gave rise to so many commotions, that in somewhat less than two years,
four emperors by violence obtained possession of the throne. The right
of the senate to name, or at least to confirm, the successors to the
throne, was still indeed acknowledged; but as the armies had found out
that they could create emperors, the power of the senate dwindled into
an empty ceremony. Servius Sulpicius Galba, now seventy-two years of
age, having been already proclaimed emperor by the legions in Spain, and
acknowledged by the senate, gained possession of Rome without striking a
blow, the attempt of Nymphidius having completely failed, and Virginius
Rufus voluntarily submitting to him. Galba, however, having given
offence both to the praetorian guard and the German legions, was
dethroned by the guards, at the instigation of his former friend Otho,
at the very time when he thought he had secured his throne by adopting
the young Licinius Piso, and had frustrated the hopes of Otho.
18. M. Otho, aged thirty-seven, was indeed acknowledged emperor by the
senate, but wanted the sanction of the German legions, who, proclaiming
their general, A. Vitellius, emperor, invaded Italy. Otho marches
against him, but after the loss of the battle of Bedriacum kills
himself--whether from fear or patriotism, remains uncertain.
The special sources for the history of Galba and Otho, are their
_Lives_ by PLUTARCH.
19. Vitellius, in his thirty-seventh year, was acknowledged emperor not
only by the senate, but likewise in the provinces; his debaucheries and
cruelty, however, together with the licentiousness of his troops, having
rendered him odious at Rome, the Syrian legions rebelled and proclaimed
their general, T. Flavius Vespasian, emperor, who, at the solicitation
of the powerful Mutianus, governor of Syria, accepted the imperial
diadem. The troops on the Danube declaring for him shortly after, and
marching into Italy under their general Antonius Primus defeated the
army of Vitellius at Cremona. Vitellius was immediately hurled from the
throne, though not till after some blood had been spilt by the
commotions that took place at Rome, in which Flavius Sabinus, the
brother of Vespasian, was slain, and the capitol burnt.
20. Flavius Vespasian ascended the throne in his fifty-ninth year, and
became thereby the founder of a dynasty which gave three emperors to
Rome. The state, almost ruined by profusion, civil war, and successive
revolutions, found in Vespasian a monarch well suited to its unhappy
condition. He endeavoured, as far as he could, to determine the
relations between himself and the senate; while, by a decree, he
restored to it all the rights and privileges which had been conferred
upon it by his predecessors of the family of Caesar, and settled and
added some others (_lex regia_). He made a thorough reform in the
completely-exhausted treasury, which he recruited in part by reducing
the countries Nero had made free, together with some others, into
provinces; partly by restoring the ancient customs, by increasing
others, and by imposing new ones: without this it would have been
impossible for him to have reestablished the discipline of the army. His
liberality in the foundation of public buildings, as well in Rome as in
other cities; and the care with which he promoted education, by granting
salaries to public teachers, are sufficient to free him from the
reproach of avarice; and although, on account of their dangerous
opinions, he banished the Stoics (who since the time of Nero had become
very numerous, and retained nearly all the principles of republicanism),
the annulling of the _judicia majestatis_ and the restoration of the
authority of the senate show how far he was from being a despot.
Rhodes, Samos, Lycia, Achaia, Thrace, Cilicia, and Commagene, were
brought by Vespasian into the condition of provinces. Foreign wars:
that against the Jews, which ended with the destruction of Jerusalem,
A. C. 70; and a much greater war against the Batavians and their
allies under Civilis, who during the late civil wars, sought to shake
off the Roman yoke, 69; but were reduced to an accommodation by
Cerealis, 70. Expeditions of Agricola in Britain, 78-85, who not only
subdued all England, and introduced the Roman manners and customs, but
also attacked and sailed round Scotland.
_D. Vespasianus, sive de vita et legislatione T. Flavii Vespasiani
Imp. commentarius, auctore_ A. G. CRAMER. Jenae, 1785. An excellent
enquiry, with illustrations of the fragments of the _lex regia_. The
second part, _de legislatione_, contains a learned commentary upon the
_senatus consulta_, during his reign.
21. His eldest son, Titus Flavius Vespasian, who in the year 70 had been
created Caesar, and reigned from his thirty-ninth to his forty-second
year, gives us the rare example of a prince becoming better on the
throne. His short and benevolent reign was, indeed, only remarkable for
its public calamities: an eruption of mount Vesuvius, overwhelming
several cities, was followed by a destructive fire, and a dreadful
plague at Rome. His early death secured him the reputation of being, if
not the happiest, at least the best of princes.
22. His younger brother and successor, L. Flavius Domitian, who reigned
from his thirtieth to his forty-fifth year, gives an example quite
opposite to that of Titus: beginning with justice and severity, he soon
degenerated into the completest despot that ever swayed the Roman
sceptre. His cruelty, joined to an equal degree of pride, and nourished
by suspicion and jealousy, made him the enemy of all who excelled him by
their exploits, their riches, or their talents. The mortifications to
which his pride must have been subjected in consequence of his
unsuccessful wars against the Catti, and more particularly the Daci,
increased his bad disposition. His despotism was founded upon his
armies, whose pay he augmented one fourth; and that he might not
thereby diminish the treasury, as he had too much done at first, he
multiplied the _judicia majestatis_, rendering it still more terrible by
the employment of secret informers (_delatores_), in order, by
confiscations, to augment the wealth of his private treasury (_fiscus_).
By confining his cruelty chiefly to the capital, and by a strict
superintendence over the governors of provinces, Domitian prevented any
such general disorganization of the empire as took place under Nero. His
fall confirmed the general truth, that tyrants have little to fear from
the people, but much from individuals who may think their lives in
danger.
