probability may become so strong as to be accepted as certainty. In common
speech this difference is borne in mind, and we distinguish a fact or
event that is only possible from one that is probable; and likewise one
that is only probable from one in which the probability approaches so near
to certainty as to convince us that it actually did exist or occur. Our
arguments may therefore be directed to proving possibility, probability,
or actuality.
If we believe that an event actually occurred, the belief implies both
possibility and probability. Therefore, if we wish a person to believe in
the actual occurrence of an event, we must first be sure that he does not
question the possibility of its existence, and then we must show him that
it probably did take place. Only when we have shown that an event is
extremely probable have we the right to say that we have shown its actual
occurrence.
A mother finding some damage done to one of the pictures on the wall could
not justly accuse her young son unless by the presence of a chair or
stepladder it had been possible for him to reach the picture. This
possibility, reënforced by a knowledge of his tendency to mischief, and by
the fact that he was in the house at the time the damage was done, would
lead to the belief that he probably was guilty. Proof that he was actually
responsible for the damage would still be lacking, and it might later be
discovered that the injury had been done accidentally by one of the
servants.
Possibility, probability, and actuality merge into one another so
gradually that no sharply defined distinctions can be observed. It is
impossible to say that a certain argument establishes possibility, another
probability, and a third the actuality of an event. One statement may do
all three, but any proof of actuality must include arguments showing both
possibility and probability. A person accused of murder attempts to
demonstrate his innocence by proving an _alibi;_ that is, he attempts to
show that he was at some other place at the time the murder was committed
and so cannot possibly be guilty. Such an alibi, established by reliable
witnesses, is positive proof of innocence, no matter how strong the
evidence pointing to probable guilt may be.
+189. Argument from Cause.+--We have learned, in Section 49, that the
relation of cause and effect is one which is ingrained in our nature. We
accept a proposition as plausible if a cause which we consider adequate
has been assigned. Our belief in a proposition often depends upon our
belief in some other proposition which may be accepted as a cause.
Thus, in the following statements, the truth of one proposition leads to
the belief that the other is also true:--
_a._ Henry has studied hard this year; therefore he will pass his college
entrance examinations.
_b._ The man has severed an artery; therefore he will probably bleed to
death before the physician arrives.
_c._ It will soon grow warmer, because the sun has risen.
_An argument from cause_ may be of itself conclusive evidence of the fact.
But, for the most part, such arguments merely establish the possibility or
probability of the proposition and so render it ready for proof. In our
arrangement of material, we therefore place such arguments _first_.
+190. Argument from Sign.+--Cause and effect are so closely united that
when an effect is observed we assume that there has been a cause, and we
direct our argument to proving what it is. An effect is so associated with
its cause that the existence of an effect is a sign of the existence of a
cause, and such an argument is called an _argument from sign_. Reasoning
from sign is very common in our daily life. The wild geese flying south
indicate the approach of cold weather. The baby's toys show that the baby
has been in the room. A man's hat found beside a rifled safe will convict
the man of the crime. A dog's track in the garden is proof that a dog has
been there.
If the effect observed is always associated with the same cause, the
argument is conclusive. If I observe as an effect that the river has
frozen over during the night, I have no doubt that it has been caused by a
lowering of the temperature.
If two or three possible causes exist, our argument becomes conclusive
only by considering them all and by showing that all but one did not
produce the observed effect. If the principal of a school knows that one
of three boys broke a window light, he may be able to prove which one did
it by finding out the two who did not. If a man is found shot to death,
the coroner's jury may prove that he was murdered by showing that he did
not commit suicide. If there are many possible causes, the method of
elimination becomes too tedious and must be abandoned. If you find that
your horse is lame, it would be difficult to prove which of the many
possible causes actually operated to produce the lameness, though the
attendant circumstances might point to some one cause and so lead you to
assume that it was the one.
Under _arguments from sign_ should be included also those cases when we
pass directly from one effect to another that arises from the same cause;
as, "I hear the windmill turning, it will be a good day to sail;" or,
"These beans are thrifty, therefore if I plant potatoes here I shall get a
good crop." In these sentences the wind and the fertile soil are not
mentioned, but we pass directly from one effect to another.
As used by rhetoricians, arguments from sign include also arguments from
attendant circumstances. If we have observed that two events have happened
near together in time, we accept the occurrence of one as a sign that the
other will follow. When we hear the factory whistle blow, we conclude that
in a few minutes the workmen will pass our window on their way home. Such
a conclusion is based upon a belief established by an inductive process.
The degree of probability that it gives depends upon the number of times
that it has been observed to act without failure. If we have seen two boys
frequently together, the presence of one is a sign of the probable
presence of the other. A camp fire would point to the recent presence of
some one who kindled it.
In using an argument from sign care must be taken not to confuse the
relation of cause and effect with that of contiguity in time or place. Do
not allege that which happened at the same time or near the same place as
a cause. If you do use an attendant circumstance, be sure that it adds
something to the probability.
+191. Argument from Example.+--It has been pointed out in the study of
inductive reasoning (Section 176) that a single example may suffice to
establish a general notion of a class. In dealing with objects of the
physical world, if essential and invariable qualities of the object are
considered, they may be asserted to be qualities of each member of the
class, and such an argument from an individual to all the members of the
class is convincing. They thus rank with arguments from sign as effective
in proving the certainty of a proposition.
In dealing with human actions, on the other hand, examples are seldom
proofs of fact. We cannot say that all men will act in a certain way under
given circumstances because one man has so acted. Nevertheless, arguments
by examples are frequently used and are especially powerful when we wish
not only to convince a man, but also to persuade him to action. This
persuasion to action must be based on conviction, and in such a case the
argument from sign that convinces the man of the truth of a proposition
should precede the example that urges him to action. After convincing a
friend that there are advantages to be derived from joining a society, we
may persuade him to join by naming those who have joined.
+192. Argument from Analogy.+--Analogy is very much relied upon in
practical life. Reasoning from analogy depends upon the recognition of
similarity in regard to some particulars followed by the inference that
the similarity extends to other particulars. As soon as it was known that
the atmospheric conditions of the planet Mars are similar to those of the
earth, it was argued by analogy that Mars must also, be inhabited.
An analogy is seldom conclusive and, though it is often effective in
argument, it must not be taken as proof of fact. The mind very readily
observes likenesses, and when directed toward the establishing of a
proposition easily overlooks the differences. In order to determine the
strength of an argument from analogy, attention should be given to the
differences existing between the two propositions considered. False
analogies are very common. We must guard against using them, and
especially against allowing ourselves to be convinced by them. Even when
the resemblance is so slight as to render analogy impossible, it may serve
to produce a metaphor that often has the effect of argument.
It is much easier to captivate the fancy with a pretty or striking figure
than to move the judgment with sound reason.... His (the speaker's)
picture appeals to the mind's visible sense, hence his power over us,
though his analogies are more apt to be false than true....
The use of metaphor, comparison, analogy, is twofold--to enliven and to
convince; to illustrate and enforce an accepted truth, and to press home
and clinch one in dispute. An apt figure may put a new face upon an old
and much worn truism, and a vital analogy may reach and move the reason.
Thus when Renan, referring to the decay of the old religious beliefs, says
that the people are no poorer for being robbed of false bank notes and
bogus shares, his comparison has a logical validity....
The accidental analogies or likenesses are limitless, and are the great
stock in trade of most writers and speakers. An ingenious mind finds types
everywhere, but real analogies are not so common. The likeness of one
thing to another may be valid and real, but the likeness of a thought with
a thing is often merely fanciful....
I recently have met with the same fallacy in a leading article in one of
the magazines. "The fact revealed by the spectroscope," says the writer,
"that the physical elements of the earth exist also in the stars, supports
the faith that a moral nature like our own inhabits the universe." A
tremendous leap--a leap from the physical to the moral. We know that
these earth elements are found in the stars by actual observation and
experience; but a moral nature like our own--this is assumed, and is not
supported by the analogy.
John Burroughs: _Analogy, True and False_.
Notice the use of analogy in the argument below.
There is only one cure for the evils which newly acquired freedom
produces; and that cure is freedom. When a prisoner first leaves his cell
he cannot bear the light of day: he is unable to discriminate colors, or
recognize faces. But the remedy is, not to remand him into his dungeon,
but to accustom him to the rays of the sun. The blaze of truth and liberty
may at first dazzle and bewilder nations which have become blind in the
house of bondage. But, let them gaze on, and they will soon be able to
bear it. In a few years men learn to reason. The extreme violence of
opinions subsides. Hostile theories correct each other. The scattered
elements of truth cease to contend and begin to coalesce, and at length a
system of justice and order is educed out of the chaos.
--Macaulay: _Milton_.
+193. Summary of Arrangement.+--The necessity of argument arises because
some one does not believe the truth of a proposition. To establish in his
mind a belief, we must present our arguments in an orderly and convincing
way. The order will usually be to show him first the possibility and then
the probability, and finally to lead him as near to certainty as we can.
We may say, therefore, that we should use arguments from cause, arguments
from sign, and arguments from example in the order named.
Another principle of arrangement is that inductive argument will usually
precede deductive argument. We naturally proceed by induction to establish
general truths which, when established, we may apply. If our audience
already believe the general theories, the inductive part may be omitted.
Both of these principles of arrangement should be considered with
reference to that of a third, namely, climax. Climax means nothing more
than the orderly progression of our argument to the point where it
convinces our hearer. We call that argument which finally convinces him
the strongest, and naturally this should be the end of the argument. Of
several proofs of equal grade, one that will attract the attention of the
hearer should come first, while the most convincing one should come last.
In arranging arguments attention needs also to be given to coherence. One
proof may be so related to another that the presentation of one naturally
suggests the other. Sometimes, for the sake of climax, the coherent order
must be abandoned. More often the climax is made more effective by
following the order which gives the greatest coherence.
+Theme CII.+--_Prove one of the following propositions:_
1. The Presidential term should be extended.
2. Bookkeeping is of greater practical value than any other high school
study.
3. In cities all buildings should be restricted to three stories in
height.
4. Sumptuary laws are never desirable.
5. No pupil should carry more than four studies.
6. This school should have a debating society.
(Have you proved possibility, probability, or actuality? Have you used
arguments from cause, sign, or example? Consider the arrangement of your
arguments. Consider the analogies you have used, if any. Can you shorten
your theme without weakening it?)
