid hidden
hurt hurt hurt
know knew known
lay laid laid
lie (recline) lay lain
lead led led
read read read
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
run ran run
see saw seen
shake shook shaken
show showed shown
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
sit sat sat
slay slew slain
speak spoke spoken
spring sprang sprung
steal stole stolen
swell swell { swelled
{ swollen
swim swam swum
take took taken
tear tore torn
throw threw thrown
wear wore worn
wish wished wished
write wrote written
[Footnote 1: Used only in the passive sense of "born into the world."]
[Footnote 2: _Drunken_ is an adjective.]
CAUTION.--Do not confuse the preterite with the past participle. Always
use the past participle form in the compound tenses.
ADVERBS
+71. Classes of Adverbs.+--Adverbs vary much as to their use and meaning.
It is therefore impossible to make a very accurate classification, but we
may divide them, according to use, into _limiting, interrogative_, and
_conjunctive_ adverbs.
_Limiting_ adverbs modify the meaning of verbs, etc.: [He rows _well_].
_Interrogative_ adverbs are used to ask questions: [_When_ shall you come?
He asked _where_ we were going (indirect question)].
_Conjunctive_ adverbs introduce clauses: [We went to the seashore, _where_
we stayed a month]. Here _where_ is used as a connective and also as a
modifier of _stayed_.
Conjunctive adverbs introduce the following kinds of clauses:
1. Adverbial clauses: [Go _where_ duty calls].
2. Adjective clauses: [This is the very spot _where_ I put them].
3. Noun clause: [I do not know _how_ he will succeed].
Adverbs may also be classified, according to meaning, into adverbs of
_manner, time, place_, and _degree_. The classification is not, however, a
rigid one.
Adverbs of _manner_ answer the question How? Most of these terminate in
_-ly_. A few, however, are identical in form with adjectives of like
meaning: [She sang very loud].
Adverbs of _time_ answer the question When?
Adverbs of _place_ answer the question Where? This class, together with
the preceding two classes, usually modify verbs.
_Adverbs of degree_ answer the question To what extent? These adverbs
modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
+72. Phrasal Adverbs.+--Certain phrases, adverbial in character, cannot
easily be separated into parts. They have been called _phrased adverbs;_
as, arm-in-arm, now-a-days, etc.
+73. Inflection.+--Some adverbs, like adjectives, are compared for the
purpose of showing different degrees of quality or quantity.
The comparative and superlative degrees may be formed by adding the
syllables _er_ and _est_ to the positive degree. The great majority of
adverbs, however, make use of the words _more_ and _most_ or _less_
and _least_ to show a difference in degree: [Fast, faster, fastest;
skillfully, more skillfully, most skillfully; carefully, less carefully,
least carefully].
Some adverbs are compared irregularly:--
badly } worse worst
ill (evil)}
far } { farther { farthest
forth } { further { furthest
late later { latest
{ last
little less least
much more most
nigh nigher { nigher
{ next
well better best
+74. Suggestions and Cautions concerning the Use of Adverbs.+
1. Some words, as _fast, little, much, more_, and others, have the same
form for both adjective and adverb, and use alone can determine what part
of speech each is.
(Adjective) He is a fast driver. She looks well (in good health).
(Adverb) How fast he walks! I learned my lesson well.
2. Corresponding adjectives and adverbs usually have different forms which
should not be confused.
(Adjective) She is a good student.
(Adverb) He works well.
3. The adjective, and not the adverbial, form should be used after a
copulative verb, since adverbs cannot modify substantives: [I feel bad;
not, I feel badly].
4. Two negatives imply an affirmative. Hence only one should be used to
denote negation: [I have nothing to say. I have no patience with him].
+75. Equivalents for Adverbs.+
1. A phrase: [The child ran away _with great glee_].
2. A clause: [I will go canoeing _when the lake is calm_].
3. A noun: [Please come _home_. I will stay five _minutes_].
PREPOSITIONS
+76. Classes of Prepositions.+--The _simple_ prepositions are: _at, after,
against, but, by, down, for, from, in, of, off, over, on, since, through,
till, to, under, up_, and _with_.
Other prepositions are either derived or compound: such as, _underneath,
across, between, concerning_, and _notwithstanding_.
+77. Suggestions concerning the Use of Prepositions.+--Mistakes are
frequently made in the use of the preposition. This use cannot be fully
discussed here, but a partial list of words with the required preposition
will be given.
afraid _of_.
agree _with_ a person.
agree _to_ a proposal.
bestow _upon_.
compare _to_ (to show similarity).
compare _with_ (to show similarity or difference).
comply _with_.
conform _to_.
convenient _for_ or _to_.
correspond _to_ or _with_ (a thing).
correspond _with_ (a person).
dependent _on_.
differ _from_ (a person or thing).
differ _from_ or _with_ (an opinion).
different _from_.
disappointed _in_.
frightened _at_ or _by_.
glad _of_.
need _of_.
profit _by_.
scared _by_.
taste _of_ (food).
taste _for_ (art).
thirst _for_ or _after_.
_Like_, originally an adjective or adverb, is often, in some of its uses,
called a preposition. It governs the objective case, and should not be
used as a conjunction: [She looks like _me;_ not, She looks like I do].
The appropriate _conjunction_ here would be _as_: [She speaks _as_ I do].
The prepositions _in_ and _at_ denote rest or motion _in_ a place; _into_
denotes motion _toward_ a place: [He is _in_ the garden. He went _into_
the garden].
+78. Prepositional Phrases.+--The preposition, with its object, forms what
is termed a prepositional phrase. This phrase is _adjective_ in force when
it modifies a substantive; and _adverbial_, when it modifies a verb,
adjective, or other adverb: [In the cottage _by the sea_ (adjective). He
sat _on the bench_ (adverb)].
Some prepositions were originally adverbs; such as, _in, on, off, up_, and
_to_. Many of them are still used adverbially or as adverbial suffixes:
[The ship lay to. A storm came on].
CONJUNCTIONS
+79. Classes of Conjunctions.+--Conjunctions are divided according to
their use into two general classes: the _coördinate_ and the _subordinate_
conjunctions.
_Coördinate_ conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, and clauses
of equal rank; _subordinate_ conjunctions connect clauses of unequal rank.
The principal coördinate conjunctions are _and, but, or, nor_, and _for_.
_And_ is said to be _copulative_ because it merely adds something to what
has just been said. Other conjunctions having a copulative use are _also,
besides, likewise, moreover_, and _too_; and the correlative conjunctions,
_both ... and, not only ... but also_, etc. These are termed _correlative_
because they occur together. _But_ is termed the _adversative_ coördinate
conjunction because it usually introduces something adverse to what has
already been said. Other words of an adversative nature are _yet, however,
nevertheless, only, notwithstanding_, and _still_. _Or_ is alternative in
its force. This conjunction implies that there is a choice to be made.
Other similar conjunctions are _either ... or, neither ... nor, or, else_.
_Either ... or_ and _neither ... nor_ are termed _correlative_
conjunctions, and they introduce alternatives. _For, because, such_, and
as are _coördinate_ conjunctions only in such a case as the following:
[She has been running, for she is out of breath].