The foreign wars during this reign are rendered more worthy of remark
by being the first in which the barbarians attacked the empire with
success. Domitian's ridiculous expedition against the Catti, 82, gave
the first proof of his boundless vanity; as did the recall of the
victorious Agricola, 85, from Britain, of his jealousy. His most
important war was that against the Daci, or Getae, who, under their
brave king Dercebal, had attacked the Roman frontiers; this again
occasioned another with their neighbours, the Marcomanni, Quadi, and
Jazygi, 86-90, which turned out so unfortunate for Rome, that Domitian
was obliged to purchase a peace of the Daci by paying them an annual
tribute.
23. M. Cocceius Nerva, aged about seventy years was raised to the throne
by the murderers of Domitian; and now, at last, seemed to break forth
the dawn of a more happy period for the empire. The preceding reign of
terror completely ceased at once; and he endeavoured to impart fresh
vigour to industry, not only by diminishing the taxes, but also by
distributing lands to the poor. The insurrection of the guards
certainly cost the murderers of Domitian their lives; but it was at the
same time the cause of Nerva's securing the prosperity of the empire
after his death, by the adoption of Trajan.
24. M. Ulpius Trajan (after his adoption, Nerva Trajan), a Spaniard by
birth, governed the empire from his forty-second to his sixty-second
year. He was the first foreigner who ascended the Roman throne, and at
the same time the first of their monarchs who was equally great as a
ruler, a general, and a man. After completely abolishing the _judicia
majestatis_, he made the restoration of the _free Roman constitution_,
so far as it was compatible with a monarchical form, his peculiar care.
He restored the elective power to the _comitia_, complete liberty of
speech to the senate, and to the magistrates their former authority; and
yet he exercised the art of ruling to a degree and in a detail which few
princes have equalled. Frugal in his expenses, he was nevertheless
splendidly liberal to every useful institution, whether in Rome or the
provinces, as well as in the foundation of military roads, public
monuments, and schools for the instruction of poor children. By his wars
he extended the dominion of Rome beyond its former boundaries; subduing,
in his contests with the Daci, their country, and reducing it to a Roman
province; as he likewise did, in his wars against the Armenians and
Parthians, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and part of Arabia. Why was so great a
character disfigured by an ambition of conquest?
The first war against the Daci, in which the shameful tribute was
withdrawn and Dercebal reduced to subjection, lasted from 101-103.
But as Dercebal again rebelled, the war was renewed in 105, and
brought to a close in 106, when Dacia was reduced to a Roman province,
and many Roman colonies established therein. The war with the
Parthians arose from a dispute respecting the possession of the throne
of Armenia (see above, p. 304), 114-116: but although Rome was
victorious she gained no permanent advantage thereby.
The especial source for the history of Trajan is the _Panegyricus_ of
PLINY THE YOUNGER; the correspondence, however, of the same writer,
while governor of Bithynia, with the emperor, affords us a much deeper
insight into the spirit of his government: PLINII _Epist._ lib. x. Who
can read it without admiring the royal statesman?
RITTERSHUSII _Trajanus in lucem reproductus_. Ambegae, 1608. A mere
collection of passages occurring in ancient authors respecting Trajan.
_Res Trajani Imperatoris ad Danubium Gestae, auctore_ CONRAD MANNERT.
Norimb. 1793: and
JOH. CHRIST. ENGEL, _Commentatio de Expeditionibus Trajani ad
Danubium, et origine Valachorum_. Vindob. 1794.--Both learned
dissertations, written for the prize offered by the Royal Society of
Gottingen; the first of which obtained the prize, and the other the
_accessit_, i. e. was declared second best.
25. By the contrivances of Plotina, his wife, Trajan was succeeded by
his cousin and pupil, whom he is said also to have adopted, P. Aelius
Adrian, who reigned from his forty-second to his sixty-third year. He
was acknowledged at once by the army of Asia, with which he then was,
and the sanction of the senate followed immediately after. He differed
from his predecessor in that his chief aim was the preservation of
peace; on which account he gave up (rare moderation!), directly after
his accession, the newly conquered provinces of Asia, Armenia, Assyria,
and Mesopotamia, and so put an end to the Parthian war (see above, p.
304.) He retained, though with some unwillingness, that of Dacia,
because otherwise the Roman colonies would have become exposed. He well
made up for his pacific disposition, however, in seeking, by a general
and vigorous reform in the internal administration, and by restoring the
discipline of the army, to give greater solidity to the empire. For that
purpose he visited successively all the provinces of the Roman empire;
first the eastern, and afterwards the western; making useful regulations
and establishing order wherever he came. He improved the Roman
jurisprudence by the introduction of the _edictum perpetuum_.
Passionately fond of and well instructed in literature and the fine
arts, he gave them his liberal protection, and thus called forth another
Augustan age. Upon the whole, his reign was certainly a salutary one for
the empire; and for any single acts of injustice of which he may be
accused, he fully compensated by his choice of a successor. After having
first adopted L. Aurelius Verus (afterwards Aelius Verus), who fell a
sacrifice to his debaucheries, he next adopted T. Aurelius Antoninus
(afterwards T. Aelius Adrianus Antoninus Pius), upon condition that he
should again adopt M. Aurelius Verus (afterwards M. Aurelius Antoninus),
and L. Cesonius Commodus (afterwards L. Verus), the son of Aelius Verus.
During his reign a great revolt broke out in Judaea, under Barcochab,
132-135, occasioned by the introduction of pagan worship into the
Roman colony of _Aelia Capitolina_ (the ancient Jerusalem).
The especial source for the history of Adrian, is his _Life_ and that
of _Aelius Verus_ by AeLIUS SPARTIANUS _in Script. Hist. Aug. Minores_,
already quoted.