+194. The Brief.+--Arrangement is of very great importance in argument. In
fact, it is so important that much more care and attention needs to be
given to the outline in argument, and the outline itself may be more
definitely known to the hearer than in the other forms of discourse. In
description and narration especially, it detracts from the value of the
impressions if the reader becomes aware of the plan of composition. In
exposition a view of the framework may not hinder clear understanding, but
in argument it may be of distinct advantage to have the orderly
arrangements of our arguments definitely known to him whom we seek to
convince.
The brief not only assists us in making our own thought orderly and exact,
but enables us to exclude that which is trivial or untrue. An explanation
may fail to make every point clear and yet retain some valuable elements,
but an argument fails of its purpose if it does not establish a belief. A
single false argument or even a trivial one may so appeal to a mind
prejudiced against the proposition that all the valid proofs fail to
convince. This single weakness is at once used by our opponent to show
that our other arguments are false because this one is. A committee once
endeavored to persuade the governor of a state not to sign a certain bill,
but they defeated themselves because their opponents pointed out to the
governor that two of the ten reasons which they presented were false and
that the committee presenting them knew they were false. This cast a doubt
upon the honesty of the committee and the validity of their whole
argument, and the governor signed the bill.
The brief differs from the ordinary outline in that it is composed of
complete sentences rather than of topics.
Notice the following example.
+Term examinations should be abolished.+
AFFIRMATIVE
I. There is no necessity for such examinations.
1. The teacher knows the pupil's standing from his daily recitations.
2. Monthly reviews or tests may be substituted if desirable.
II. The evils arising from examinations more than offset any advantages
that may be derived from them.
1. The best pupils are likely to work hardest, and to overtax their
strength.
2. Pupils often aim to pass rather than to know their subject.
3. A temptation to cheat is placed before them.
III. Examinations are not a fair test of a pupil's ability.
1. A pupil may know his subject as a whole and yet not be able to answer
one or two of the questions given him.
2. A pupil who has done poor work during the term may cram for an
examination and pass very creditably.
3. Pupils are likely to be tired out at the end of the term and often are
not able to do themselves justice.
NEGATIVE
If the writer should choose to defend the negative of the above
proposition, the brief might be as follows:--
I. Examinations are indispensable to school work.
1. In no other way can teachers find out so well what their pupils know
about their subjects, especially in large classes.
2. They are essential as an incentive to pupils who are inclined to let
their work lag.
II. As a rule they are fair tests of a pupil's ability.
1. Pupils who prepare the daily recitations well are almost sure to pass a
good examination.
2. Pupils who cram are likely to write a hurried, faulty examination.
3. It seldom happens that many in a class are too worn out to take a term
examination.
III. They prepare the pupils for later examinations.
(1) For college entrance examinations.
(2) For examinations at college.
(3) For civil service examinations.
(4) For examinations for teachers' certificates.
EXERCISES
_A._ Write out subordinate propositions proving the main subdivisions.
Also change the arrangement when you think it desirable to do so.
1. Two sessions are preferable to one in a high school.
(1) One long session is too fatiguing to both teachers and pupils.
(2) Boys and girls as a rule study better at school than they do at
home.
(3) The time after school is long enough for recreation.
2. The pupils of this high school should be granted a holiday during the
street (county or state) fair.
(1) They will all go at least one day.
(2) It will cause less interruption in the school work if they all go
the same day.
3. Women should be allowed to vote.
(1) They are now taxed without representation.
(2) Whenever they have been allowed to take part in the affairs of the
government, it has been an advantage to that government.
(3) Many of them are much more intelligent than some men who vote.
_B._ Write out briefs for the following propositions (affirmative or
negative):--
1. High school studies should be made elective in the last two years of
the course.
2. The government should own and control the railroads of our country.
3. The old building on the corner of ---- Street ought to be removed.
4. Latin should not be made a compulsory study.
5. Reading newspapers is unprofitable.
6. Laws should be made to prohibit all adulteration of foods.
7. We are all selfish.
8. A system of self-government should be introduced into our school.
+Theme CIV.+--_Write out the argument for one of the
preceding propositions._
(Examine the brief carefully before beginning to write.
Can you improve it? )
+Theme CV.+--_Write a theme proving one of the following propositions:_--
1. Immigration is detrimental to the United States.
2. The descriptions in _Ivanhoe_ are better than those in the _House of
the Seven Gables_.
3. Argument is of greater practical value than exposition.
4. The Mexican Indians were a civilized race when America was discovered.
5. The standing army of the United States should be increased.
6. All police officers should be controlled by the state and not by the
city.
(Have you used arguments from cause, sign, or example? Are they arranged
with reference to the principles of arrangement? (Section 192.) Consider
each paragraph and the whole theme with reference to unity.)
+Theme CVI.+--_Write a debate on some question assigned by the teacher._
(To what points should you give attention in correcting your theme? Read
Section 79.)
+195. Difference between Persuasion and Argument.+--Up to this point we
have considered argument as having for its aim the proof of the truth
of a proposition. If we consider the things about which we argue most
frequently, we shall find that in many cases we attempt to do more than
merely to convince the hearer. We wish to convince him in order to cause
him to act. We argue with him in order to persuade him to do something.
Such an argument tries to establish the wisdom of a course of action and
is termed _persuasion_. Persuasion differs from argument in its aim. In
argument by an appeal principally to the reason, we endeavor to convince;
in persuasion by an appeal mainly to the feelings, we endeavor to move to
action.
+196. Importance of Persuasion.+--Persuasion deals with the practical
affairs of life, and for that reason the part that it performs is a large
and important one. All questions of advantage, privilege, and duty are
included in the sphere of persuasion. Since such questions are so directly
related to our business interests, to our happiness, and to our mode of
conduct and action, we are constantly making use of persuasion and quite
as constantly are being influenced by it. Our own welfare and happiness
depends to so great an extent upon the actions of others that our success
in life is often measured by our ability to persuade others to act in
accordance with our desires.
+197. Necessity of Persuasion.+--It is frequently not enough to convince
our hearer of the truth of a proposition. Often a person believes a
proposition, yet does not act. If we wish action, persuasion must be added
to argument. If we always acted at the time we were convinced, and in
accordance with our convictions, there would be no need of persuasion.
Strange as it seems, we often believe one thing and do just the opposite,
or we are indifferent and do nothing at all. We all know that disobedience
to the laws of health brings its punishment--yet how many of us act as if
we did not believe it at all! The indifferent pupil is positive that he
will fail if he does not study. He knows that he ought to apply himself
diligently to his work. There is no excuse for doing otherwise, yet he
neglects to act and failure is the result.
+198. Motive in Persuasion.+--The motive of persuasion depends upon the
nature of the question. The motives that we have in mind may be selfish,
or, on the other hand, they may be supremely unselfish. We may urge others
to act in order to bring about our own pleasure or profit; we may urge
them to act for their own self-interest or for the interest of others. We
may appeal to private or public interest, to social or religious duty.
When a boy urges his father to buy him a bicycle, he has his own pleasure
in mind. When we urge people to take care of their health, we have their
interest in view; and when we urge city improvements or reforms in
politics, we are thinking of the welfare of people in general.
+199. The Material of Persuasion.+--Persuasion aims to produce action and
may make use of any of the forms of discourse that will fit that purpose.
We may describe the beauty of the Adirondacks or narrate our experiences
there in order to persuade a friend to accompany us on a camping trip. We
may explain the workings of a new invention in order to persuade a
capitalist to invest money in its manufacture. Or we may by argument
demonstrate that there is a great opportunity for young men in New
Orleans, hoping to persuade an acquaintance to move there. When thus used,
description, narration, exposition, and argument may become persuasion;
but their effectiveness depends upon their appeal to some fundamental
belief or feeling in the person addressed. Our description and narration
would not bring to the Adirondacks a man who cared nothing for scenery and
who disliked camp life. The explanation of our invention would not
interest a capitalist unless he was seeking a profitable investment. Our
argument would not induce a man to move to New Orleans if his prejudice
against the South was greater than his desire for profit and position. In
each case there has been an appeal to some belief or sentiment or desire
of the person whom we seek to persuade.
+200. Appeal to the Feelings.+--Persuasion, therefore, in order to produce
action must appeal largely to the feelings. But all persons are not
affected in the same way. In order to bring about the same result we may
need to make a different appeal to different individuals. One person may
be led to act by an appeal made to his sense of justice, another by an
appeal made to his patriotism, while still another, unmoved by either of
these appeals, may be led to act by an appeal made to his pride or to his
love of power. If we would be successful in persuading others, we ought to
be able to understand what to appeal to in individual cases. Children may
be enticed by candy, and older persons may be quite as readily influenced
if we but choose the proper incentive. It is our duty to see that we are
persuaded only by the presentation of worthy motives, and that in our own
efforts to persuade others we do not appeal to envy, jealousy, religious
prejudices, race hatred, or lower motives.
EXERCISES
Show how an appeal to the feelings could be made in the following. To what
particular feeling or feelings would you appeal in each case?
1. Try to gain your parents' permission to attend college.
2. Urge a friend to give up card playing.
3. Try to persuade your teachers not to give so long lessons.
4. Persuade others to aid an unfortunate family living in our community.
5. Induce the school board to give you a good gymnasium.
6. Persuade a tramp to give up his mode of life.
7. Try to get some one to buy your old bicycle.
8. Urge your country to act in behalf of some oppressed people.
9. Urge a resident of your town to give something for a public park.
+Theme CVII.+--_Write out one of the preceding._
(Consider what you have written with reference to coherence and climax.)
+201. Argument with Persuasion.+--In some cases we are sure that our
hearers are already convinced as to the truth of a proposition. Then there
is no need of argument and persuasion is used alone, but more frequently
both are used. Argument naturally precedes persuasion, but with few
exceptions the two are intermixed and even so blended as to be scarcely
distinguishable, the one from the other. A good example of the use of both
forms is found in the speech of Antony over the dead body of Caesar in
Shakespeare's _Julius Caesar_. Read the speech and note the argument and
persuasion given in it. What three arguments does Antony advance to prove
that Caesar was not ambitious? Does he draw conclusions or leave that for
his listeners to do? Where is there an appeal to their pity? To their
curiosity? To their gratitude? What is the result in each case of the
various appeals?
In the following examples note the argument and persuasion. Remember that
persuasion commences when we begin to urge to action. Notice what feelings
are appealed to in the persuasive parts of the speeches.