Some of the most common conjunctions of the _subordinate_ type are those
of place and time, cause, condition, purpose, comparison, concession, and
result. _That_ introducing a subordinate clause may be called a
_substantive_ conjunction: [I knew _that_ I ought to go].
There are a number of subordinate conjunctions used in pairs which are
called _correlatives_. The principal pairs are _as ... so, as ... as, so
... as, if ... then, though ... yet_.
+80. Simple and Compound Sentences.+--In the first section of this review
the parts of a sentence were named as the _subject_ and _predicate_.
The _subject_ may itself consist of two parts joined by one of the
coördinating conjunctions: [Alice _and_ her cousin are here]. The
predicate may be formed in a similar fashion: [John played _and_ made
merry all day long]. Both subject and predicate may be so compounded:
[John _and_ Richard climbed the ladder _and_ jumped on the hay].
In all these cases the sentence, consisting as it does of but one subject
and one predicate, is said to be _simple_.
When two clauses--that is, two groups of words containing each a subject
and predicate--are united by a coördinate conjunction, the sentence is
said to be _compound_: [John wished to play Indian, _but_ Richard
preferred to play railroad].
The coördinating conjunction need not actually appear in the sentence. Its
omission is then indicated by the punctuation: [John wished to play
Indian; Richard preferred another game].
+81. Subordinate Conjunctions and Complex Sentences.+--A _subordinate_
conjunction is used to join a subordinate clause to a principal clause,
thus forming a _complex_ sentence. The test to be applied to a clause in
order to ascertain whether it is a subordinate clause, is this: if any
group of words in a sentence, containing a subject and predicate, fulfills
the office of some single part of speech, it is a _subordinate_ clause. In
the sentence, "I went because I knew that I must," the clause, "because I
knew that I must" states the reason for the action named in the main
clause. It, therefore, stands in _adverbial_ relation to the verb "went."
"That I must" is the object of "knew." It, therefore, stands in a
_substantive_ relation to the verb.
Subordinate clauses are often introduced by subordinate conjunctions
(sometimes by relative pronouns or adverbs); but, whenever such a
clause appears in a sentence, otherwise simple, the sentence is _complex_.
If it appears in a sentence otherwise compound, the sentence is
_compound-complex_.
The different types of subordinate clauses will be discussed later.
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
+82. Phrases.+--Phrases are classified both as to structure and use.
From the standpoint of structure, a phrase is classified from its
introductory word or words, as:--
1. _Prepositional_: [They were _in the temple_].
2. _Infinitive_: [He tried _to make us hear_].
3. _Participial_: [_Having finished my letter_].
Classified as to use, a phrase may be--
1. A _noun_: [_To be good is to be truly great_].
2. An _adjective_: [The horse is an animal _of much intelligence_].
3. An _adverb_: [He lives _in the city_].
+83. Clauses.+--It has been already shown that clauses may be either
principal or subordinate. A principal clause is sometimes defined as "one
that can stand alone," and is therefore independent of the rest of the
sentence. This statement is misleading, for, although true in most cases,
it does not hold in cases like the following:--
1. As the tree falls, so it must lie.
2. That sunshine is cheering, cannot be denied.
The genuine test for the subordinate clause is the one already given in
connection with the study of the subordinate conjunction. It must serve
the purpose of some single part of speech. All other clauses are principal
clauses.
+84. Classification of Subordinate Clauses.+--_A._ Subordinate clauses may
be classified into _substantive_ and _modifying_ clauses.
_Substantive clauses_ show the various substantive constructions. Thus:--
1. Subject: ["_Thou shalt not covet_," is the tenth commandment].
2. Object: [I know _what you wish_].
3. Appositive: [The truth _that the earth is spherical_ is generally
believed].
4. Attribute complement: [The truth is _that she is not well_].
_Modifying clauses_ show adjective and adverbial constructions.
Thus:--
1. Adjective: [The house _which you see_ is mine].
2. Adverb: [I will go _when_ it is possible].
_B._ Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the
introductory word.
(_a_) Clauses introduced by _relative_ or _interrogative pronouns_: _who,
which, what, that_ (= who or which), _as_ (after such), and the compound
relatives, _whoever, whichever, whatever_ (the first three are both
relative and interrogative): [The school _that stands on the hillside_ is
painted white. I know _whom you_ mean].
(_b_) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adjective: [The
man _whose library is well furnished_ is rich. I see _which way I ought to
take_].
(_c_) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adverb, such as
_when, whenever, since_ (referring to time), _until, before, after, where,
whence, whither, wherever, why, as, how_: [I know the house _where lie
lives_].
(_d_) Clauses introduced by a subordinate conjunction, such as _because,
since_ (= because), _though, although, if, unless, that_ (= in order
that), _as, as if, as though, then_: [I will go _since you wish it_].
_C._ Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the nature of
the thought expressed.
(_a_) General description: [The house, _which stands on the hill_, has a
fine view].
(_b_) Place: [The house _where he was born_ is torn down].
(_c_) Time: [He works _whenever he_ can].
(_d_) Cause: [_Since you wish it_, I will go].
(_e_) Concession: [_Although he is my friend_, I can see his faults].
(_f_) Purpose: [Run, _that you may obtain the prize_].
(_g_) Result: [She was so tired _that she stumbled_].
(_h_) Condition: [_If it rains_, we shall not go].
(_i_) Comparison: [You look as _if you were tired_].
Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are modifying
clauses.
(_j_) Direct quotation: [She said, "_I will go_"].
(_k_) Indirect statement: [She said _that she would go_].
(_l_) Indirect question: [I knew _where his house_ was].
Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are substantive
clauses.
+85. The Framework of a Sentence+ has been already described as consisting
of the _subject_, the _verb_, and, if the verb be incomplete, of some
completing element, _object_ or _attribute complement_. Occasionally an
_objective complement_ must be added. Besides these elementary parts, both
subject and predicate may have modifiers.
The usual modifiers of the subject are:--
1. Adjective: [The _golden_ bowl is broken].
2. Adjective phrase: [The house _on the hill_ is beautiful].
3. Adjective clause: [The house _which stands on the hill_ is beautiful].
4. Noun or pronoun in possessive case: [_Helen's_ paint box is lost].
5. Noun in apposition: [Mr. Merrill, the _president_ of the club, will
open the debate].
6. Adverb used as an adjective: [My _sometime_ friend].
7. Infinitive used adjectively: [Work _to do_ is a blessing].
8. Participle: [The child, _lagging_ behind, lost her way].
The modifiers of the predicate are:--
1. Adverb: [The snow melted very _quickly_].
2. Noun used adverbially: [I walked a _mile_].
3. Infinitive used adverbially: [We were called together _to decide_ an
important question].
4. Adverbial phrase: [She ran _along the road_].
5. Adverbial clause: [Go _when you can_].
6. Nominative absolute: [The _speeches being over_, the audience
dispersed].
Occasionally, adverbs and phrases of adverbial character modify the entire
thought in a sentence, rather than some single word: [_To speak plainly,_
I cannot go. _Perhaps_ I may help you].