26. The reign of Antoninus Pius, from his forty-seventh to his
seventieth year, was without doubt the happiest period of the Roman
empire. He found everything already in excellent order; and those
ministers which Adrian had appointed, he continued in their places. His
quiet activity furnishes but little matter for history; and yet he was,
perhaps, the most noble character that ever sat upon a throne. Although
a prince, his life was that of the most blameless individual; while he
administered the affairs of the empire as though they were his own. He
honoured the senate; and the provinces flourished under him, not only
because he kept a watchful eye over the conduct of the governors, but
because he made it a maxim of his government to continue in their places
all those whose probity he had sufficiently proved. He observed rigid
order in the finances, and yet without sparing where it could be of
service in the foundation or improvement of useful institutions; as his
erection of many buildings, establishment of public teachers with
salaries in all the provinces, and other examples fully show. He carried
on no war himself; on the contrary, several foreign nations made choice
of him to arbitrate their differences. Some rebellions which broke out
in Britain and Egypt, and some frontier wars excited by the Germans, the
Daci, the Moors, and the Alani, were quelled by his lieutenants.
The principal and almost the only source for the history of Antoninus
Pius, Dion Cassius's history of this period being lost, is his _Life_
by JULIUS CAPITOLINUS in the _Script. Hist. August._ And even this
refers to his private character rather than his public history.
Compare the excellent _Reflections_ of MARCUS AURELIUS, i, 16. upon
this prince.
_Vie des Empereurs Tite Antonin et Marc Aurele_, _par_ M. GAUTIER DE
SIBERT. Paris, 1769, 8vo. A valuable essay on the lives of the two
Antonines.
27. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, the philosopher (aged
40-59 years), who immediately associated with himself, under the title
of Augustus, L. Verus (aged 30-40 years, ! 169), to whom he gave his
daughter in marriage. Notwithstanding the differences of their
character, the most cordial union existed between them during the whole
of their common reign; L. Verus, indeed, being almost always absent in
the wars, took but a very small share in the government. The reign of M.
Aurelius was marked by several great calamities: a dreadful pestilence,
a famine, and almost continual wars. Nothing short of a prince like
Aurelius, who exhibited to the world the image of wisdom seated on a
throne, could have made so much misery tolerable. Soon after his
accession, the Catti made an irruption upon the Rhine, and the Parthians
in Asia. L. Verus was sent against them. But the wars on the Danube with
the Marcomanni and their allies in Pannonia, and other northern nations,
who now began to press forward with great force upon Dacia, were of much
greater consequence. They occupied M. Aurelius from the year 167, with
but little intermission, to the end of his reign. He succeeded, indeed,
in maintaining the boundaries of the empire; but then he was the first
who settled any of the barbarians within it, or took them into the Roman
service. In the internal administration of affairs he closely followed
the steps of his predecessor, except that he was rather too much
influenced by his freedmen and family. The only rebellion which broke
out against him, was that of Avidius Cassius, his lieutenant in Syria,
occasioned by a false report of his death; but it was quelled by the
destruction of that general, as soon as the truth was made known.
The war against the Parthians (see above, p. 304) was indeed brought
to a successful issue by Verus, the principal cities of the Parthians
falling into the hands of the Romans; Verus left them, however, to be
carried on by his lieutenants, while he rioted in debaucheries at
Antioch. The first war against the Marcomanni, carried on in the
beginning and until the death of Verus, by the two emperors together,
was highly dangerous for Rome, as many other nations had joined the
Marcomanni, particularly the Quadi, Jazygi, and Vandals, and
penetrated as far as Aquileia. M. Aurelius ended this war by a
glorious peace, 174, as he found it necessary to stop the progress of
Cassius's rebellion; in 178, however, the Marcomanni again commenced
hostilities, and before their close M. Aurelius died at Sirmium.
Contemporary with these wars, yet, as it seems, without any connection
with them, were the attacks of other nations upon Dacia, the Bastarnae,
Alani, etc. who poured in from the north, probably pressed forward by
the advance of the Goths. _This was the first symptom of the great
migration of nations now beginning._
The especial sources for the history of M. Aurelius, are the
Biographies of him and L. Verus, written by JULIUS CAPITOLINUS, as
well as that of Avidius Cassius, by VULCATIUS GALLICANUS in _Script.
Hist. August._ The letters discovered in Milan, among and together
with the writings of FRONTO, are of no historical service.--His
principles are best learnt from his _Meditations on himself_.
CH. MEINERS _de M. Aurel. Antonini ingenio, moribus, et scriptis, in
Commentat. Soc. Gotting._ vol. vi.
28. By means of adoption the Roman empire had been blessed, during the
last eighty years, with a succession of rulers such as have not often
fell to the lot of any kingdom. But in J. Commodus the son of M.
Aurelius (probably the offspring of a gladiator), who reigned from his
nineteenth to his thirty-first year, there ascended the throne a monster
of cruelty, insolence, and lewdness. At the commencement of his reign he
bought a peace of the Marcomanni that he might return to Rome. Being
himself unable to support the burden of government, the helm of state
was placed in the hands of the stern and cruel Perennis, praefect of the
praetorian guard; but who, being murdered by the discontented soldiers,
was succeeded by the freedman Cleander, who put up all for sale, till he
fell a sacrifice to his own insatiable avarice, in a revolt of the
people, caused by their want of provisions. The extravagant propensity
of Commodus for the diversions of the amphitheatres, and the combats of
wild beasts and gladiators, wherein he himself usually took a part, in
the character of Hercules, became a chief cause of his dissipation, and
thereby of his cruelty; till at last he was killed at the instigation of
his concubine Marcia, Laetus the praefect of the praetorian guard, and
Electus. The wars on the frontiers during his reign, in Dacia, and
especially in Britain, were successfully carried on by his lieutenants,
generals who belonged to the school of his father.