They tell us, Sir, that we are weak, unable to cope with so formidable an
adversary. But, when shall we be stronger? Will it be the next week, or
the next year? Will it be when we are totally disarmed and when a British
guard shall be stationed in every house? Shall we gather strength by
irresolution and inaction? Shall we acquire the means of effectual
resistance, by lying supinely on our backs and hugging the delusive
phantom of hope, until our enemies shall have bound us hand and foot? Sir,
we are not weak, if we make a proper use of the means which the God of
nature hath placed in our power. Three millions of people, armed in the
holy cause of liberty, and in such a country as that which we possess, are
invincible by any force which our enemy can send against us. Besides, Sir,
we shall not fight our battles alone. There is a just God who presides
over the destinies of nations; and who will raise up friends to fight our
battles for us. The battle, Sir, is not to the strong alone; it is to the
vigilant, the active, the brave. Besides, Sir, we have no election. If we
were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the
contest. There is no retreat, but in submission and slavery. Our chains
are forged! Their clanking may be heard on the plains of Boston! The war
is inevitable--and let it come! I repeat it, Sir, let it come!--It is
vain, sir, to extenuate the matter. Gentlemen may cry peace, peace--but
there is no peace. The war is actually begun! The next gale that sweeps
from the north will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms! Our
brethren are already in the field. Why stand we here, idle? Is life so
dear, is peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and
slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take;
but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death.
--Patrick Henry.
The pictures in the American newspapers of the starving reconcentrados are
true. They can all be duplicated by the thousands. I never before saw,
and please God, I may never again see, so deplorable a sight as the
reconcentrados in the suburbs of Matanzas. I can never forget to my dying
day the hopeless anguish in their despairing eyes. Huddled about their
little bark huts, they raised no voice of appeal to us for alms as we went
among them.... Men, women, and children stand silent, famishing with
hunger. Their only appeal comes from their sad eyes, through which one
looks as through an open window into their agonizing souls.
The Government of Spain has not appropriated and will not appropriate one
dollar to save these people. They are now being attended and nursed and
administered to by the charity of the United States. Think of the
spectacle! We are feeding the citizens of Spain; we are nursing their
sick; we are saving such as can be saved, and yet there are those who
still say it is right for us to send food, but we must keep hands off. I
say that the time has come when muskets ought to go with the food....
The time for action has, then, come. No greater reason for it can exist
to-morrow than exists to-day. Every hour's delay only adds another chapter
to the awful story of misery and death. Only one power can intervene--the
United States of America. Ours is the one great nation of the New World,
the mother of American republics. She holds a position of trust and
responsibility toward the peoples and the affairs of the whole Western
Hemisphere.
Mr. President, there is only one action possible, if any is taken--that
is, intervention for the independence of the island. But we cannot
intervene and save Cuba without the exercise of force, and force means
war; war means blood. The lowly Nazarene on the shores of Galilee preached
the divine doctrine of love, "Peace on earth, good will toward men." Not
peace on earth at the expense of liberty and humanity. Not good will
toward men who despoil, enslave, degrade, and starve to death their
fellow-men. I believe in the doctrine of Christ, I believe in the doctrine
of peace; but, Mr. President, men must have liberty before there can come
abiding peace.
Intervention means force. Force means war. War means blood. But it will be
God's force. When has a battle for humanity and liberty ever been won
except by force? What barricade of wrong, injustice, and oppression has
ever been carried except by force? Force compelled the signature of
unwilling royalty to the great Magna Charta; force put life into
the Declaration of Independence and made effective the Emancipation
Proclamation; force beat with naked hands upon the iron gateway of the
Bastile and made reprisal in one awful hour for centuries of kingly crime;
force waved the flag of revolution over Bunker Hill and marked the snows
of Valley Forge with blood-stained feet; force held the broken line at
Shiloh, climbed the flame-swept hill at Chattanooga, and stormed the
clouds on Lookout heights; force marched with Sherman to the sea, rode
with Sheridan in the valley of Shenandoah, and gave Grant victory at
Appomattox; force saved the Union, kept the stars in the flag, made
"niggers" men.
Others may hesitate, others may procrastinate, others may plead for
further diplomatic negotiations, which means delay; but for me, I am ready
to act now, and for my action I am ready to answer to my conscience, my
country, and my God.
--John Mellen Thurston: _Speech in United States Senate_, March, 1898.
EXERCISES
1. A young boy is trying to gain his father's permission to attend an
evening entertainment with some other boys. Make a list of his appeals to
his father's reason; to his father's feelings. Make a list of his father's
objections. Is there any appeal to his son's feelings?
2. Suppose you are about to address the voters of your city on the
question of granting saloon licenses. Make a list of appeals to their
reason; to their intellect. Remember that appeals to the feelings are made
more forcible by descriptive and narrative examples than by direct general
appeals.
3. Urge your classmates to vote for some member of your class for
president. What qualifications should a good class president have?
+Theme CVIII.+--_Select one of the subjects, concerning which you have
written an argument; either add persuasion to the argument or intermix
them._
(What part of your theme is argument and what part persuasion? Does the
introduction of persuasion affect the order of arrangement?)
+Theme CIX.+--_Select one of the subjects given on page 361 of which you
have not yet made use. Write a theme appealing to both feeling and
intellect._
(Are your facts true and pertinent? Consider the arrangement.)
+Theme CX.+--_Write a letter to a friend who went to work instead of
entering the high school. Urge him to come to the high school._
(What arguments have you made? To what feelings have you appealed?)
+Theme CXI.+--_Use one of the following as a subject for a persuasive
theme:_--
1. Induce your friends not to play ball on Memorial Day.
2. Ask permission to be excused from writing your next essay.
3. Persuade one of your friends to play golf.
4. Induce your friends not to wear birds on their hats.
5. Write an address to young children, trying to persuade them not to be
cruel to the lower animals.
+202. Questions of Right and Questions of Expediency.+--Arguments that aim
to convince us of the wisdom of an action are very common. In our home
life and in our social and religious life these questions are always
arising. They may be classified into two kinds: (1) those which answer the
question, Is it right? and (2) those which answer the question, Is it
expedient?
The moral element enters into questions of right. It is always wise for us
to do that which is morally right, but sometimes we are in doubt as to
what course of action is morally right. Opinions differ concerning what is
right, and for that reason we spend much time in defending our opinions or
in trying to make others believe as we do. In answering such a question
honestly, we must lose sight of all advantage or disadvantage to
ourselves. When asked to do something we should at once ask ourselves, Is
it right? and when once that is determined one line of action should be
clear.
An argument which aims to answer the question, Is it expedient?
presupposes that there are at least two lines of action each of which is
right. It aims to prove that one course of action will bring greater
advantages than any other. Taking all classes of people into consideration
we shall find that they are arguing more questions of expediency than of
any other kind. Every one is looking for advantages either to himself or
to those in whom he is interested. A question of expediency should never
be separated from the question of right. In determining either our own
course of action or that which we attempt to persuade another to follow,
we should never forget the presupposition of a question of expediency that
either course is right.
EXERCISES
1. Name five questions the right or wrong of which you have been called
upon to decide.
2. Name five similar questions that are likely to arise in every one's
experience.
3. Name five questions of right concerning which opinions very often
differ.
4. Is an action that is right for one person ever wrong for another?
+Theme CXII.+--_Write out the reasons for or against one of the
following:_--
1. Should two pupils ever study together?
2. Is a lie ever justifiable?
3. Was Shylock's punishment too severe?
4. Woman's suffrage should be established.
5. The regular party nominee should not always be supported.
EXERCISES
Give reasons for or against the following:--
1. We should abolish class-day exercises.
2. The study of science is more beneficial than the study of language.
3. Foreign skilled laborers should be excluded from the United States.
4. Hypnotic entertainments should not be allowed.
5. The study of algebra should not be made compulsory in a high school.
6. _Uncle Tom's Cabin_ should be excluded from school libraries.
7. Physical training should be compulsory in public schools.
8. High school secret societies should not be allowed.
+Theme CXIII.+--_Write an argument of expediency using
one of the subjects named in the preceding exercise._
(What advantages have you made most prominent?
To what feelings have you appealed?)
+Theme CXIV.+--_Write a narration in which the hero is called upon to
decide whether some course of action is right or wrong_.
(Consider the theme as a narration. Does it fulfill the requirements of
Chapter IX? (See Summary.) Consider just the arguments used. Are the
arguments sufficient to bring conviction to the reader that the hero
decided rightly?)
+203. Refutation.+--No question is worth argument unless there are two
sides to it--unless there is a chance for some doubt in the mind of the
hearer as to which side seems most reasonable. Many questions are of such
a nature that in trying to convince our hearers of some truth, we often
find it necessary to show them, not only the truth of a proposition or the
expediency of a course of action, but also the falsity of some opposing
proposition or the inexpediency of the opposite course of action. This
tearing to pieces another's argument, is called refutation, or destructive
argument. A successful debater shows nearly if not equal skill in tearing
down his opponent's arguments as in building up his own.
Even in arguments in which no one takes the opposite side at the given
time, we must not forget that there are points on the opposite side which
are likely to arise in the minds of our hearers. Just as the skillful
teacher must know the difficulties that will arise in the minds of the
pupils even though they are not expressed, so must the skillful debater
consider the objections that his hearer will mentally set up against his
argument. It is well, however, for the debater to avoid overemphasizing
objections. Sometimes his discussion gives the objections a weight that
they would not otherwise have. It is not wise to set up "a man of straw"
for the purpose of knocking him down.
Notice the refutation in the following argument:--
In no respect is the difference of opinion as to the methods of fishing so
pronounced and disturbing among anglers as the diverse ones of fishing
"up" and "down" stream.
"Fishing up stream" has many advocates who assert that as trout always lie
with their heads up current, they are less likely to see the fisherman or
the glint of his rod when the casts are made; that the discomfort and
fatigue accompanying wading against strong rapids is amply repaid by the
increased scores secured; that the flies deftly thrown a foot or two above
the head of a feeding trout float more life-like down the current than
those drawn against it by the line, when they are apt to exhibit a
muscular power which in the live insect would be exaggerated and
unnatural.