LIST OF SPECIAL WORDS
+86. Special Words.+--A list is here given of words which
appear as various parts of speech:---
+a+ (1) Adjective: _A_ book. (2) Preposition: I go a-fishing.
+about+ (1) Preposition: Walk _about_ the house. (2) Adverb: We walked
_about_ for an hour. _By, over, up_, etc., are used in the
same way.
+above+ (1) Preposition: The sun is _above_ the horizon. (2) Adverb: Go
_above_. (3) Noun: Every good gift is from _above_. (4)
Adjective: The _above_ remarks are discredited. _Below_ has
the same uses.
+after+ (1) Preposition: _After_ our sail. (2) Conjunctive adverb: He
came _after_ she went away.
+all+ (1) Pronoun: _All_ went merry as a marriage bell. (2) Noun: I
gave my _all_. (3) Adjective: _All_ hands to the rescue.
(4) Adverb: The work is _all_ right.
+as+ (1) Conjunctive pronoun: I give such _as_ I have. (2) Conjunctive
adverb: I am not so old _as_ she. (3) Adverb: What other
grief is _as_ hard to bear? (4) Conjunction: _As_ it was hot,
we did not go. (5) Preposition: I warned her _as_ a friend.
(6) Compound Conjunction: He looks _as_ if he were not well.
+before+ (1) Preposition: He stood _before_ the door. (2) Conjunctive
Adverb: I will do it _before_ I go. (3) Adverb: She has never
been here _before_.
+both+ (1) Adjective: _Both_ white and red pines are beautiful. (2)
Pronoun: _Both_ are yours. (3) Conjunction: She is _both_
good and beautiful.
+but+ (1) Conjunction: John reads _but_ Richard plays. (2) Preposition:
All _but_ him are at home. (3) Adverb: We can _but_ fail.
+either+ (1) Adjective: _Either_ dress is becoming. (2) Conjunction:
_Either_ this dress or the other is becoming. (3) Pronoun:
_Either_ is right.
+fast+ (1) Noun: A long _fast_. (2) Verb: They _fast_ often. (3) Adverb:
The rain fell _fast_. (4) Adjective: He is a _fast_ walker.
+for+ (1) Subordinate Conjunction: I must go, _for_ I promised. (2)
Coördinate Conjunction: She stayed at home, _for_ I saw her.
(3) Preposition: I have nothing _for_ you.
+hard+ (1) Adjective: _Hard_ labor. (2) Adverb: He works _hard_.
+like+ (1) Noun: We may never see her _like_ again. (2) Adjective: This
process gives _like_ results. (3) Adverb: _Like_ as a father
pitieth his children. (4) Preposition: She looks _like_ me.
(By some grammarians _like_ in this case is considered a
_adjective_ with the preposition _to_ omitted.) (5) Verb:
You _like_ your work.
+little+ (1) Adjective: A _little_ bread. (2) Noun: I wish a _little_.
(3) Adverb: He laughs _little_. _Much_ has the same uses.
+many a+ (1) Adjective: _Many a_ tree.
+notwithstanding+ (1) Preposition: _Notwithstanding_ the rain, we were
content. (2) Conjunction or Preposition: She is happy,
_notwithstanding_ (the fact that) she is an invalid.
+only+ (1) Adjective: This is the _only_ way. (2) Adverb: _Only_
experienced persons need apply. (3) Conjunction: I should
go, _only_ it is stormy.
+since+ (1) Preposition: _Since_ that day I have not seen her. (2)
Conjunction: _Since_ you lost it, you must replace it.
(3) Adverb: I have not seen her _since_. (4) Conjunctive
Adverb: You have been here _since_ I have.
+still+ (1) Adjective: The lake is _still_. (2) Adverb: The tree is
_still_ lying where it fell. (3) Conjunction: He is
entertaining; _still_ he talks too much. (4) Verb: Oil
is said to _still_ the waves. (5) Noun: In the _still_ of
noonday the song of the locust was loud.
+than+ (1) Conjunction: I am older _than_ she. (2) Preposition: _Than_
whom there is none wiser.
+that+ (1) Demonstrative Pronoun: _That_ is right. (2) Conjunctive
Pronoun: He _that_ lives nobly is happy. (3) Adjective:
_That_ book is mine. (4) Conjunction: I say this _that_ you
may understand my position. (5) Substantive Conjunction:
_That_ this is true is evident.
+the+ (1) Adjective (article): _The_ lake. (2) Adverb: _The_ more ...
_the_ merrier.
+then+ (1) Adverb: I shall know _then_. (2) Conjunction: If you so
decide, _then_ we may go.
+there+ (1) Adverb: The stream runs _there_. (2) Expletive: _There_ are
many points to be considered. (3) Interjection: _There!
there!_ it makes no difference!
+what+ (1) Conjunctive Interrogative Pronoun: I heard _what_ you said.
Pronoun: _What_ shall I do? (3) Interrogative Adjective:
_What_ game do you prefer? (4) Conjunctive Adjective: I
know _what_ books he enjoys. (5) Adverb: _What_ with this
and _what_ with that, he finally got his wish. (6)
Interjection: _What! what!_
+while+ (1) Noun: A long _while_. (2) Verb: To _while_ away the time.
(3) Conjunctive Adverb: I stay in _while_ it snows.
III. FIGURES OF SPEECH
+87. Figures of Speech.+--A figure of speech is a change from the usual
form of expression for the purpose of producing a greater effect. These
changes may be effective either because they are more pleasing to us or
because they are more forcible, or for both reasons.
While figurative language is a change from the usual mode of expression,
we are not to think of it as being unnatural. It is, in fact, as natural
as plain language, and nearly every one, from the illiterate to the most
learned, makes use of it, more or less, in his ordinary conversation. This
arises from, the fact that we all enjoy comparisons and substitutions.
When we say that we have been pegging away all day at our work, or that
the wind howls, or that the man has a heart of steel, we are making use of
figures of speech. Figurative language ranges from these very simple
expressions to the beautiful figures of speech found in so much of our
poetry. Written prose contains many beautiful and forcible examples, but
it is in poetry that we find most of them.
+88. Simile.+--A simile is an expressed comparison between objects
belonging to different classes. We must remember, however, that all
resemblances do not constitute similes. If we compare two trees, or two
beehives, or two rivers, our comparison is not a simile. If we compare a
tree to a person, a beehive to a schoolroom, or time to a river, we may
form a good simile, since the things compared do not belong to the same
class. The best similes are those in which the ideas compared have one
strong point of resemblance, and are unlike in all other respects.
1. How far that little candle throws its beams!
So shines a good deed in a naughty world.
--Shakespeare.
2. For very young he seemed, tenderly reared;
Like some young cypress, tall, and dark, and straight.
--Matthew Arnold.
3. In the primrose-tinted sky
The wan little moon
Hangs like a jewel dainty and rare.
--Francis C. Rankin.
+89. Metaphor.+--A metaphor differs from a simile in that the comparison
is implied rather than expressed. They are essentially the same as far as
the comparison is concerned, and usually the one kind may be easily
changed to the other. In a simile we say that one object _is like_
another, in a metaphor we say that one object _is_ another.