The especial source for the history of Commodus is his private life
by AEL. LAMPRIDIUS, in the _Script. Hist. August._--The history of
Herodian begins with his reign.
29. The disasters under M. Aurelius, and the extravagances of Commodus,
had injured the empire, but not enfeebled it. Towards the close of the
period of the Antonines it still retained its pristine vigour. If wise
regulations, internal peace, moderate taxes, a certain degree of
political, and unrestrained civil liberty, are sufficient to form the
happiness of a commonwealth, it must have been found in the Roman. What
a number of advantages did it possess over every other, simply from its
situation! Proofs of it appear on every side. A vigorous population,
rich provinces, flourishing and splendid cities, and a lively internal
and foreign trade. But the most solid foundation of the happiness of a
nation consists in its moral greatness, and this we here seek for in
vain. Otherwise the nation would not so easily have suffered itself to
be brought under the yoke of Commodus by praetorian cohorts and the
legions. But what best shows the strength which the empire still
retained, is the opposition it continued to make, for two hundred years
longer, to the formidable attacks from without.
D. H. HEGEWISCH _upon the Epochs in Roman History most favourable to
Humanity_. Hamburg, 1800-8.
Foreign commerce, so flourishing in this period, could only be carried
on, to any extent, with the east--mostly with India--as the Roman
empire spread over all the west. This trade continued to be carried on
through Egypt, and also through Palmyra and Syria. Information
thereupon will be found in
W. ROBERTSON'S _Disquisition concerning the Knowledge which the
Ancients had of India_. London, 1791, 4to. Often reprinted. And
particularly upon Egypt, in
W. VINCENT, _the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea_. London, 1802, 4to. 2
vols. A very instructive work.
HEEREN, _Commentationes de Graecorum et Romanorum de India notitia, et
cum Indis commerciis_: _in Commentat. Soc. Gott._ vol. x. xi.
SECOND SECTION.
_From the death of Commodus to Diocletian, A. C. 193-284._
SOURCES. The Extracts of Xiphilinus from DION CASSIUS, lib.
lxxiii-lxxx. though often imperfect, reach down as low as the
consulate of Dion himself under Alexander Severus, 229.--HERODIANI
_Hist._ libri viii. comprise the period from Commodus to Gordian,
180-238.--The _Scriptores Historiae Augustae Minores_ contain the
private lives of the emperors down to Diocletian, by JULIUS
CAPITOLINUS, FLAVIUS VOPISCUS, etc.--The _Breviaria Historiae Romanae_
of EUTROPIUS, AURELIUS VICTOR, and S. RUFUS are particularly important
for this period.--Finally, the important information that may be
derived from the study of medals and coins, not only for this section,
but for the whole history of the emperors, may be best learnt by
consulting the writers upon those subjects: J. VAILLANT, _Numismata
Augustorum et Caesarum_, _cura_ J. F. BALDINO. Rome, 1743, 3 vols. _The
Medallic History of Imperial Rome_, by W. COOKE. London, 1781, 2
vols.--But above all, the volumes belonging to this period in ECKHEL,
_Doctrina Nummorum Veterum_.
With the period of the Antonines begins the great work of the British
historian:
_The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, by EDWARD
GIBBON. Oxford, 1828, 8 vols. 8vo. In worth and extent this work is
superior to all others. It embraces the whole period of the middle
ages; but only the first part belongs to this period.
1. The extinction of the race of the Antonines by the death of Commodus
was attended with convulsions similar to those which took place when the
house of Caesar became extinct at the death of Nero. It is true that P.
Helvius Pertinax, aged sixty-seven, praefect of the city, was raised to
the throne by the murderers of Commodus; and that he was acknowledged,
first by the guards, and afterwards by the senate. But the reform which
he was obliged to make at the beginning of his reign in the finances,
rendered him so odious to the soldiers and courtiers, that a revolt of
the first, excited by Laetus, cost him his life before he had reigned
quite three months. This was the first commencement of that dreadful
military despotism which forms the ruling character of this period; and
to none did it become so terrible as to those who wished to make it the
main support of their absolute power.
The insolence of the praetorian guard had risen very high during the
reign of Commodus; but it had never, even in the time of the
Antonines, been entirely suppressed. It was only by large donatives
that their consent could be purchased, their caprice satisfied, and
their good humour maintained; especially at every new adoption. One of
the greatest reproaches to the age of the Antonines is, that those
great princes, who seem to have had the means so much in their power,
did not free themselves from so annoying a dependence.
JUL. CAPITOLINI _Pertinax Imp. in Script. Hist. Aug._
2. When, upon the death of Pertinax, the rich and profligate M. Didius
Julianus, aged fifty-seven, had outbid, to the great scandal of the
people, all his competitors for the empire, and purchased it of the
praetorian guard, an insurrection of the legions, who were better able to
create emperors, very naturally followed. But as the army of Illyria
proclaimed their general Septimius Severus, the army of Syria,
Pescennius Niger, and the army of Britain, Albinus, nothing less than a
series of civil wars could decide who should maintain himself on the
throne.