On the other hand, the "down stream" fisherman is equally assertive as to
the value of his method. He feels the charm of gurgling waters around his
limbs, a down current that aids rather than retards or fatigues him in
each successive step of enjoyment in his pastime; as he casts his fifty or
more feet of line adown the stream, he is assured that he is beyond the
ken of the most keen-sighted and wary trout; that his artificial bugs,
under the tension of the current seaming it from right to left, reaches
every square inch of the "swim," as English rodsters term a likely water,
and coming naturally down stream, just the direction from whence a hungry
trout is awaiting it, are much more likely to be taken, than those thrown
against the current, with, doubtless, a foot or more of the leader
drooping and bagging before the nose of a trout, with a dead bug, soaked
and bedraggled, following slowly behind.
By wading "down stream" its advocates do not mean splashing and lifting
the feet above the surface, sending the water hither and yon on to the
banks, into the pools, with the soil of silt or mud or fine gravel from
the bottom, polluting the stream many yards ahead, and causing every fish
to scurry to the shelter of a hole in the bank or under a shelving rock.
They intend that the rodster shall enter the water quietly, and, after a
few preliminary casts to get the water gear in good working order to
proceed down stream by sliding rather than lifting his feet from the
bottom, noiselessly and cautiously approaching the most likely pools or
eddies behind the roots in mid stream, or still stretches close to the
banks, where the quiet reaches broaden down stream, where nine chances in
ten, on a good trout water, one or more fish will be seen lazily rising
and feeding.
Again, the down-stream angler contends that when a fish is fastened on a
hook, taking the lure in a current, that he is more likely to be well
hooked, hence more certain of capture when the line is tense, than when
rising to a floating bug at the end of a looping line and leader.
Certainly it is very difficult when casting against the current to keep
the line sufficiently taut to strike quickly and effectively a rising
trout, which as a rule ejects the artificial lure the instant he feels the
gritty impact of the steel.
In fishing down stream, the advocate of the principle that the greater the
surface commotion made by the flies used, the surer the rise and catch,
has an advantage over his brother who always fishes "fine" and with flies
that do not make a ripple. Drawing the artificial bugs across and slightly
up stream over the mirrored bosom of a pool is apt to leave a wake behind
them which may not inaptly be compared with the one created by a small
stern-wheel steamer; an unnatural condition of things, but of such is a
trout's make-up.
--W.C. HARRIS: _Fishing Up or Down Stream_.
+Theme CXV.+--_Persuade a friend, to choose some sport from one of the
following pairs:_--
1. Canoeing or sailing.
2. Bicycling or automobiling.
3. Golf or polo.
4. Basket ball or tennis.
5. Football or baseball.
+Theme CXVI.+--_Choose one side of a proposition. Name the probable points
on the other side and write out a refutation of them_.
+Theme CXVII.+--_State a proposition and write the direct argument._
+Theme CXVIII.+--_Exchange theme CXVII for one written by a classmate and
write the refutation of the arguments in the theme you receive._
(Theme CXVII and the corresponding Theme CXVIII should be read before the
class.)
SUMMARY
1. Argument is that form of discourse which attempts to prove the truth of
a proposition.
2. Inductive reasoning is that process by which from many individual cases
we establish the probable truth of a general proposition.
3. The establishing of a general truth by induction requires--
_a._ That there be a large number of facts, circumstances, or specific
instances supporting it.
_b._ That these facts be true.
_c._ That they be pertinent.
_d._ That there be no facts proving the truth of the contrary
proposition.
4. Deductive reasoning is that process which attempts to prove the truth
of a specific proposition by showing that a general theory applies to it.
5. The establishing of the truth of a specific proposition by deductive
reasoning requires--
_a._ A major premise that makes an affirmation about _all_ the members
of a class.
_b._ A minor premise that states that the individual under consideration
belongs to the class named.
_c._ A conclusion that states that the affirmation made about the class
applies to the individual. These three statements constitute a
syllogism.
6. An enthymeme is a syllogism with but one premise expressed.
7. Errors of deduction arise--
_a._ If terms are not used throughout with the same meaning.
_b._ If the major premise does not make a statement about every member
of the class denoted by the middle term.
_c._ If either premise is false.
8. Belief in a specific proposition may arise--
_a._ Because of the presentation of evidence which is true and
pertinent.
_b._ Because of a belief in some general principle or theory which
applies to it.
In arguing therefore we--
_a._ Present true and pertinent facts, or evidence; or
_b._ Appeal directly to general theories, or by means of facts, maxims,
allusions, inferences, or the quoting of authorities, seek to call
up such theories.
9. Classes of arguments:--
_a._ Arguments from cause.
_b._ Arguments from sign and attendant circumstances.
_c._ Arguments from example and analogy.
10. Arrangement.
_a._ Arguments from cause should precede arguments from sign, and
arguments from sign should precede arguments from example.
_b._ Inductive arguments usually precede deductive arguments.
_c._ Arguments should be arranged with reference to climax.
_d._ Arguments should be arranged, when possible, in a coherent order.
11. In making a brief the above principles of arrangement should be
observed. Attention should be given to unity so that the trivial and false
may be excluded.
12. Persuasion is argument that aims to establish the wisdom of a course
of action.
13. Persuasion appeals largely to the feelings.
_a._ Those feelings of satisfaction resulting from approval,
commendation, or praise, or the desire to avoid blame, disaster,
or loss of self-esteem.
_b._ Those feelings resulting from the proper and legitimate use of
one's powers.
_c._ Those feelings which arise from possession, either actual or
anticipated.
14. Persuasion is concerned with--
_a._ Questions of right.
_b._ Questions of expediency.
APPENDIX
I. ELEMENTS OF FORM
+1. Importance of Form.+--The suggestions which have been made for the
correction of the Themes have laid emphasis upon the thought. Though the
thought side is the more important, yet careful attention must also be
given to the form in which it is stated. If we wish to express our
thoughts so that they will be understood by others, we shall be surer to
succeed if we use the forms to which our hearers are accustomed. The great
purpose of composition is the clear expression of thought, and this is
aided by the use of the forms which are conventional and customary.
Wrong habits of speech indicate looseness and carelessness of thought, and
if not corrected show a lack of training. In speaking, our language goes
directly to the listener without revision. It is, therefore, essential
that we pay much attention to the form of the expression so that it may be
correct when we use it. Our aim should be to avoid an error rather than to
correct it.
Similarly in writing, your effort should be given to avoiding errors
rather than to correcting those already made. A misspelled word or an
incorrect grammatical form in the letter that you send to a business man
may show you to be so careless and inaccurate that he will not wish to
have you in his employ. In such a case it is only the avoidance of the
error that is of value. You must determine for yourself that the letter is
correct before you send it. This same condition should prevail with
reference to your school themes. The teacher may return these for
correction, but you must not forget that the purpose of this correction is
merely to emphasize the correct form so that you will use it in your next
theme. It will be helpful to have some one point out your individual
mistakes, but it is only by attention to them on your own part and by a
definite and long-continued effort to avoid them that you will really
accomplish much toward the establishing of correct language habits. In
this, as in other things, the most rapid progress will be made by doing
but one thing at a time.
Many matters of form are already familiar to you. A brief statement of
these is made in order to serve as a review and to secure uniformity in
class work.
1. _Neatness._--All papers should be free from blots and finger marks.
Corrections should be neatly done. Care in correcting or interlining will
often render copying unnecessary.
2. _Legibility._--Excellence of thought is not dependent upon penmanship,
and the best composition may be the most difficult to read. A poorly
written composition is, however, more likely to be considered bad than one
that is well written. A plain, legible, and rapid handwriting is so
valuable an accomplishment that it is well worth acquiring.
3. _Paper._--White, unruled paper, about 8-1/2 by 11 inches, is best for
composition purposes. The ability to write straight across the page
without the aid of lines can be acquired by practice. It is customary to
write on only one side of the paper.
4. _Margins._--Leave a margin of about one inch at the left of the sheet.
Except in formal notes and special forms there will be no margin at the
right. Care should be taken to begin the lines at the left exactly under
each other, but the varying length of words makes it impossible to end the
lines at the right at exactly the same place. A word should not be crowded
into a space too small for it, nor should part of it be put on the next
line, as is customary in printing, unless it is a compound one, such as
steam-boat. Spaces of too great length at the end of a line may be avoided
by slightly lengthening the preceding words or the spaces between them.
5. _Spacing._--Each theme should have a title. It should be placed in the
center of the line above the composition, and should have all important
words capitalized. Titles too long for a single line may be written as
follows:--
MY TRIP TO CHICAGO
ON A BICYCLE
With unruled paper some care must be taken to keep the lines the same
distance apart. The spaces between sentences should be somewhat greater
than those between words. Paragraphs are indicated by indentations.
6. _Corrections._--These are best made by using a sharp knife or an ink
eraser. Sometimes, if neatly done, a line may be drawn through an
incorrect word and the correct one written above it. Omitted words may be
written between the lines and the place where they belong indicated by a
caret. If a page contains many corrections, it should be copied.
7. _Inscription and Folding._--The teacher will give directions as to
inscription and folding. He will indicate what information he wishes, such
as name, class, date, etc., and where it is to be written. Each page
should be numbered. If the paper is folded, it should be done with
neatness and precision.
+2. Capitals.+--The use of capitals will serve to illustrate the value of
using conventional forms. We are so accustomed to seeing a proper name,
such as Mr. Brown, written with capitals that we should be puzzled if we
should find it written without capitals. The sentence, Ben-Hur was written
by Lew Wallace, would look unfamiliar if written without capitals. We are
so used to our present forms that beginning sentences with small letters
would hinder the ready comprehension of the thought. Everybody agrees that
capitals should be used to begin sentences, direct questions, names of
deity, days of the week, the months, each line of poetry, the pronoun I,
the interjection O, etc., and no good writer will fail to use them. Usage
varies somewhat in regard to capitals in some other places. Such
expressions as Ohio river, Lincoln school, Jackson county, state of
Illinois, once had both names capitalized. The present tendency is to
write them as above. Even titles of honor are not capitalized unless they
are used with a proper name; for example, He introduced General Grant The
general then spoke.
+3. Rules of Capitalization.+--1. Every sentence and every line of poetry
begin with capitals.
2. Every direct quotation, except brief phrases and subordinate parts of
sentences, begins with a capital.
3. Proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with
capitals. Some adjectives, though derived from proper nouns, are no longer
capitalized; _e.g._ voltaic.
4. Titles of honor when used with the name of a person begin with
capitals.
5. The first word and every important word in the titles of books, etc.,
begin with capitals.