EXERCISES
Select the metaphors in the following and change them to
similes:--
1. In arms the Austrian phalanx stood,
A living wall, a human wood.
--James Montgomery.
2. The familiar lines
Are footpaths for the thoughts of Italy.
--Longfellow.
3. Life is a leaf of paper white,
Whereon each one of us may write
His word or two, and then comes night.
--Lowell.
+90. Personification.+--Personification is a special form of the metaphor
in which life is attributed to inanimate objects or the characteristics of
persons are attributed to objects, animals, or even to abstract ideas.
EXERCISES
Explain why the following quotations are examples of personifications:--
1. The day is done; and slowly from the scene
The stooping sun upgathers his spent shafts
And puts them back into his golden quiver.
--Longfellow.
2. Time is a cunning workman and no man can detect his joints.
--Charles Pierce Burton.
3. The sun is couched, the seafowl gone to rest,
And the wild storm hath somewhere found a nest.
--Wordsworth.
4. See the mountains kiss high heaven,
And the waves clasp one another;
No sister flower would be forgiven
If it disdained its brother.
--Shelley.
+91. Apostrophe.+--Apostrophe is like personification, but has an
additional characteristic. When we directly address inanimate objects or
the absent as if they were present, we call the figure of speech thus
formed apostrophe.
The following are examples of apostrophe:--
1. Break, break, break,
At the foot of thy crags, O Sea!
--Tennyson.
2. Backward, turn backward, O Time, in your flight,
Make me a child again just for to-night!
Mother, come back from the echoless shore,
Take me again to your heart as of yore.
--Elizabeth Akers Allen.
+92. Metonymy.+--Metonymy consists in substituting one object for another,
the two being so closely associated that the mention of one suggests the
other.
1. The pupils are reading George Eliot.
2. Each hamlet heard the call.
3. Strike for your altars and your fires.
4. Gray hairs should be respected.
+93. Synecdoche.+--Synecdoche consists in substituting a part of anything
for the whole or a whole for the part.
1. A babe, two summers old.
2. Give us this day our daily bread.
3. Ring out the thousand years of woe,
Ring in the thousand years of peace.
4. Fifty mast are on the ocean.
+94. Other Figures of Speech.+--Sometimes, especially in older rhetorics,
the following so-called figures of speech are added to the list already
given: irony, hyperbole, antithesis, climax, and interrogation. The two
former pertain rather to style, in fact, are qualities of style, while the
last two might properly be placed along with kinds of sentences or
paragraph development. Since these so-called figures are not all mentioned
elsewhere in this text, a brief explanation and example of each will be
given here.
1. _Irony_ consists in saying just the opposite of the intended meaning,
but in such a way that it emphasizes that meaning.
What has the gray-haired prisoner done?
Has murder stained his hands with gore?
Not so; his crime is a fouler one--
God made the old man poor.
--Whittier.
2. _Hyperbole_ is an exaggerated expression used to increase
the effectiveness of a statement.
He was a man of boundless knowledge.
3. _Antithesis_ consists merely of contrasted statements. This contrast
may be found in a single sentence or it may be extended through an entire
paragraph.
Look like the innocent flower,
But be the serpent under it.
--Shakespeare.
4. _Climax_ consists of an ascendant arrangement of words or ideas.
I came, I saw, I conquered.
5. When a question is asked, not for the purpose of obtaining information
but in order to make speech more effective, it is called the figure of
_interrogation_. An affirmative question denies and a negative question
affirms.
1. Am I my brother's keeper?
2. Am I not free?
IV. THE RHETORICAL FEATURES OF THE SENTENCE
+95. Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis in Sentences.+--On pages 153-155 we
have considered the principles of unity, coherence, and emphasis as
applied to the whole composition. In much the same way these principles
are applicable to the sentence. A sentence possesses unity if all that it
contains makes one complete statement, and no more; and if all minor ideas
are made subordinate to one main idea. The effect must be single. A
sentence exhibits coherence when the relation of all of its parts is
perfectly clear. We secure emphasis in the sentence by placing ideas that
deserve distinction in conspicuous positions; by arranging the members of
a series in the order of climax; by using specific rather than general
terms; by expressing thoughts with directness and simplicity; and by
employing the devices of balance and contrast.
We must remember that, in the sentence as well as in the whole composition
and the paragraph, if coherence and unity are secured, emphasis is quite
likely to follow naturally. On the other hand, a violation of coherence or
unity often results in a lack of emphasis.
+96. Unity in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+--
1. _The presence of more than one main thought_. (Stonewall Jackson was a
general in the Confederate Army, and he is said to have been a very
religious man.) In this sentence two distinct thoughts are embodied, and
in such a way that their relation to each other is altogether illogical.
The effect is not that of a single thought. To possess unity the two or
more thoughts of a compound sentence should sustain some particular
relation, like cause and effect, contrast, series, details of a picture.
We can unite the two thoughts in a perfectly logical sentence, thus:
(Stonewall Jackson, the Confederate general, is said to have been a very
religious man.)
2. _The addition of too many dependent clauses_. (The boy was startled
when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his captors, who were preparing to
seize the boat, which had been left by his friends who had so mysteriously
deserted him at a time when he needed them most.) Here, the numerous
dependent clauses tacked on obscure the main thought. The sentence should
be broken up and, where possible, clauses should be reduced to phrases and
words. (The boy was startled when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his
captors. They were preparing to seize the boat left by his friends, who
had deserted him in the hour of greatest need.)
3. _The presence of incongruous ideas_. (With his hair combed and his
shoes blacked, he gave the impression of being a very strong man.) The
ideas of this sentence have no logical relation to each other. There is
little likelihood, too, of making them more congruous by any change in the
sentence. Blacking one's shoes and combing one's hair do not make one look
strong. The remedy for such a sentence is to separate the incongruous
ideas.
4. _A needless change of construction_. (Silas was kindly received by the
men in the tavern; and when they had listened to his story and his answers
to their questions had been noted, they began to think of catching the
thief.) Confusion arises from such sudden and needless changes of the
subject. By keeping the same subject throughout, we secure unity of
impression. (The men in the tavern received Silas kindly; and when they
had listened to his story and had noted his answers to their questions,
they began to think of catching the thief.)
5. _Making the sentence too short and fragmentary to serve as a logical
unit of the paragraph_. (I went to the park yesterday. It was a pleasant
day. I saw many animals. I had a good time, etc.) Each of these sentences,
when considered in its relation to the others, and to the development of
the thought, is altogether too incomplete and unimportant in ideas
expressed to stand alone. Unity of impression and dignity of thought are
gained by combining the sentences. (Yesterday was a pleasant day; so I
went to the park, where I saw many animals, and had a good time.)
+97. Coherence in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+--
1. _The wrong placing of modifiers_. (The victorious general was
returning to his native city after many hard-fought campaigns with his
staff officers.) It is not likely that the campaigns here referred
to were waged against the staff officers. By changing the position of
phrases we express the thought that the writer had in mind. (After many
hard-fought campaigns, the victorious general, with his staff officers,
was approaching his native city.) Especial care should be taken in placing
the correlatives _either, or; neither, nor; not only, but also;_ and the
word _only_. Incoherence frequently arises through the wrong placing of
these words.