AEL. SPARTIANI _Didius Julianus, in Script. Hist. Aug._
3. Septimius Severus, however, aged 49-66, was the first who got
possession of Rome, and, after the execution of Didius Julianus, he was
acknowledged by the senate. He dismissed, it is true, the old praetorian
guard, but immediately chose, from his own army, one four times more
numerous in its stead. And after he had provisionally declared Albinus
emperor, he marched his army against Pescennius Niger, already master of
the east, whom, after several contests near the Issus, he defeated and
slew. Nevertheless, having first taken and destroyed the strong city of
Byzantium, a war with Albinus soon followed, whom the perfidious Severus
had already attempted to remove by assassination. After a bloody defeat
near Lyons, Albinus kills himself. These civil wars were followed by
hostilities against the Parthians, who had taken the part of Pescennius,
and which ended with the plundering of their principal cities (see
above, p. 304). Severus possessed most of the virtues of a soldier; but
the insatiable avarice of his minister Plautianus, the formidable
captain of the praetorian guard, robbed the empire even of those
advantages which may be enjoyed under a military government, until he
was put to death at the instigation of Caracalla. To keep his legions
employed, Severus undertook an expedition into Britain, where, after
extending the boundaries of the empire, he died at York (_Eboracum_),
leaving his son the maxim, "to enrich the soldiers, and hold the rest
for nothing."
Agricola had already erected a line of fortresses, probably between
the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth. These were changed by
Adrian into a wall along the present boundaries of Scotland. Severus
again extended the frontiers, reestablished the fortresses of
Agricola, and afterwards built a wall from sea to sea; his son,
however, gave up the conquered country, and the wall of Adrian again
became the boundary of the empire.
AEL. SPARTIANI _Septimius Severus et Pescennius Niger_.
JUL. CAPITOLINI _Claudius Albinus, in Script. Hist. Aug._
4. The deadly hatred which reigned between the two sons of Severus, M.
Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus Caracalla, aged 23-29, and his young
step-brother Geta, aged twenty-one, led to a dreadful catastrophe; for
at their return to Rome, and after a fruitless proposition had been made
for a division of the empire, Geta was assassinated in the arms of his
mother Julia Domna, together with all those who were considered as his
friends. The restless spirit of Caracalla, however, soon drew him from
Rome, and in traversing first the provinces along the Danube, and then
those of the east, he ruined them all by his exactions and cruelty, to
which he was driven for money to pay his soldiers, and to purchase peace
of his enemies on the frontiers. The same necessity led him to grant the
right of citizenship to all the provinces, that he might thereby gain
the duty of the _vicesima hereditatum et manumissionum_ (twentieth upon
inheritances and enfranchisements), which he very soon afterwards
changed into a tenth (_decima_).--With respect to his foreign wars, his
first was against the Catti and Alemanni, among whom he remained a long
time, sometimes as a friend and sometimes as an enemy. But his principal
efforts, after having previously ordered a dreadful massacre of the
inhabitants of Alexandria, to satisfy his cruel rapacity, were directed
against the Parthians (see above, p. 304); and in his wars against them
he was assassinated by Macrinus, the praefect of the praetorian guard.
The praefect, or captain, of the praetorian guard became, from the time
of Severus, the most important officer in the state. Besides the
command of the guards, the finances were also under his control,
together with an extensive criminal jurisdiction. A natural
consequence of the continually increasing despotism.
AEL. SPARTIANI _Antoninus Caracalla et Ant. Geta, in Script. Hist.
Aug._
5. His murderer, M. Opelius Macrinus, aged fifty-three, was recognized
as emperor by the soldiers, and forthwith acknowledged by the senate. He
immediately created his son, M. Opelius Diadumenus, aged nine years,
Caesar, and gave him the name of Antoninus. He disgracefully terminated
the war against the Parthians by purchasing a peace, and changed the
_decima_ (tenth) of Caracalla again into the _vicesima_ (twentieth).
However, while he still remained in Asia, Bassianus Heliogabalus,
grand-nephew of Julia Domna, and high priest in the temple of the Sun at
Emesa, whom his mother gave out for a son of Caracalla, was proclaimed
emperor by the legions, and, after a combat with the guards,
subsequently to which Macrinus and his son lost their lives, they raised
him to the throne.
Maesa, the sister of Julia Domna, had two daughters, both widows;
Soaemis, the eldest, was the mother of Heliogabalus, Mammaea, the
youngest, the mother of Alexander Severus.
JUL. CAPITOLINI _Opelius Macrinus, in Script. Hist. Aug._
6. Heliogabalus, aged 14-18, who assumed the additional name of M.
Aurelius Antoninus, brought with him from Syria the superstitions and
voluptuousness of that country. He introduced the worship of his god
Heliogabal in Rome, and wallowed openly in such brutal and infamous
debaucheries, that history can scarcely find a parallel to his
dissolute, shameless, and scandalous conduct. How low must the morality
of that age have been sunk, in which a boy could so early have ripened
into a monster!--The debasement of the senate, and of all important
offices, which he filled with the degraded companions of his own lusts
and vices, was systematically planned by him; and he deserves no credit
even for the adoption of his cousin, the virtuous Alexander Severus, as
he shortly after endeavoured to take away his life, but was himself for
that reason assassinated by the praetorian guards.
# AEL. LAMPRIDII _Ant. Heliogabalus, in Script. Hist. Aug._
7. His young cousin and successor, M. Aurelius Alexander Severus, aged
14-27, who had been carefully educated under the direction of his mother
Mammaea, proved one of the best princes in an age and upon a throne where
virtues were more dangerous than vices. Under favour of his youth he
endeavoured to effect a reform, in which he was supported by the
cooperation of the guards, who had elevated him to the throne. He
restored the authority of the senate, from among whom he chose, with
rigid justice, his privy council of state, banishing the creatures of
Heliogabalus from their places. The revolution in the Parthian empire,
out of which was now formed the new Persian, was of so much importance
to Rome, that it obliged Alexander to undertake a war against
Artaxerxes, in which he was probably victorious. But while marching in
haste to protect the frontiers against the advance of the Germans upon
the Rhine, his soldiers, exasperated at the severity of his discipline,
and incited by the Thracian Maximin, murdered him in his own tent. His
praefect of the praetorian guard, Ulpian, had already, for the same cause,
fallen a victim to this spirit of insubordination, which was not checked
even by the immediate presence of the emperor himself.