6. The pronoun I and the interjection O are always capitalized.
7. Names applied to the Deity are capitalized and pronouns referring
thereto, especially if personal, are usually capitalized.
8. Important words are often capitalized for emphasis, especially words in
text-books indicating topics.
+4. Punctuation.+--The meaning of a sentence depends largely on the
grouping of words that are related in sense to each other. When we are
reading aloud we make the sense clear by bringing out to the hearer this
grouping. This is accomplished by the use of pauses and by emphasis and
inflection. In writing we must do for the eye what inflection and pauses
do for the ear. We therefore use punctuation marks to indicate inflection
and emphasis, and especially to show word grouping. Punctuation marks are
important because their purpose is to assist in making the sense clear.
There are many special rules more or less familiar to you, but they may
all be included under the one general statement: Use such marks and only
such marks as will assist the reader in getting the sense.
What marks we shall use and how we shall use them will be determined by
custom. In order to benefit a reader, marks must be used in ways with
which he is familiar. Punctuation changes from time to time. The present
tendency is to omit all marks not absolutely necessary to the clear
understanding of the sentence.
There are some very definite rules, but there are others that cannot be
made so definite, and the application of them requires care and
judgment on the part of the writer. Improvement will come only by
practice. Sentences should not be written for the purpose of illustrating
punctuation. The meaning of what you are writing ought to be clear to you,
and the punctuation marks should be put in _as you write_, not inserted
afterward.
+5. Rules for the Use of the Comma.+--1. The comma is used to separate
words or phrases having the same construction, used in a series.
Judges, senators, and representatives were imprisoned.
The country is a good place to be born in, a good place to die in, a
good place to live in at least part of the year.
If any conjunctions are used to connect the last two members, the comma
may or may not be used in connection with the conjunction.
The cabbage palmetto affords shade, kindling, bed, and food.
2. Words or expressions in apposition should be separated by a comma.
The native Indian dress is an evolution, a survival from long years of
wild life.
3. Commas are used to separate words in direct address from the rest of
the sentence.
Bow down, dear Land, for thou hast found release.
O, Sohrab, an unquiet heart is thine!
4. Introductory and parenthetical words or expressions are
set off by commas.
However, the current is narrow and very shallow here.
This, in a general way, describes the scope of the small parks or
playgrounds.
If the parenthetical expression is long and not very closely related to
the rest of the sentence, dashes or marks of parenthesis are frequently
used. Some writers use them even when the connection is somewhat close.
5. The comma is frequently used to separate the parts of a long compound
predicate.
Pine torches have no glass to break, and are within the reach of any man
who can wield an ax.
6. A comma is often used to separate a subject with several modifiers, or
with a long modifier, from the predicate verb.
One of the mistakes often made in beginning the study of birds with
small children, is in placing stress upon learning by sight and name
as many species of birds as possible.
7. Participial and adjective phrases and adverb phrases out of their
natural order should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
A knight, clad in armor, was the most conspicuous figure of all.
To the mind of the writer, this explanation has much to commend it.
8. When negative expressions are used in order to show a contrast, they
are set off by commas.
They believed in men, not in mere workers in the great human workshop.
9. Commas are used in complex sentences to separate the dependent clause
from the rest of the sentence.
The great majority of people would be better off, if they had more money
and spent it.
While the flour is being made, samples are sent every hour to the
testing department.
If the connection is close, the comma is usually omitted, especially when
the dependent clause comes last.
I will be there when the train arrives.
10. When a relative clause furnishes an additional thought, it should be
separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
Hiram Watts, who has been living in New York for six years, has just
returned to England.
If the relative clause is restrictive, that is, if it restricts or
limits the meaning of the antecedent, the comma is unnecessary.
This is the best article that he ever wrote.
11. Commas are used to separate the members of a compound sentence when
they are short or closely connected.
Ireland is rich in minerals, yet there is but little mining done there.
Breathe it, exult in it,
All the day long,
Glide in it, leap in it,
Thrill it with song.
12. Short quotations should be separated from the rest of the sentence by
a comma.
"There must be a beaver dam here," he called.
13. The omissions of important words in a sentence should be indicated by
commas.
If you can, come to-morrow; if not, come next week.
+6. Rules for the Use of the Semicolon.+--1. When the members of a
compound sentence are long or are not closely connected, semicolons should
be used to separate them.
Webster could address a bench of judges; Everett could charm a
college; Choate could delude a jury; Clay could magnetize a senate,
and Tom Corwin could hold the mob in his right hand; but no one
of these men could do more than this one thing.
--Wendell Phillips.
We might as well decide the question now; for we shall surely be
obliged to soon.
2. When the members of a compound sentence themselves contain commas, they
should be separated from one another by semicolons.
As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at
it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew
him.
--Shakespeare.
3. The semicolon should be used to precede _as, namely, i.e., e.g., viz_.
Some adjectives are compared irregularly; as, good, bad, and little.
4. When a series of distinct statements all have a common dependence on
what precedes or follows them, they may be separated from each other by
semicolons.
When subject to the influence of cold we eat more; we choose more
heat-producing foods, as fatty foodstuffs; we take more vigorous
exercise; we put on more clothing, especially of the non-conducting
kinds--woolens.
+7. Rules for the Use of the Colon.+--1. The colon is used
before long or formal quotations, before enumerations, and before
the conclusion of a previous statement.
Old Sir Thomas Browne shrewdly observes: "Every man is not only
himself. There have been many Diogeneses and many Timons
though but few of the name. Men are lived over again. The world
is now as it was in ages past. There were none then, but there has
been one since, that parallels him, and is, as it were, revived self."
--George Dana Boardman.
Adjectives are divided into two general classes: descriptive and
definitive adjectives.
The following members sent in their resignations: Mrs. William M.
Murphy, Mrs. Ralph B. Wiltsie, and Mrs. John C. Clark.
2. The colon is used to separate the different members of a compound
sentence, when they themselves are divided by semicolons.
It is too warm to-day; the sunshine is too bright; the shade, too
pleasant: we will wait until to-morrow or we will have some one else
do it when the busy time is over.
+8. Rules for the Use of the Period.+--1. The period is used at the close
of imperative and declarative sentences.
2. All abbreviations should be followed by a period.
+9. Rule for the Use of the Interrogation Mark.+--The interrogation mark
should be used after all direct questions.
+10. Rule for the Use of the Exclamation Mark.+--Interjections and
exclamatory words and expressions should be followed by the exclamation
mark. Sometimes the exclamatory word is only a part of the whole
exclamation. In this case, the exclamatory word should be followed by a
comma, and the entire exclamation by an exclamation mark.
See, how the lightning flashes!
+11. Rules for the Use of the Dash.+--1. The dash is used to show sudden
changes in thought or breaks in speech.
I can speak of this better when temptation comes my way--if it ever does.
2. The dash is often used in the place of commas or marks of parenthesis
to set off parenthetical expressions.
In the mountains of New York State this most valuable tree--the spruce--
abounds.
3. The dash, either alone or in connection with the comma, is used to
point out that part of a sentence on which special stress is to be placed.
I saw unpruned fruit trees, broken fences, and farm implements, rusting in
the rain--all evidences of wasted time.
4. The dash is sometimes used with the colon before long quotations,
before an enumeration of things, or before a formally introduced
statement.
+12. Rules for the Use of Quotation Marks.+--1. Quotation marks are used
to inclose direct quotations.
"In all the great affairs of life one must run some risk," she remarked.
2. A quotation within a quotation is usually indicated by single quotation
marks.
"Can you tell me where I can find 'Rienzi's Address'?" asked a young lady
of a clerk in Brooklyn.
3. When a quotation is interrupted by parenthetical expressions, the
different parts of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks.
"Bring forth," cried the monarch, "the vessels of gold."
4. When the quotation consists of several paragraphs, the quotation marks
are placed at the beginning of each paragraph and at the close of the last
one.
+13. Rule for the Use of the Apostrophe.+--The apostrophe is used to
denote the possessive case, to indicate the omission of letters, and to
form the plural of signs, figures, and letters.
In the teacher's copy book you will find several fancy A's and 3's which
can't be distinguished from engravings.
II. REVIEW OF GRAMMAR
THE SENTENCE
+14. English grammar+ is the study of the forms of English words and their
relationship to one another as they appear in sentences. A _sentence_ is a
group of words that expresses a complete thought.
+15. Elements of a Sentence.+--The elements of a sentence, as regards the
office that they perform, are the _subject_ and the _predicate_. The
_subject_ is that about which something is asserted, and the _predicate_
is that which asserts something about the subject.
Some predicates may consist of a single word or word-group, able in itself
to complete a sentence: [The thrush _sings_. The thrush _has been
singing_]. Some require a following word or words: [William struck
_John_ (object complement, or object). Edward became _king_ (attribute
complement). The people made Edward _king_ (objective complement)].
The necessary parts of a sentence are: some name for the object of thought
(to which the general term _substantive_ may be given); some word or group
of words to make assertion concerning the substantive (general term,
_assertive_); and, in case of an incomplete assertive, one of the above
given completions of its meaning (object complement, attribute complement,
objective complement).
In addition to these necessary elements of the sentence, words or groups
of words may be added to make the meaning of any one of the elements more
exact. Such additions are known as _modifiers_. The word-groups which are
used as modifiers are the _phrase_ and the _clause_.
[The thrush, sings _in the pine woods_ (phrase). The wayfarer _who hears
the thrush_ is indeed fortunate (clause).]
Both the subject and the predicate may be unmodified:
[Bees buzz]; both may be modified: [The honey bees buzz in the clover];
one may be modified and the other unmodified: [Bees buzz in the clover].
The unmodified subject may be called the _simple subject_, or, merely, the
_subject_. If modified, it becomes the _complete subject_.
The assertive element, together with the attribute complement, if one is
present, may be called the _simple predicate_. If modified, it becomes the
_complete predicate_.
Some grammarians call the assertive element, alone, the _simple
predicate_; modified or completed, the _complete predicate_.
+16. Classification of Sentences as to Purpose.+--Sentences are classified
according to purpose into three classes: _declarative_, _interrogative_,
and _imperative_ sentences.
A _declarative_ sentence is one that makes a statement or declares
something: [Columbus crossed the Atlantic].
An _interrogative_ sentence is one that asks a question: [Who wrote
_Mother Goose_?].
An _imperative_ sentence is one that expresses a command or entreaty:
["Fling away ambition"].