2. _The careless use of pronouns_. (Argument plays a very little part in
that work, and those that do occur are not interesting.) (He repeated to
his father what he had told him the night before when he was in his room.)
In both sentences, the relation between pronouns and antecedents is not
clear, and incoherence results. With the ambiguity in the use of the
pronouns remedied, the sentences are entirely coherent. (Argument plays a
very little part in that work, and whatever argumentative material is
found is not interesting.) (He repeated to his father what he had told
this parent the night before in his room.)
3. _Careless participial and infinitive relations_. (After carefully
preparing my lessons, a friend came in.) (Standing on Brooklyn Bridge, a
great many ferryboats can be seen.) The relation of the parts is
manifestly illogical and absurd. The sentences should read: (After I had
carefully prepared my lessons, a friend came in.) (While standing on
Brooklyn Bridge, one can see a great many ferryboats.)
4. _The use of wrong connectives_. (It rained yesterday, and I went to
school.) We assume that the pupil wishes to convey the thought that he
went to school yesterday in spite of the rain. But by his use of the
coordinating conjunction, "and," he has failed to establish a logical
relation between the two clauses. In this case unity is violated as well
as coherence. Use different connectives and note the result, (Although it
rained yesterday, I went to school) or, (It rained yesterday, but I went
to school).
5. _Failure to observe parallelism in form_. (The stranger seemed
courteous in his conduct and to have a solicitude for my welfare.)
Although this sentence is grammatically correct, the shift in structure
from the adjective and its phrase to the infinitive phrase leads to
confusion in thought. How much clearer and smoother this rendering: (The
stranger seemed courteous in his conduct and solicitous for my welfare.)
+98. Emphasis in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+--
1. _Weak beginnings and endings_. (A fire in the city is an exciting event
to the average boy.) (It seemed that the unprincipled fellow had forged
his father's name.) In the first sentence, the important words are
"exciting event," and they should occupy the most conspicuous position,--
at the end of the sentence. The effectiveness is much improved by this
order: (To the average boy, a fire in the city is an exciting event.) In
the second sentence the weak place is the beginning. The subject and its
modifiers are striking enough to demand their rightful position,--as the
introductory words; in "forged his father's name" we have ideas startling
enough for a place at the end of the sentence. "It seemed that" can be
reduced to one word, "apparently," and this can be made parenthetical.
(The unprincipled fellow, apparently, had forged his father's name.) This
sentence, it will be observed, illustrates the periodic or suspended
structure, a type particularly effective to employ for sustaining interest
as well as for securing emphasis.
2. _Failure to observe the order of climax_. (Dazed, broken-hearted,
hungry, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.) Clearly, the strongest
idea is suggested by "broken-hearted." A better order would be: (Hungry,
dazed, broken-hearted, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.)
3. _The use of superfluous words_. (I rushed hurriedly into the burning
house and hastily snatched my few possessions.) In this sentence, "rushed"
and "snatched" lose rather than gain force by adding "hurriedly" and
"hastily." Look up definitions of "rush" and "snatch." When we wish to
express strong emotion or to describe action resulting from excitement, we
only weaken the impression by using unnecessary words. Simple, direct
sentences are most forceful. In aiming to secure sentence emphasis, then,
we should avoid circumlocution, redundancy, tautology, and verbosity.
(Look up these terms in the Century Dictionary.)
4. _The use of general rather than specific terms_. (He approached the
brook cautiously, and concealing himself in the bushes, began fishing.) A
consideration of the choice of words in the sentence belongs strictly to
the study of diction; however, force in the sentence is dependent in a
large measure on the words employed. Observe how forceful the following
sentence is as contrasted with the first example: (He crept noiselessly to
the fishing hole, and hiding in the willows, threw his hook into the
stream.)
5. _Failure to employ balance and contrast_. (Worth makes the man; but the
fellow is made by the want of it.) (His life was spent in repenting of
past misdeeds; in doing what was wrong, while he inculcated principles of
righteousness.) Compare these with: (Worth makes the man; the want of it,
the fellow.) (His life was spent in sinning and repenting; in inculcating
what was right, and doing what was wrong.) Here the regularity of form
gives pleasure to the taste, while the position of balanced and parallel
parts adds clearness, coherence, and emphasis to the thoughts expressed.
This method of sentence structure, if employed too frequently, however,
will lead to a mannerism difficult to overcome. The caution to be heeded
in the case of this type of sentence as well as in the case of every other
is, "Nothing too much." Observe the law of variety.
EXERCISES
Point out the specific faults and correct:--
1. He neither gave satisfaction as butler nor as coachman.
2. Elaine deserves our sympathy from the beginning to the end of the
novel.
3. John only played once and won; and then, after watching the other
players for a time, he got up and left the room.
4. The boy had an unconquerable fear of reptiles which no reasoning could
overcome.
5 The Vicar's son Moses was a good student of the classics, but he made a
bad bargain in his purchase of the green spectacles.
6. In all of his behavior toward Lynette, Gareth was patient and
courteous, which reflected much credit on his knightly character.
7. Johnson was a man with a heroic soul, a wonderful intellect, and a kind
heart.
8. After they had all assembled and come together, Odysseus addressed
them.
9. He had reached the age of seventy, and his death was due to a nervous
disorder.
10. The boys were only injured a little.
11. George Eliot's writings are filled with the philosophy of life, if we
are wise enough to discover it.
12. Addison was sincere and kindly in his attitude toward men, and Pope
was hypocritical and spiteful.
13. With reputation, character, and wealth gone, the poor man had little
to live for.
14. Lancelot loved Queen Guinevere dearly, and he was Arthur's most
valorous knight.
15. We are at peace with all the world and the rest of mankind.
16. Cedric lived with two great ends in view,--the union of Athelstane and
Rowena and to see a restored Saxon monarchy.
17. James was walking backward and forward on the mountain side, which at
this place was very precipitous and from which a little silvery stream
issued to begin its rapid descent to the quiet hamlet that lay far below.
18. In our efforts to succeed in life we work hard that we may make names
for ourselves and to acquire property.
19. He is a good hunter, but his wife is a Methodist.
20. Going up the street I saw the strangest-looking man.
21. James speaks German fluently, and he did not begin to study it until
last year.
22. On returning to the deck, the sea assumed a very different aspect.
V. LIST OF SYNONYMS
Abandon, cast off, desert, forswear, quit, renounce, withdraw from.
Abate, decrease, diminish, mitigate, moderate.
Abhor, abominate, detest, dislike, loathe.
Abiding, enduring, lasting, permanent, perpetual.
Ability, capability, capacity, competency, efficacy, power.
Abolish, annul, eradicate, exterminate, obliterate, root out, wipe out.
Abomination, curse, evil, iniquity, nuisance, shame.
Absent, absent-minded, absorbed, abstracted, oblivious, preoccupied.
Absolve, acquit, clear.
Abstemiousness, abstinence, frugality, moderation, sobriety, temperance.
Absurd, ill-advised, ill-considered, ludicrous, monstrous, paradoxical,
preposterous, unreasonable, wild.