The revolution in Parthia, whereby a new Persian empire was formed
(see above, p. 304.), became a source of almost perpetual war to Rome;
Artaxerxes I. and his successors, the Sassanides, claiming to be
descendants of the ancient kings of Persia, formed pretensions to the
possession of all the Asiatic provinces of the Roman empire.
AELII LAMPRIDII _Alexander Severus_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._
HEYNE _de Alexandro Severo Judicium_, Comment. i. ii. in _Opuscula
Academica_, vol. vi.
8. The death of A. Severus raised military despotism to the highest
pitch, as it placed on the throne the half savage C. Julius Maximinus,
by birth a Thracian peasant. At first he continued the war against the
Germans with great success, repulsing them beyond the Rhine; and
resolved, by crossing Pannonia, to carry the war even among the
Sarmatians. But his insatiable rapacity, which spared neither the
capital nor the provinces, made him hateful to all; and Gordian,
proconsul of Africa, in his eightieth year, was, together with his son
of the same name, proclaimed Augustus by the people, and immediately
acknowledged by the senate. Upon this, Maximinus, eager to take
vengeance on the senate, marched directly from Sirmium towards Italy. In
the mean time, the legions of the almost defenceless Gordians were
defeated in Africa, and themselves slain by Capellianus the governor of
Numidia. Notwithstanding this, as the senate could expect no mercy, they
chose as co-emperors the praefect of the city, Maximus Pupienus, and
Clodius Balbinus, who, in conformity with the wishes of the people,
created the young Gordian III. Caesar. In the meanwhile Maximinus, having
besieged Aquileia, and the enterprise proving unsuccessful, was slain by
his own troops. Pupienus and Balbinus now seemed in quiet possession of
the throne; but the guards, who had already been engaged in a bloody
feud with the people, and were not willing to receive an emperor of the
senate's choosing, killed them both, and proclaimed as Augustus,
Gordian, already created Caesar.
JUL. CAPITOLINI _Maximinus Gordiani tres, Pupienus et Balbinus_, _in
Script. Hist. August._
9. The reign of the young M. Antoninus Gordianus lasted from his twelfth
to his eighteenth year. He was grandson of the proconsul who had lost
his life in Africa, and in the early part of his reign, acquired a
degree of firmness from the support of his father-in-law, Misitheus,
praefect of the praetorian guard, as well as from the successful
expedition which he undertook into Syria against the Persians, who had
invaded that province. But after the death of Misitheus, Philip the
Arabian, being made praefect of the guards in his stead, found means to
gain the troops over to himself, and, after driving Gordian from the
throne, caused him to be assassinated.
10. The reign of M. Julius Philippus was interrupted by several
insurrections, especially in Pannonia; until at length Decius, whom he
himself had sent thither to quell the rebellion, was compelled by the
troops to assume the diadem. Philip was soon after defeated by him near
Verona, where he perished, together with his son of the same name. In
this reign the secular games, _ludi saeculares_, were celebrated, one
thousand years from the foundation of the city.
11. Under the reign of his successor, Trajanus Decius, aged fifty, the
Goths for the first time forced their way into the Roman empire by
crossing the Danube; and although Decius in the beginning opposed them
with success, he was at last slain by them in Thrace, together with his
son, Cl. Herennius Decius, already created Caesar. Upon this the army
proclaimed C. Trebonianus Gallus emperor, who created his son, Volusian,
Caesar; and having invited Hostilian, the yet remaining son of Decius,
with the ostensible purpose of securing his cooperation, he nevertheless
soon contrived to get rid of him. He purchased a peace of the Goths;
but, despised by his generals, he became involved in a war with his
victorious lieutenant, Aemilius Aemilianus, in Moesia, and was slain,
together with his son, by his own army. In three months, however,
Aemilianus shared the same fate; Publius Licinius Valerianus, the friend
and avenger of Gallus, advancing against him with the legions stationed
in Gaul. Both the people and army hoped to see the empire restored under
Valerian, already sixty years of age; but, although his generals
defended the frontiers against the Germans and Goths, he himself had the
misfortune to be defeated and taken prisoner by the superior forces of
the Persians. Upon this event his son and associate in the empire, P.
Licinius Gallienus, who knew everything except the art of governing,
reigned alone. Under his indolent rule the Roman empire seemed on one
hand ready to be split into a number of small states, while on the other
it seemed about to fall a prey to the barbarians; for the lieutenants in
most of the provinces declared themselves independent of a prince whom
they despised, and to which, indeed, they were driven, like Posthumius
in Gaul, for their own security.--There were nineteen of these; but as
many of them named their sons Caesars, this period has been very
improperly distinguished by the name of _the thirty tyrants_, although
their intolerable oppressions might well justify the latter expression.
The Persians at the same time were victorious in the east, and the
Germans in the west.
The German nations which were now become so formidable to the Roman
empire, were: 1. The great confederation of tribes under the name of
_Franks_, who spread over Gaul along the whole extent of the Lower
Rhine. 2. The allied nations of the Alemanni on the Upper Rhine. 3.
The Goths, the most powerful of all, who had formed a monarchy upon
the banks of the Lower Danube and the northern coasts of the Black
sea, which soon extended from the Boristhenes to the Don; and who
became formidable, not only by their land forces, but also by their
naval power, especially after they had captured the peninsula of Crim
Tartary (_Chersonesus Taurica_); and by means of their fleets they not
only kept the Grecian, but likewise the Asiatic provinces in a
continual state of alarm.