Each kind of sentence may be of an exclamatory nature, and then the
sentence is said to be an _exclamatory_ sentence: [How happy all the
children are! (exclamatory declarative). "Who so base as be a slave?"
(exclamatory interrogative). "Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard!"
(exclamatory imperative)].
Notice that the exclamation point follows the declarative and imperative
forms, but the interrogative form is followed by the question mark.
WORDS AND THEIR OFFICES
+17. The Individual Elements+ of which every sentence is composed are
_words_. Every word is the sign of some idea. Each of the words _horse,
he, blue, speaks, merrily, at_, and _because_, has a certain naming value,
more or less definite, for the mind of the reader. Of these, _horse, blue,
he, merrily_, have a fairly vivid descriptive power. In the case of _at_
and _because_, the main office is, evidently, to express a relation
between other ideas: ["I am _at_ my post"], ["I go _because_ I must"]. The
word _speaks_ is less clearly a relational word; at first thought it would
seem to have only the office of picturing an activity. That it also fills
the office of a connective will be evident if we compare the following
sentences: He _speaks_ in public. He _is_ a public _speaker_. It is
evident that _speaks_ contains in itself the _naming_ value represented in
the word _speaker_, but also has the _connecting_ office fulfilled in the
second sentence by _is_.
All words have, therefore, a naming office, and some have in addition a
connecting or relational office.
PARTS OF SPEECH
+18. Parts of Speech.+--When we examine the different words in sentences
we find that, in spite of these fundamentally similar qualities, the words
are serving different purposes. This difference in purpose or use serves
as the basis for dividing words into eight classes, called Parts of
Speech. Use alone determines to which class a word in any given sentence
shall belong. Not only are single words so classified, but any part of
speech may be represented by a group of words. Such a group is either a
_phrase_ or a _clause_.
A _phrase_ is a group of words, containing neither subject nor predicate,
that is used as a single part of speech.
A _clause_ is a group of words, containing both subject and predicate,
that is used as part of a sentence. If used as a single part of speech, it
is called a _subordinate_, or _dependent_, clause. Some grammarians use the
word _clause_ for a subordinate statement only.
+19. Classification.+--The eight parts of speech may be classified as
follows:--
I. Substantives: nouns, pronouns.
II. Assertives: verbs.
III. Modifiers: adjectives, adverbs.
IV. Connectives: prepositions, conjunctions.
V. Interjections.
+20. Definitions.+--The parts of speech may be defined as
follows:--
(1) A _noun_ is a word used as a name.
(2) A _pronoun_ is a word used in place of a noun, designating a person,
place, or thing without naming it.
(3) An _adjective_ is a word that modifies a substantive.
(4) A _verb_ is a word that asserts something--action, state, or being---
concerning a substantive.
(5) An _adverb_ is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another
adverb.
(6) A _preposition_ is a word that shows the relation of the substantive
that follows it to some other word or words in the sentence.
(7) A _conjunction_ is a word that connects words or groups of words used
in the same way.
(8) An _interjection_ is a cry expressing emotion, but not forming part of
the sentence.
NOUNS
+21. Classes of Nouns.+--Nouns are divided into two general classes:
_proper_ nouns [Esther] and _common_ nouns [girl].
Common nouns include _abstract_ nouns [happiness] and _collective_ nouns
[army].
Any word mentioned merely _as a word_ is a noun: [_And_ is a conjunction].
+22. Inflection.+--A change in the form of a word to denote a change in
its meaning is termed _inflection_.
+23. Number.+--The most common inflection of the noun is that which shows
us whether the name denotes one or more than one. The power of the noun to
denote one or more than one is termed _number_. A noun that denotes but
one object is _singular_ in number. A noun that denotes more than one
object is _plural_ in number.
The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ and _es_ to
the singular [bank, banks; box, boxes].
Other points to be noted concerning the plural of nouns are as follows:--
1. The irregular plural in _en_ [child, children].
2. Formation of the plural by internal change [goose, geese].
3. Fourteen nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ change the _f_ or _fe_ into _yes_
[leaf, leaves].
4. Nouns ending in _y_, preceded by a consonant, change the _y_ to _i_ and
add _es_ [enemy, enemies].
5. Letters, figures, signs, etc., form their plural by adding '_s_:[You
have used too many _i_'s].
6. Nouns taken from other languages usually form their plurals according
to the laws of those languages [phenomenon, phenomena].
7. A few nouns in our language do not change their form to denote number.
(_a_) Some nouns have the same form, for both the singular and the
plural [sheep, deer].
(_b_) Some nouns are used only in the plural [scissors, thanks].
(_c_) Some nouns have no plurals [pride, flesh].
(_d_) Some nouns, plural in form, have a singular meaning [measles,
news, politics].
8. Compound nouns usually form their plural by pluralizing the noun part
of the compound [sister-in-law, sisters-in-law]. If the words of the
compound are both nouns, and are of equal importance, both are given a
plural ending [manservant, menservants]. When the compound is thought of
as a whole, the last part only is made plural [spoonful, spoonfuls].
9. Proper names usually form their plurals regularly. If they are
preceded by titles, they form their plurals either by pluralizing the
title or by pluralizing the name [The Misses Hunter or the Miss Hunters.
The Messrs. Keene or the two Mr. Keenes. The Masters Burke. The Mrs.
Harrisons.]
10. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning or use [cloth,
cloths, clothes; penny, pennies, pence].
+24. Case.+--Case is the relation that a noun or pronoun
bears to some other word in the sentence.
Inflection of nouns or pronouns for the purpose of denoting
case is termed _declension_. There are three cases in the English
language: the _nominative_, the _possessive_, and the _objective_; but
nouns show only two forms for each number, as the nominative and
objective cases have the same form.
+25. Formation of the Possessive.+--Nouns in the singular, and those in
the plural not already ending in _s_, form the possessive regularly by
adding '_s_ to the nominative [finger, finger's; geese, geese's].
In case the plural already ends in _s_, the possessive case adds only the
apostrophe [girls'].
A few singular nouns add only the apostrophe, when the addition of the
'_s_ would make an unpleasant sound [Moses'].
Compound nouns form the possessive case by adding '_s_ to the last word.
This is also the rule when two names denoting joint ownership are used:
[Bradbury and Emery's Algebra].
Notice that in the following expression the '_s_ is affixed to the second
noun only: [My sister Martha's book].
Names of inanimate objects usually substitute prepositional phrases to
denote possession: [The hardness _of the rock_, not The rock's hardness].
+26. Gender.+--Gender is the power of nouns and pronouns to denote sex.
Nouns or pronouns denoting males are of the _masculine_ gender; those
denoting females are of the _feminine_ gender; and those denoting things
without animal life are of the _neuter_ gender.
+27. Person.+--Person is the power of one class of pronouns to show
whether the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken
of is designated. According to the person denoted, the pronoun is said to
be in the _first, second_, or _third_ person. Nouns and many pronouns are
not inflected for person, but most grammarians attribute person to them
because the context of the sentence in which they are used shows what
persons they represent.
+28. Constructions of Nouns.+--The following are the usual constructions
of nouns:--
(_a_) The _possessive_ case of the noun denotes possession.
(_b_) Nouns in the _nominative_ case are used as follows:--
1. As the subject of a verb: [The western _sky_ is all aflame]
2. As an attribute complement: [Autumn is the most gorgeous _season_ of
the year].
3. In an exclamation: [Alas, poor _soul_, it could not be!].
4. In direct address: [O hush thee, my _baby_!].
5. Absolutely: [The _rain_ being over, the grass twinkled in the
sunshine].
6. As a noun in apposition with a nominative: [Columbus; a _native_ of
Genoa, discovered America].
(_c_) Nouns in the _objective_ case are used as follows:--
1. As the direct object of a verb, termed either the direct object or the
object complement: [I saw a _host_ of golden daffodils].
2. As the objective complement: [They crowned him _king_].
3. As the indirect object of a verb: [We gave _Ethel_ a ring].
4. As the object of a preposition: [John Smith explored the coast of _New
England_].
5. As the subject of an infinitive: [He commanded _the man_ (_him_)to go
without delay].
6. As the attribute of an expressed subject of the infinitive _to be_: [I
thought it to be _John_ (_him_)].
7. As an adverbial noun: [He came last _week_].
8. As a noun in apposition with an object: [Stanley found Livingstone,
the great _explorer_].
+29. Equivalents for Nouns.+
1. Pronoun: [John gave _his_ father a book for Christmas].
2. Adjective: [The _good_ alone are truly great].
3. Adverb: [I do not understand the _whys_ and _wherefores_ of the
process].
4. A gerund, or infinitive in _ing_: [_Seeing_ is _believing_].
5. An infinitive or infinitive phrase: [With him, _to think_ is _to
act_].
6. Clause: [It is hard for me to believe _that she took the money_]. Noun
clauses may be used as subject, object, attribute complement, and
appositive.
7. A prepositional phrase: [_Over the fence_ is out].
PRONOUNS
+30. Antecedent.+--The most common equivalent for a noun is the pronoun.
The substantive for which the pronoun is an equivalent is called the
_antecedent_, and with this antecedent the pronoun must agree in _person,
number_, and _gender_, but not necessarily in _case_.
+31. Classes of Pronouns.+--Pronouns are commonly divided into five
classes, and sometimes a sixth class is added: (1) personal pronouns, (2)
relative pronouns, (3) interrogative pronouns, (4) demonstrative pronouns,
(5) adjective pronouns,(6) indefinite pronouns (not always added).
+32. Personal Pronouns.+--Personal pronouns are so called because they
show by their form whether they refer to the first, the second, or the
third person. There are five personal pronouns in common use: _I, you, he,
she_, and _it_.
+33. Constructions of Personal Pronouns.+--The personal pronouns are used
in the same ways in which nouns are used. Besides the regular uses that the
personal pronoun has, there are some special uses that should be
understood.
1. The word _it_ is often used in an indefinite way at the beginning of a
sentence: [It snows]. When so used, it has no antecedent, and we say it is
used _impersonally_.
2. The pronoun _it_ is often used as the _grammatical_ subject of a
sentence in which the _logical_ subject is found after the predicate verb:
[_It_ is impossible for us to go]. When so used the pronoun _it_ is called
an _expletive. There_ is used in the same way.
+34. Cautions and Suggestions.+
1. Be careful not to use the apostrophe in the possessive forms _its,
yours, ours_, and _theirs_.