Abundant, adequate, ample, enough, generous, lavish, plentiful.
Accomplice, ally, colleague, helper, partner.
Active, agile, alert, brisk, bustling, energetic, lively, supple.
Actual, authentic, genuine, real.
Address, adroitness, courtesy, readiness, tact.
Adept, adroit, deft, dexterous, handy, skillful.
Adequate, adjoining, bordering, near, neighboring.
Admire, adore, respect, revere, venerate.
Admit, allow, concede, grant, suffer, tolerate.
Admixture, alloy.
Adverse, disinclined, indisposed, loath, reluctant, slow, unwilling.
Aerial, airy, animated, ethereal, frolicsome.
Affectation, cant, hypocrisy, pretense, sham.
Affirm, assert, avow, declare, maintain, state.
Aged, ancient, antiquated, antique, immemorial, old, venerable.
Air, bearing, carriage, demeanor.
Akin, alike, identical.
Alert, on the alert, sleepless, wary, watchful.
Allay, appease, calm, pacify.
Alliance, coalition, compact, federation, union, fusion.
Allude, hint, imply, insinuate, intimate, suggest.
Allure, attract, cajole, coax, inveigle, lure.
Amateur, connoisseur, novice, tyro.
Amend, better, mend, reform, repair.
Amplify, develop, expand, extend, unfold, widen.
Amusement, diversion, entertainment, pastime.
Anger, exasperation, petulance, rage, resentment.
Animal, beast, brute, living creature, living organism.
Answer, rejoinder, repartee, reply, response, retort.
Anticipate, forestall, preclude, prevent.
Apiece, individually, severally, separately.
Apparent, clear, evident, obvious, tangible, unmistakable.
Apprehend, comprehend, conceive, perceive, understand.
Arraign, charge, cite, impeach, indict, prosecute, summon.
Arrogance, haughtiness, presumption, pride, self-complacency,
superciliousness, vanity.
Artist, artificer, artisan, mechanic, operative, workman.
Artless, boorish, clownish, hoidenish, rude, uncouth, unsophisticated.
Assent, agree, comply.
Assurance, effrontery, hardihood, impertinence, impudence, incivility,
insolence, officiousness, rudeness.
Atom, grain, scrap, particle, shred, whit.
Atrociousness, barbaric, barbarous, brutal, merciless.
Attack, assault, infringement, intrusion, onslaught.
Attain, accomplish, achieve, arrive at, compass, reach, secure.
Attempt, endeavor, essay, strive, try, undertake.
Attitude, pose, position, posture.
Attribute, ascribe, assign, charge, impute.
Axiom, truism.
Baffle, balk, bar, check, embarrass, foil, frustrate, hamper, hinder,
impede, retard, thwart.
Banter, burlesque, drollery, humor, jest, raillery, wit, witticism.
Beg, plead, press, urge.
Beguile, divert, enliven, entertain, occupy.
Bewilderment, confusion, distraction, embarrassment, perplexity.
Bind, fetter, oblige, restrain, restrict.
Blaze, flame, flare, flash, flicker, glare, gleam, gleaming, glimmer,
glitter, light, luster, shimmer, sparkle.
Blessed, hallowed, holy, sacred, saintly.
Boasting, display, ostentation, pomp, pompousness, show.
Brave, adventurous, bold, courageous, daring, dauntless, fearless,
gallant, heroic, undismayed.
Bravery, coolness, courage, gallantry, heroism.
Brief, concise, pithy, sententious, terse.
Bring over, convince, induce, influence, persuade, prevail upon, win over.
Calamity, disaster, misadventure, mischance, misfortune, mishap.
Candid, impartial, open, straightforward, transparent, unbiased,
unprejudiced, unreserved.
Candor, frankness, truth, veracity.
Caprice, humor, vagary, whim.
Caricature, burlesque, parody, travesty.
Catch, capture, clasp, clutch, grip, secure.
Cause, consideration, design, end, ground, motive, object, reason,
purpose.
Caution, discretion, prudence.
Censure, criticism, rebuke, reproof, reprimand, reproach.
Character, constitution, disposition, reputation, temper, temperament.
Characteristic, peculiarity, property, singularity, trait.
Chattering, garrulous, loquacious, talkative.
Cheer, comfort, delight, ecstasy, gayety, gladness, gratification,
happiness, jollity, satisfaction.
Churlish, crusty, gloomy, gruff, ill-natured, morose, sour, sullen, surly.
Class, circle, clique, coterie.
Cloak, cover, gloss over, mitigate, palliate, screen.
Cloy, sate, satiate, satisfy, surfeit.
Commit, confide, consign, intrust, relegate.
Compassion, forbearance, lenience, mercy.
Compassionate, gracious, humane.
Complete, consummate, faultless, flawless, perfect.
Confirm, corroborate.
Conflicting, discordant, discrepant, incongruous, mismated.
Confused, discordant, miscellaneous, various.
Conjecture, guess, suppose, surmise.
Conscious, aware, certain.
Consequence, issue, outcome, outgrowth, result, sequel, upshot.
Continual, continuous, incessant, unbroken, uninterrupted.
Credible, conceivable, likely, presumable, probable, reasonable.
Customary, habitual, normal, prevailing, usual, wonted.
Damage, detriment, disadvantage, harm, hurt, injury, prejudice.
Dangerous, formidable, terrible.
Defame, deprecate, disparage, slander, vilify.
Defile, infect, soil, stain, sully, taint, tarnish.
Deleterious, detrimental, hurtful, harmful, mischievous, pernicious,
ruinous.
Delicate, fine, minute, refined, slender.
Delightful, grateful, gratifying, refreshing, satisfying.
Difficult, hard, laborious, toilsome, trying.
Digress, diverge, stray, swerve, wander.
Disown, disclaim, disavow, recall, renounce, repudiate, retract.
Dispose, draw, incline, induce, influence, move, prompt, stir.
Earlier, foregoing, previous, preliminary.
Effeminate, feminine, womanish, womanly.
Emergency, extremity, necessity.
Empty, fruitless, futile, idle, trifling, unavailing, useless, vain,
visionary.
Erudition, knowledge, profundity, sagacity, sense, wisdom.
Eternal, imperishable, interminable, perennial, perpetual, unfailing.
Excuse, pretense, pretext, subterfuge.
Exemption, immunity, liberty, license, privilege.
Explicit, express.
Faint, faint-hearted, faltering, half-hearted, irresolute, languid,
listless, purposeless.
Faithful, loyal, stanch, trustworthy, trusty.
Fanciful, fantastic, grotesque, imaginative, visionary.
Fling, gibe, jeer, mock, scoff, sneer, taunt.
Flock, bevy, brood, covey, drove, herd, litter, pack.
Fluctuate, hesitate, oscillate, vacillate, waver.
Folly, imbecility, senselessness, stupidity.
Grief, melancholy, regret, sadness, sorrow.
Hale, healthful, healthy, salutary, sound, vigorous.
Ignorant, illiterate, uninformed, uninstructed, unlettered, untaught.
Impulsive, involuntary, spontaneous, unbidden, voluntary, willing.