TREBELLI POLLIONIS _Valerianus, Gallieni duo, triginta tyranni_, _in
Script. Hist. Aug._
# _Concerning the thirty tyrants under the Roman emperor Gallienus_,
by J. C. F. MANSO; at the end of his _Life of Constantine_.
12. Gallienus losing his life before Milan, in the war against Aureolus
an usurper, had nevertheless recommended M. Aurelius Claudius (aged
45-47) for his successor. The new Augustus reestablished in some degree
the tottering empire; not only by taking Aureolus prisoner and defeating
the Alemanni, but also by a decisive victory gained at Nissa over the
Goths, who had invaded Moesia. He died, however, soon after, at Sirmium,
of a pestilential disease, naming for his successor Aurelian, a hero
like himself, who mounted the throne upon the death of Quintillus the
late emperor's brother, who had at first proclaimed himself Augustus,
but afterwards died by his own hand.
TREBELLII POLLIONIS _divus Claudius_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._
13. During the reign of L. Domitius Aurelianus, which lasted almost five
years, those countries which had been partly or entirely lost to the
empire were restored. Having first driven back the Goths and the
Alemanni, who had advanced as far as Umbria, he undertook his expedition
against the celebrated Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, who at that time
possessed Syria, Egypt, and part of Asia Minor. These countries he again
brought under the dominion of the empire, after having defeated Zenobia
and made her prisoner. The western provinces of Gaul, Britain, and
Spain, which since the time of Gallienus had been governed by separate
rulers, and were now under the dominion of Tetricus, he reduced to their
former obedience. Dacia, on the contrary, he willingly abandoned; and as
he transported the Roman inhabitants across the Danube into Moesia, the
latter henceforward bore the name of _Dacia Aureliani_. Hated for his
severity, which in a warrior so easily degenerates into cruelty, he was
assassinated in Illyria at the instigation of his private secretary
Mnestheus.
FLAV. VOPISCI _divus Aurelianus_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._
Palmyra in the Syrian desert, enriched by the Indian trade, and one of
the most ancient cities in the world, became a Roman colony in the
time of Trajan. Odenatus, the husband of Zenobia, had acquired so much
celebrity by his victories over the Persians, that Gallienus had even
named him Augustus with himself. He was murdered, however, by his
cousin Maeonius, 267. Zenobia now took possession of the government for
her sons Vabalathus, Herennianus, and Timolaus, without, however,
being acknowledged at Rome. After this, in the time of Claudius, she
added Egypt to her dominions. Aurelian, having first defeated her near
Antioch and Emesa, soon afterwards took Palmyra, which, in consequence
of a revolt, he destroyed.--Even in its ruins Palmyra is still
magnificent.
_The Ruins of Palmyra_, by R. WOOD. London, 1753; and the _Ruins of
Balbec, otherwise Heliopolis_, by the same author, London, 1757, give
us clear and certain ideas of the splendour and magnitude of these
cities.
A. H. L. HEEREN, _de Commercio urbis Palmyrae vicinarumque urbium_, in
_Comment. recent. Soc. Gotting._ vol. vii. and the Appendix to
Heeren's Researches.
14. An interregnum of six months followed upon the death of Aurelian,
till at length the senate, at the repeated solicitations of the army,
ventured to fill up the vacant throne. The object of their choice,
however, M. Claudius Tacitus, the worthiest of the senators, was
unfortunately seventy-five years old, and perished after a short reign
of six months, in an expedition against the Goths. Upon this event the
army of Syria raised M. Aurelius Probus to the purple; while Florianus
the brother of Tacitus, who had already been acknowledged at Rome, was
put to death by his own people.
FLAV. VOPISCI _Tacitus; ejusd. Florianus_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._
15. The six years' reign of Probus was a warlike one. He defeated the
Germans, and forced them beyond the Rhine and Danube; strengthening the
frontiers by building a strong wall from the Danube, near Regensburg, to
the Rhine. He also obliged the Persians to make peace. Nevertheless, the
number of towns which he reestablished and peopled with prisoners of
war, and the vineyards which he caused his soldiers to plant on the
Rhine, are proofs that he had taste and inclination for the arts of
peace. This policy, however, would not suit the legions! After he had
perished, therefore, by the hands of his soldiers, they proclaimed the
praefect of the praetorian guard, M. Aurelius Carus, emperor, who created
his two sons Caesars--men very unlike each other in disposition, M.
Aurelius Carinus being one of the greatest reprobates, while M.
Aurelius Numerianus was gentle by nature, and had a mind well formed by
study. The new emperor, having defeated the Goths, marched against the
Persians, but was shortly afterwards killed, it is said, by a flash of
lightning. Nor did his son Numerianus long survive him, being murdered
by his own father-in-law, Arrius Aper, the praetorian praefect.
FLAV. VOPISCI _Probus imper. ejusd. Carus, Numirianus et Carinus_, _in
Script. Hist. Aug._
16. Although this period gives us a finished picture of a complete
military despotism, it is still evident that this was owing to the
entire separation of the military order from the rest of the people, by
the introduction of standing armies, and the extinction of all national
spirit among the citizens. The legions decided because the people were
unarmed. It was, indeed, only among them, situated far from the soft
luxuries of the capital, and engaged in almost a continual struggle with
the barbarians, that a remnant of the ancient Roman character was still
preserved. The nomination of their leaders to the purple became a
natural consequence, not only of the uncertainty of the succession,
which could not be fixed by mere ordinances, but often of necessity,
from their being in the field under the pressure of urgent
circumstances. Thus a succession of distinguished generals came to the
throne: what authority, indeed, would an emperor at that time have had
who was not a general? All durable reform, however, was rendered quite
impossible by the quick succession of rulers. Even the best among them
could do but very little for the internal administration; as all their
energies were required to protect the frontiers, and defend themselves
against usurpers, who, with the exception of the formality of being
acknowledged by the senate, had claims as well founded as their own.