2. Be careful to use the nominative form of a pronoun used as an attribute
complement: [It is _I_; it is _they_].
3. Be sure that the pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. One of
the most common violations of this rule is in using _their_ in such
sentences as the following:--Every boy and girl must arrange _his_ desk.
Who has lost _his_ book? The use of _every_ and the form _has_ obliges us
to make the possessive pronouns singular.
_His_ may be regarded as applying to females as well as males, where it is
convenient not to use the expression _his or her_.
4. The so-called subject of an infinitive is always in the objective case:
[I asked _him_ to go].
5. The attribute complement will agree in case with the subject of the
verb. Hence the attribute complement of an infinitive is in the objective
case: [I knew it (obj.) to be _him_]; but the attribute complement of the
subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case: [I knew it (nom.) was
_he_].
6. Words should be so arranged in a sentence that there will be no doubt
in the mind concerning the antecedent of the pronoun.
7. Do not use the personal pronoun form _them_ for the adjective _those_:
[_Those_ books are mine].
+35. Compound Personal Pronouns.+--To the personal pronouns _my, our,
your, him, her, it_, and _them_, the syllables _self_ (singular) and
_selves_ (plural) may be added, thus forming what are termed _compound
personal_ pronouns. These pronouns have only two uses:--
1. They are used for emphasis: [He _himself_ is an authority on the
subject].
2. They are also used reflexively: [The boy injured _himself_].
+36. The Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns.+--The pronouns _who, which,
what_ (= that which), _that_, and _as_ (after _such_) are more than
equivalents for nouns, inasmuch as they serve as connectives. They are
often named _relative pronouns_ because they relate to some antecedent
either expressed or implied; they are equally well named _conjunctive
pronouns_ because they are used as connectives. They introduce subordinate
clauses only; these clauses are called _relative clauses_, and since they
modify substantives, are also called _adjective clauses_.
+37. Uses of Relative Pronouns.+--_Who_ is used to represent persons, and
objects or ideas personified; _which_ is used to represent things; _that_
and _as_ are used to represent both persons and things.
When a clause is used _for the purpose_ of pointing out some particular
person, object, or idea, it is usually introduced by _that_; but when the
clause supplies an additional thought, _who_ or _which_ is more frequently
used. The former is called a _restrictive clause_, and the latter, a
_non-restrictive clause_.
[The boy that broke his leg has fully recovered (restrictive).] Note the
omission of the comma before _that_. [My eldest brother, who is now in
England, will return by June (non-restrictive).] Note the inclosure of the
clause in commas. See Appendix 5, rule 10.
In the first sentence it is evident that the intent of the writer is to
separate, in thought, _the boy that broke his leg_ from all other boys.
Although the clause does indeed describe the boy's condition, it does so
_for the purpose_ of _limiting_ or _restricting_ thought to one especial
boy among many. In the second sentence the especial person meant is
indicated by the word _eldest_. The clause, _who is now in England_, is
put in for the sake of giving an additional bit of information.
+38. Constructions of Relative Pronouns.+--Relative pronouns may be used
as subject, object, object of a preposition, subject of an infinitive, and
possessive modifier.
The relative pronoun is regarded as agreeing in person with its
antecedent. Its verb, therefore, takes the person of the antecedent: [_I_,
who _am_ your friend, will assist you].
The case of the relative is determined by its construction in the clause
in which it is found: [He _whom_ the president appointed was fitted for
the position].
+39. Compound Relative Pronouns.+--The compound relative pronouns are
formed by adding _ever_ and _soever_ to the relative pronouns _who,
which_, and _what_. These have the constructions of the simple relatives,
and the same rules hold about person and case: [Give it to _whoever_
wishes it. Give it to _whomever_ you see].
+40. Interrogative Pronouns.+--The pronouns _who, which_, and _what_ are
used to ask questions, and when so used, are called _interrogative_
pronouns. _Who_ refers to persons; _what_, to things; and _which_, to
persons or things. Like the relatives _who_ has three case forms; _which_
and _what_ are uninflected.
The implied question in the sentence, I know whom you saw, is, Whom did
you see? The introductory _whom_ is an interrogative pronoun, and the
clause itself is called an _indirect question_.
The words _which, what_, and _whose_ may also be used as modifiers of
substantives, and when so used they are called _interrogative adjectives_:
["_What_ manner of man is this?" _Whose_ child is this? _Which_ book
did you choose?].
+41. Demonstrative Pronouns.+--_This_ and _that_, with their plurals
_these_ and _those_, are called _demonstrative pronouns_, because they
point out individual persons or things.
+42. Indefinite Pronouns.+--Some pronouns, as _each, either, some, any,
many, such_, etc., are indefinite in character. Many indefinites may be
used either as pronouns or adjectives. Of the indefinites only two, _one_
and _other_, are inflected.
SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL
NOM. AND OBJ. one ones other others
POSS. one's ones' other's others'
+43. Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives.+--Many words, as has
been noted already, are either pronouns or adjectives according to the
office that they perform. If the noun is expressed, the word in question
is called a _pronominal adjective_; but if the noun is omitted so that the
word in question takes its place, it is called an _adjective pronoun_.
[_That_ house is white (adjective). _That_ is the same house (pronoun).]
ADJECTIVES
+44. Classes of Adjectives.+--There are two general classes of adjectives:
the _descriptive_ [blue, high, etc.], so called because they describe, and
the _limiting_ or _definitive_ adjectives [yonder, three, that, etc.], so
called because they limit or define. It is, of course, true that any
adjective which describes a noun limits its meaning; but the adjective is
named from its descriptive power, not from its limiting power. A very
large per cent of all adjectives belong to the first class,--_descriptive_
adjectives. Proper adjectives and _participial_ adjectives form a small
part of this large class: [_European_ countries. A _running_ brook].
+45. Limiting or Definitive Adjectives.+--The _limiting_ adjectives
include the various classes of _pronominal adjectives_ (all of which have
been mentioned under pronouns), the _articles_ (_a_, _an_, and _the_),
and adjectives denoting _place_ and _number_.
+46. Comparison of Adjectives.+--With the exception of the words _this_
and _that_, adjectives are not inflected for number, and none are
inflected for case. Many of them, however, change their form to express a
difference in degree. This change of form is called _comparison_. There
are three degrees of comparison: the _positive_, the _comparative_, and
the _superlative_. Adjectives are regularly compared by adding the
syllables _er_ and _est_ to the positive to form the comparative and
superlative degrees. In some cases, especially in the case of adjectives
of more than one syllable, the adverbs _more_ and _most_ are placed before
the positive degree in order to form the other two degrees [long, longer,
longest; beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful].
+47. Irregular Comparison of Adjectives.+--A few adjectives are compared
irregularly. These adjectives are in common use and we should be familiar
with the correct forms.
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
bad }
evil } worse worst
ill }
far farther farthest
good } better best
well }
fore former { foremost
{ first
late { later { latest
{ latter { last
little less least
many } more most
much }
near nearer { nearest
{ next
old { older { oldest
{ elder { eldest
The following words are used as adverbs or prepositions in the positive
degree, and as _adjectives_ in the other two degrees:--
(forth) further furthest
(in) inner { innermost
{ inmost
(out) { outer { outermost
{ utter { utmost
{ uttermost
(up) upper { upmost
{ uppermost
+48. Cautions concerning the Use of Adjectives.+
1. When two or more adjectives modify the same noun, the article is
placed only before the first, unless emphasis is desired: [He is an
industrious, faithful pupil].
2. If the adjectives refer to different things, the article should be
repeated before each adjective: [She has a white and a blue dress].
3. When two or more nouns are in apposition, the article is placed only
before the first: [I received a telegram from Mr. Richards, _the_ broker
and real estate agent].
4. _This, these, that_, and _those_ must agree in number with the noun
they modify: [_This kind_ of flowers; _those sorts_ of seeds].
5. When but two things are compared, the comparative degree is used:
[This is the more complete of the two].
6. When _than_ is used after a comparative, whatever is compared should
be excluded from the class with which it is compared: [I like this house
better than any other house; not, I like this house better than any
house].
7. Do not use _a_ after _kind of, sort of_, etc.: [What kind of man is
he? (not, What kind of _a_ man)]. _One_ man does not constitute a class
consisting of many kinds.
+49. Constructions of Adjectives.+--Adjectives that merely describe or
limit are said to be _attributive_ in construction. When the adjective
limits or describes, and, at the same time, adds to the predicate, it is
called a _predicate adjective_.Predicate adjectives may be used either as
attribute or objective complements: [The sea is _rough_ to-day (attribute
complement), He painted the boat _green_ (objective complement)].
+50. Equivalents for Adjectives.+--The following are used as equivalents
for the typical adjective:--
1. A noun used in apposition: [Barrie's story of his mother, "_Margaret
Ogilvy_," is very beautiful].
2. A noun used as an adjective: [A _campaign_ song].
3. A prepositional phrase: [His little, nameless, unremember'd acts _of
kindness_ and _of love_].
4. Participles or participial phrases: [We saw a brook _running_ between
the alders. Soldiers _hired to serve a foreign country_ are called
mercenaries].
5. Relative clauses: [This is the house _that Jack built_].
6. An adverb (sometimes called the _locative_ adjective): [The book _here_
is the one I want].
VERBS
+51. Uses of Verbs.+--A _verb_ is the word or word-group that makes an
assertion or statement, and it is therefore the most important part of the
whole sentence. It has been already shown that such a verb as _speaks_
serves the double purpose of suggesting an activity and showing relation.
The most purely _relational_ verb is the verb _to be_, which is called the
_copula_ or _linking verb_, for the very reason that it joins predicate
words to the subject: [The lake _is_ beautiful]. _To be_, however, is not
always a pure _copula_. In such a sentence as, "He that cometh to God must
believe that He _is_," the word _is_ means _exists_.Verbs that are like
the copula, such as, _appear, become, seem_, etc., are called _copulative_
verbs. Verbs that not only are relational but have descriptive power, such
as _sings, plays, runs_, etc., are called _attributive_ verbs. They
attribute some quality or characteristic to the subject.
+52. Classes of Verbs.+--According to their uses in a sentence verbs are
divided into two classes: _transitive_ and _intransitive_.
A _transitive_ verb is one that takes a following substantive, expressed
or implied, called the _object_, to designate the receiver or the product
of the action: [They seized the _city_. They built a _city_]. The
transitive verb may sometimes be used _absolutely_:[The horse eats]. Here
the object is implied.