Indispensable, inevitable, necessary, requisite, unavoidable.
Inquisitive, inquiring, intrusive, meddlesome, peeping, prying.
Intractable, perverse, petulant, ungovernable, wayward, willful.
Irritation, offense, pique, resentment.
Probably, presumably.
Reliable, trustworthy, trusty.
Remnant, trace, token, vestige.
Requite, repay, retaliate, satisfy.
VI. LIST OF WORDS FOR EXERCISES IN WORD USAGE
Ability, capacity.
Accept, except.
Acceptance, acceptation.
Access, accession.
Accredit, credit.
Act, action.
Admire, like.
Admittance, admission.
Advance, advancement, progress, progression.
Affect, effect.
After, afterward.
Aggravating, irritating, provoking, exasperating.
Allege, maintain
Allow, guess, think.
Allusion, illusion, delusion.
Almost, most, mostly.
Alone, only.
Alternate, choice.
Among, between.
Amount, number, quantity.
Angry, mad.
Apparently, evidently.
Apt, likely, liable.
Arise, rise.
At, in.
Avocation, vocation.
Awfully, very.
Balance, rest, remainder.
Begin, commence.
Beside, besides.
Both, each, every.
Bring, fetch.
By, with.
Calculate, intend.
Carry, bring, fetch.
Casuality, casualty.
Character, reputation.
Claim, assert.
Clever, pleasant.
College, university, school.
Completeness, completion.
Compliment, complement.
Confess, admit.
Construe, construct.
Contemptible, contemptuous.
Continual, continuous.
Convince, convict.
Council, counsel.
Couple, pair.
Credible, creditable, credulous.
Custom, habit.
Deadly, deathly.
Decided, decisive.
Decimate, destroy.
Declare, assert.
Degrade, demean.
Depot, station, R.R.
Discover, invent.
Drive, ride.
Each other, any other, one another.
Emigration, immigration, migration.
Enormity, enormousness.
Estimate, esteem.
Exceptional, exceptionable.
Expect, suppose.
Falseness, falsity.
Fly, flee.
Funny, odd.
Grant, give.
Habit, practice.
Haply, happily.
Healthy, healthful, wholesome.
Human, humane.
Lady, woman.
Last, latest, preceding.
Learn, teach.
Lease, hire.
Less, fewer.
Lie, lay.
Loan, lend.
Love, like.
Mad, angry.
Majority, plurality.
Manly, mannish.
May, can.
Mutual, common.
Necessities, necessaries.
Nice, pleasant, attractive.
Noted, notorious.
Observation, observance.
Official, officious.
Oral, verbal.
Part, portion.
Partly, partially.
Persecute, prosecute.
Person, party.
Practicable, practical.
Prescribe, proscribe.
Prominent, predominant.
Purpose, propose.
Quite, very, rather.
Relation, relative.
Repair, mend.
Requirement, requisite.
Rise, raise.
Scholar, pupil, student.
Sensible of, sensitive to.
Series, succession.
Settle, locate.
Sewage, sewerage.
Shall, will.
Should, would.
Sit, set.
Splendid, elegant.
Statement, assertion.
Statue, statute, stature.
Stay, stop.
Team, carriages.
Transpire, happen.
Verdict, testimony.
Without, unless.
Womanly, womanish.
INDEX
Abbott.
Action: observation of.
Actuality: in argument.
Adams.
Adjectives.
Advantages:
of expressing ideas gained from experience;
of imaginative theme writing.
Adverbs.
Agreement.
Allen, Elizabeth A.
Allen, James Lane.
Ambiguity.
Analogy: argument from.
Antithesis.
Apostrophe:
rule for;
as figure of speech.
Argument:
purpose of;
use of explanation in;
by stating advantages and disadvantages;
by use of specific instances;
refutation or indirect;
differs from exposition;
clear thinking essential;
by inference;
from cause;
from sign;
from example;
from analogy;
differs from persuasion;
with persuasion.
Argumentative themes.
Arnold.
Arrangement:
_see_ coherence;
in argument;
summary of.
Attendant circumstances: argument from.
Authority: appeals to in argument.
Auxiliary verbs.
Ayton.
Bagley.
Baldwin.
Ballad.
Bancroft.
Belief:
necessity in debate;
establishing a general theory;
basis of.
Beveridge.
Biography.
Blank verse.
Boardman.
Bourdillon.
Bowles.
Bradley.
Brief.
Brown.
Browning.
Bryant.
Budgell.
Burke.
Burns.
Burroughs.
Byron.
Cable.
Camp.
Capitals.
Cary.
Case.
Cause and effect:
development of paragraph by use of;
development of composition by use of;
use in exposition;
use in argument.
Cautions and suggestions:
use of figures of speech;
in debating;
use of pronouns;
use of adjectives;
use of verbs;
use of adverbs;
prepositions.
Character sketch.
Choice of words:
adapted to reader;
as to meaning;
simple.
Clark.
Classification.
Clauses: restrictive and non-restrictive.
Clearness.
Climax:
in narration;
in argument;
as figure of speech.
Coherence:
definition;
in outline;
in composition;
arrangement of details;
arrangement of facts in exposition;
aided by outline;
in argument;
in sentences.
Coleridge.
Colon: rules for.
Colton.
Comma: rules for.
Comparison:
as an aid to formation of images;
development of a paragraph by;
definitions supplemented by;
as a method of developing a composition;
as an aid in establishing fundamental image;
as an aid to effectiveness in description;
use in exposition;
analogy;
of adjectives;
of adverbs.
Complete and incomplete verbs.
Composition:
kinds of;
general principles of.
Conclusion.
Conjugation.
Conjunctions.
Connolly.
Connor.
Constructions:
of nouns;
of personal pronouns;
of relative pronouns;
of adjectives.
Contrast:
development of a paragraph by;
development of a composition by;
use in exposition.
Conversation.
Cooper.
Copeland-Rideout.
Correction of themes.
Darwin.
Dash: rules for.
Debate:
value of;
statement of question;
necessity of belief;
order of presentation;
cautions.
Deductive reasoning: errors of.
Definition:
by synonym;
by use of simpler words;
definitions to be supplemented;
first step in exposition;
logical;
difficulty in framing;
inexact.
Description:
Chapter VIII (_see also_ descriptive themes);
defined;
effectiveness in;
classes of objects frequently described:
buildings;
natural features;
sounds;
color;
animals;
plants;
persons;
impression of;
impression as purpose of;
in narration;
general description.
Descriptive themes.
Details:
selection of;
paragraph developed by;
related in time-order;
related with reference to position in space;
used in general description;
in general narration;
composition developed by giving details in time-order;
by giving details with reference to position in space;
selection of, affected by point of view;
selection of essential;
selection and subordination of minor;
arrangement of;
in narration;
arrangement;
selection of facts in exposition;
exposition by use of.
Dewey.
Diction.
Discourse: forms of
presupposes an audience.
Division.
Dixey.
Dramatic poetry.
Dryer.
Dunbar, Mary Louise.
Ease.
Effectiveness in description
comparison and figures of speech, as aids to.
Elegance.
Elegy.
Eliot, George.
Emphasis
in sentences.
Enthymeme.
Epic.
Equivalents: for nouns
for adjectives.
for adverbs
Essentials of expression.
Euphony.
Evidence.
Examples: use in exposition
argument from _(see also_ specific instances).
Exclamation mark: rule for.
Expediency: questions of.
Experience: ideas gained from, Chapter I; relation to imagination
impressions limited to.
Exposition: Chapter X (see _also_ expository themes); purpose of
importance of
clear understanding necessary
of terms
of propositions
by repetition
by examples
by comparison and contrast
by obverse statements
by details
by cause and effect
by general description
by general narration
by use of specific instances.
Expository themes.
Expression: essentials of.
Fallacy.
Feelings: appeal to, in persuasion.
Feet.
Fields.
Figures of speech
use of
as an aid to effectiveness in description.
Ford.
Form: importance of
directions as to.
Forms of discourse.
Fundamental image.
Gender.
General theory: how established,
basis of
appeals to.
George, Marian M.
Gilman.
Grammar review.
Gray.
Hare.
Harland.
Harris.
Hawthorne.
Henry.
Higginson and Channing.
Hinman.
History: writing of.
Hoar.
Holland.
Holmes.
Howells.
Hyperbole.
Ideas: from experience, Chapter I;
from imagination, Chapter II; from
language, Chapter III.
pleasure in expressing
sources of
advantages of expressing ideas gained from experience
from imagination
ideas from pictures
acquired through language.
Images: making of
complete and incomplete
reproduction of
other requirements to determine meaning
fundamental
union with impression.
Imagination, Chapter II.
Impression:
of description,
as purpose of description,
necessity of observing impressions,
limited to experience,
affected by mood,
union with image.
Improbability.
Incentive moment.
Indentation.
Inductive reasoning:
errors of.
Inference: use in argument.
Infinitives.
Interrogation.
Interrogation mark: rule for.
Introduction.
Invitations.
Irony.
Irving.
Jackson, Helen Hunt.
Jordan and Kellogg.
Kellogg.
Kingsley.
Kipling.
Language:
as a medium through which ideas are acquired,
adapted to reader,
Letter writing: Chapter VI;
importance of,
paper,
beginning,
body,
conclusion,
envelope,
rule of,
business letters,
letters of friendship,
adaptation to reader,
notes.
Lodge.
Longfellow.
Lovelace.
Lowell.
Lyric poetry.
Macaulay.
Macy-Norris.
Madame de Stael.
Matthews.
Maxims: appeals to in argument.
McCarthy, Justin.
Meaning of words.
Memory.
Metaphor:
mixed.
Methods of developing a composition:
with reference to time-order,
with reference to position in space,
by use of comparison or contrast,
by use of generalization and facts,
by stating cause and effect,
by a combination of methods.
Metonymy.
Metrical romance.
Metrical tale.
Mill.
Mill, J. S.
Miller, Mary Rogers.
Milton.
Mode.
Montgomery.
Morris, Clara.
Motive, in persuasion.
Narration: Chapter IX _(see also_ narrative themes below);
kinds of,
use of description in,
general narration,
narrative poetry.
Narrative themes.
Newcomer.
Notes:
formal,
informal.
Nouns.
Number.
Observation:
of actions,
order of,
accuracy in,
observation of impression.
Obverse statements.
Ode.
Ollivaut.
Oral compositions.
Order of events.
Outline:
of a paragraph.
the brief.
making of.
use of in exposition.
Palmer.
Paragraph:
defined,
topic statement,
importance of,
length,
indentation,
reasons for studying,
methods of development--
by specific instances,
by giving details,
in time-order,
as determined by position in space,
by comparison,
by cause and effect,
by repetition,
by a combination of methods.
Paraphrasing.
Participles.
Partition.
Parts of speech.
Period: rules for.
Person.
Personification.
Persuasion:
differs from argument,
importance and necessity of,
motive in,
material of,
appeal to feelings,
with argument.
Phelps, Elizabeth Stuart.
Philips, David Graham.
Phillips, Wendell.
Phrases.
Plot:
interrelation with character.
Poe.
Poetry: Chapter VII;
aim of,
kinds of.
Point: of a story,
_see also_ climax.
Point of view:
selection of details effected by,
implied,
changing,
place in paragraph.
Possibility: in argument.
Post.
Prepositions.
Preston and Dodge.
Principal parts of verbs.
Probability:
in narration,
in argument.
Procter, Adelaide.
Pronouns.
Pronunciation.
Proportion of parts: for emphasis.
Propositions:
specific,
general,
exposition of,
necessary to argument,
of fact and of theory,
statement of.
Proverbs: use in argument.
Punctuation.
Quotation marks: rules for.
Rankin.
Read.
Reasoning:
inductive,
errors of induction,
deductive,
relation between inductive and deductive,
errors of deduction.
Reasons: number and value of.
Recitations:
preparation for,
topical.
Refutation.
Reid, Captain Mayne.
Repetition:
developing a paragraph by,
exposition by use of.
Reproduction:
of a story,
of the thought of a paragraph.
Restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses.
Rhyme.
Rhythm: variation in.
Richards, Laura E.
Right: questions of.
Robertson.
Roosevelt.
Ruskin.
Scansion.
Scott.
Semicolon: rules for.
Sentences:
length,
in conversation,
relations,
rhetorical features.
Sewell, Anna.
Shakespeare.
Shelley.
Sign: argument from.
Simile.
Slang.
Smith.
Song.
Sonnet.
Sources of ideas.
Specific instances:
development of a paragraph by use of,
use in argument and exposition,
development of a composition by use of,
use in exposition.
Spelling.
Spencer.
Stanza.
Stevenson.
Stoddard.
Strong verbs.
Subject:
selection of,
adapted to reader,
sources,
should be definite,
narrowing.
Suggestions, _see_ cautions.
Summaries, at the end of the chapters.
Summarizing paragraph.
Syllogism.
Symons.
Synecdoche.
Synonyms.
Tarkington.
Taylor.
Tennyson.
Tense.
Terms:
specific, general,
explanation of,
exposition of,
use in argument and exposition.
Themes: _see_ descriptive, narrative, expository, argumentative, and
reproduction themes.
Thoreau.
Thurston.
Time-order.
Title: selecting of.
Topic statement.
Transition from one paragraph to another.
Transition paragraph.
Trowbridge.
Turner.
Unity:
aided by time relations,
aided by position in space,
definition,
in life;
in outline,
in composition,
in sentences,
selection of details giving,
selection of facts in exposition,
aided by outline.
Van Dyke.
Van Rensselaer (Mrs.).
Variety.
Verbs.
Verse: names of.
Vocabulary:
how to increase,
words applicable to classes of objects.
Voice.
Wallace.
Warner.
Wessels.
Whittier.
Wilcox, Ella Wheeler.
Woode.
Words:
choice of,
spelling, pronunciation, meaning, use,
relations of,
adapted to reader,
selection,
use of simpler words,
selection,
applicable to classes of objects,
offices of,
special list of.
Wordsworth.
End of Project Gutenberg's Composition-Rhetoric, by Stratton D. Brooks