An _intransitive_ verb is one that does not take an object to complete its
meaning; or, in other words, an intransitive verb is one that denotes an
action, state, or feeling that involves the subject only: [He ran away.
They were standing at the water's edge].
A few verbs in our language are always transitive, and a few others are
always intransitive. The verbs _lie_ and _lay, rise_ and _raise, sit_ and
_set_, are so frequently misused that attention is here called to them.
The verbs _lie, rise_, and _sit_ (usually) are intransitive in meaning,
while the verbs _lay, raise_, and _set_ are transitive. The word _sit_ may
sometimes take a reflexive object: [They sat _themselves_ down to rest].
The majority of verbs in our language are either transitive or
intransitive, according to the sense in which they are used.
[The fire _burns_ merrily (intransitive).
The fire _burned_ the building (transitive).
The bird _flew_ swiftly (intransitive).
The boy _flew_ his kite (transitive).]
Some intransitive verbs take what is known as a _cognate object_: [He died
a noble _death_.] Here the object repeats the meaning of the verb.
+53. Complete and Incomplete Verbs.+--Some intransitive verbs make a
complete assertion or statement without the aid of any other words. Such
verbs are said to be of _complete predication_: [The snow melts].
All transitive verbs and some intransitive verbs require one or more words
to complete the meaning of the predicate. Such verbs are said to be
incomplete. Whatever is added to complete the meaning of the predicate is
termed a _complement_. The complement of a transitive verb is called the
_object complement_, or simply the _object_: [She found the _book_].
Some transitive verbs, from the nature of their meaning, take also an
_indirect_ object: [I gave _her_ the book]. When a word belonging to
the subject is added to an intransitive verb in order to complete the
predicate, it is termed an _attribute complement_. This complement may be
either a noun or an adjective: [He is our _treasurer_ (noun). This rose is
_fragrant_ (adjective)]. Among the incomplete intransitive verbs the most
conspicuous are the copula and the copulative verbs.
+54. Auxiliary Verbs.+--English verbs have so few changes of form to
express differences in meaning that it is often necessary to use the
so-called _auxiliary_ verbs. The most common are: _do, be, have, may,
must, might, can, shall, will, should, would, could_, and _ought_. Some of
these may be used as principal verbs. A few notes and cautions are added.
_Can_ is used to denote the ability of the subject.
_May_ is used to denote permission, possibility, purpose, or desire. Thus
the request for permission should be, "May I?" not "Can I?"
_Must_ indicates necessity.
_Ought_ expresses obligation.
_Had_ should never be used with _ought_. To express a moral obligation in
past time, combine _ought_ with the perfect infinitive: [I ought _to have
done_ it].
_Should_ sometimes expresses duty: [You should not go].
_Would_ sometimes denotes a custom: [He would sit there for hours].
Sometimes it expresses a wish: [Would he were here!]. For other uses of
_should_ and _would_, see Appendix 60.
+55. Principal Parts.+--The main forms of the verb--so important as to be
called the _principal parts_ because the other parts are formed from them--
are the _root infinitive_, the _preterite_ (_past_) _indicative_, and the
_past participle_ [move, moved, moved; sing, sang, sung; be, was, been].
The _present_ participle is sometimes given with the principal parts.
+56. Inflection.+--As is evident from the preceding paragraph, verbs have
certain changes of form to indicate change of meaning. Such a change or
_inflection_, in the case of the noun, is called _declension;_ in the
case of the verb it is called _conjugation_. Nouns are _declined_; verbs
are _conjugated_.
+57. Person and Number.+--In Latin, or any other highly inflected
language, there are many terminations to indicate differences in person
and number, but in English there is but one in common use, _s_ in the
third person singular: [_He runs_], _St_ or _est_ is used after _thou_ in
the second person singular: [_Thou lovest_].
+58. Agreement.+--Verbs must agree with their subjects in
person and number. The following suggestions concerning
agreement may be helpful:--
1. A compound subject that expresses a single idea takes a singular verb:
[Bread and milk _is_ wholesome food].
2. When the members of a compound subject, connected by _neither ... nor_,
differ as regards person and number, the verb should agree with the nearer
of the two: [Neither they nor I _am_ to blame].
3. When the subject consists of singular nouns or pronouns connected by
_or, either ... or, neither ... nor_, the verb is singular: [Either this
book or that _is_ mine].
4. Words joined to the subject by _with, together with, as well as_, etc.,
do not affect the number of the verb. The same is true of any modifier of
the subject: [John, as well as the girls, _is_ playing house. One of my
books _is_ lying on the table. Neither of us _is_ to blame].
5. When the article _the_ precedes the word _number_, used as a subject,
the verb should be in the singular; otherwise the verb is plural: [_The_
number of pupils in our schools _is_ on the increase. _A_ number of
children _have_ been playing in the sand pile].
6. The pronoun _you_ always takes a plural verb, even if its meaning is
singular: [You _were_ here yesterday].
7. A collective noun takes a singular or plural verb, according as the
collection is thought of as a whole or as composed of individuals.
+59. Tense.+--The power of the verb to show differences of time is called
_tense_. Tense shows also the completeness or incompleteness of an act or
condition at the time of speaking. There are three _primary_ tenses:
_present, preterite_ (_past_), and _future_; and three _secondary_ tenses
for completed action:_present perfect, past perfect_ (_pluperfect_), and
_future perfect_.
English has only two simple tenses, the present and the preterite: _I
love, I loved_. All other tenses are formed by the use of the auxiliary
verbs. By combining the present and past tenses of _will, shall, have,
be_, or _do_ with those parts of the verb known as infinitives and
participles, the various tenses of the complete conjugation of the verb
are built up. The formation of the _preterite_ tense, and the consequent
division of verbs into _strong_ and _weak_, will be discussed later.
+60. The Future Tense.+--The future tense is formed by combining _shall_
or _will_ with the root infinitive, without _to_.
The correct form of the _future tense_ in assertions is here given:--
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. I shall fall 1. We shall fall
2. Thou wilt fall 2. You will fall
3. He will fall 3. They will fall
_Will_, in the _first_ person, denotes not simple futurity, but
determination: [I will (= am determined to) go].
_Shall_, in the _second_ and _third_ persons, is not simply the sign of
the future tense in declarative sentences. It is used to denote the
determination of the speaker with reference to others.
Notice:--
1. In clauses introduced by _that_, expressed or understood, if the noun
clause and the principal clause have _different_ subjects, the same
auxiliary is used that would be used were the subordinate clause used
independently: [I fear we _shall_ be late. My friend is determined that
her son _shall_ not be left alone].
2. In all other subordinate clauses, _shall_, for all persons, denotes
simple futurity; _will_, an expression of willingness or determination:
[He thinks that he _shall_ be there. He promises that he _will_ be there].
3. In questions, _shall_ is always used in the first person; in the second
and third persons the same auxiliary is used which is expected in the
answer.
(NOTE.--_Should_ and _would_ follow the rules for _shall_ and _will_.)
+61. Tenses for the Completed Action.+
1. To represent an action as completed at the _present_ time, the past
participle is used with _have_ (_hast, has_). This forms the _present
perfect_ tense: [I _have finished_].
2. To represent an action as completed in _past_ time, the past participle
is combined with _had_ (_hadst_). This forms the _past perfect_, or
_pluperfect_, tense: [I _had finished_].
3. To represent action that will be completed _in future_ time, _shall
have_ or _will have_ is combined with the past participle. This forms the
_future perfect_ tense: [I _shall have finished_].
+62. Sequence of Tenses.+--It is, in general, true that the tense of a
subordinate clause changes when the tense of the main verb changes. This
is known as the Law of the Sequence (or _following_) of Tenses: [I know he
means well. I knew he meant well].
The verb in the main clause and the verb in the subordinate clause are not
necessarily in the same tense.
[I think he _is_ there. I thought he was there.
I think he _was_ there. I thought he had been there.
I think he _will be_ there. I thought he would be there.]
In general, the principle may be laid down that in a complex sentence the
tense for both principal and subordinate clauses is that which the sense
requires.
General truths and present facts should be expressed in the
present tense, whatever the tense of the principal verb: [He
believed that truth _is_ unchangeable. Who did you say _is_ president
of your society?].
The _perfect infinitive_ is used to denote action completed at
the time of the main verb: [I am sorry _to have wounded_ you].
+63. Mode.+--A statement may be regarded as the expression of a fact, of a
doubt or supposition, or of a command. The power of the verb to show how
an action should be regarded is called _mode (mood_). In our language
there is but a slight change of form for this purpose. The distinction of
mode which we must make is a distinction that has regard to the thought or
attitude of mind of the speaker rather than to the form of the verb.
The _indicative_ mode is used to state a fact or to ask questions of fact:
[I shall write a letter. Shall I write a letter?].
The _subjunctive_ mode indicates uncertainty, unreality, and some forms of
condition: [If she were here, I should be glad].
The _imperative_ mode expresses a command or entreaty: [Come here].
+64. The Subjunctive Mode.+--The subjunctive is disappearing from
colloquial speech, and the indicative form is used almost entirely.
The verb _to be_ has the following indicative and subjunctive forms in the
present and preterite:--
IND. SUBJ. IND. SUBJ.
{ I am I be { I was I were
{ Thou art Thou be { Thou wast Thou were
PRESENT { He is He be PRETERITE { He was He were
{ We are We be { We were We were
{ You are You be { You were You were
{ They are They be { They were They were
In other verbs the indicative and subjunctive forms are the same, except
that the second and third persons singular subjunctive have no personal
endings.
INDICATIVE Thou learnest He learns
SUBJUNCTIVE Thou learn He learn
The subjunctive idea is sometimes expressed by verb phrases, containing
the auxiliary verbs _may (might), would_, or _should_. _May, would_, and
_should_ are not, however, always subjunctive. In "I _may_ go" (may = am
allowed to), _may_ is indicative. In "you _should_ go" (= ought to),
_should_ is indicative.
The subjunctive mode is used most frequently to express:--
1. A wish: [The Lord be with you].
2. A condition regarded as doubtful: [If it be true, what shall we
think?], or a condition regarded as untrue: [If I were you, I should go].
When condition is expressed by the subjunctive without _if_, the verb
precedes the subject: [Were my brother here, he could go with me].
3. A purpose: [He studies that he may learn].
4. Exhortations: [Sing we the song of freedom].