17. The decline of the empire also became so much the more rapid, in
proportion as in these days of terror luxury had increased not only in
the splendour and profligate effeminacy of private life, but more
particularly in public, to a pitch almost beyond belief. The latter was
especially shown in the exhibitions of the amphitheatre and circus; by
which not only every new ruler, but even every new magistrate was
obliged to purchase the favour of the people. Thus these remnants of a
free constitution served only to accelerate the general ruin! What
enjoyments, indeed, could be found under the rod of despotism, except
those of the grossest sensuality; and to satisfy this, the intellectual
amusements of the theatre (mimes and pantomimes), and even those of
rhetoric and poetry, were made to contribute.
18. Yet, during this general decay, the gradual spread of the Christian
religion was working a reform altogether of a different nature. Before
the end of this period it had opened itself a way into every province,
and, notwithstanding the frequent persecutions, had made converts in
every rank of society, and was now on the eve of becoming the
predominant form of worship. We shall be better able to estimate its
value, if we consider it as the vehicle by which civilization made its
way among the rude nations that now appeared on the scene, than if we
merely consider it as the means of improving the manners and morals of
the Roman world. In a political view it became of the greatest
importance on account of the hierarchy, the frame-work of which was now
in a great measure constructed among its professors. It was afterwards
adopted as a state religion; and although the ancient creed of Rome had
formerly been on the same footing, yet it was only calculated for the
republic, and not at all for the now existing monarchy. The overthrow of
paganism was necessarily attended with some violent convulsions, yet its
loss was nothing to be compared with the support which the throne
afterwards found in the hierarchy.
The dispersion of the Jews, and especially the persecutions which were
renewed from time to time, after the reign of Nero, (but which only
served to kindle enthusiasm,) strongly cooperated in spreading the
Christian religion. These persecutions were principally called forth
against the Christians on account of their forming themselves into a
separate society, which caused them to be regarded as a dangerous sect
at Rome, notwithstanding the general toleration granted to every other
system of religious belief. Although towards the end of this period,
only a very small proportion of the inhabitants of the Roman empire as
yet professed the Christian faith, it nevertheless had followers in
every province.
# _History of the Social Constitution of the Christian Church_, by
D. G. J. PLANCK, 4 parts, 1800. It is the first part of this excellent
work which relates to this period.
THIRD SECTION.
_From Diocletian to the overthrow of the Roman empire in the west,
A. C. 284-476._
SOURCES. It now becomes of importance to enquire whether the
historians were Christians or pagans. ZOSIMUS, the imitator of
Polybius, belonged to the last. He describes the fall of the Roman
state, as his model does the previous part. Of his _Histories_ only
five books and a half, to the time of Gratian, 410, have descended to
us. He was certainly a violent antagonist of the Christians, yet,
nevertheless, the best writer of this period. AMMIANI MARCELLINI
_Historiarum_, lib. xiv-xxxi. from the year 353-378 (the first
thirteen books are lost). Probably a Christian, but yet no flatterer;
and, notwithstanding his tiresome prolixity, highly instructive.
Together with the writers of general history already noticed at p.
437, we must here especially add to the abbreviators, PAULI OROSII
_Hist._ lib. vii. and ZONARAE _Annales_. The _Panegyrici Veteres_, from
Diocletian to Theodosius, can only be used with circumspection.--The
writers of church history, such as EUSEBIUS, in his _Hist. Eccles._
lib. x. and in his _Vita Constantini Magni_, lib. v. as well as his
continuators, SOCRATES, THEODORET, SOZOMENUS, and EVAGRIUS, are also
highly important for the political history of this period, though,
from their partiality towards the Christian emperors, they should
rather be classed with the panegyrists than the historians. To these
may be added another principal source, viz. the _Constitutions_ of the
emperors, which have been preserved in the _Codex Theodosianus_ and
_Justinianeus_, from the time of Constantine the Great.
Besides the works quoted at pages 411, 437, the Byzantine historians
here become of importance. We shall mention also:
_Histoire du Bas-Empire depuis Constantin_, _par_ M. LE BEAU,
_continuee par_ M. AMEILHON. Paris, 1824, 20 vols. 8vo. The first
seven parts only belong to this period.
# The German translation of GUTHRIE and GRAY'S _Universal History_,
5 sections, 1 vol. Leipsic, 1768. Rendered very useful by the
labours of Ritter.
_Histoire du Bas-Empire, depuis Constantin jusqu' a la prise de
Constantinople en 1453_, _par_ CARENTIN ROYOU. Paris, 1803, 4 vols.
8vo. A useful abridgement, without much research.
1. The reign of C. Valerius Diocletian, aged 39-60, proclaimed emperor
after the murder of Numerianus, by the troops in Chalcedon, begins a new
section in Roman history. To the period of military despotism succeeded
the period of partitions. After Diocletian had defeated Carinus the yet
remaining Caesar, in Upper Moesia, where he was assassinated, he made M.
Valerius Maximianus Herculius, a rough warrior who had hitherto been his
comrade in arms, the sharer of his throne. Herculius now contended with
the Alemanni and Burgundians on the banks of the Rhine, while Diocletian
himself made head against the Persians. Nevertheless, the two Augusti
soon found themselves unable to withstand the barbarians, who were
pressing forward on every side, more especially as Carausius had usurped
and maintained the title of Caesar in Britain. Each of them, therefore,
created a Caesar: Diocletian chose C. Galerius, and Maximianus Flavius
Constantius Chlorus, both of whom had distinguished themselves as
generals, at that time the only road to advancement. The whole empire
was now divided between these four rulers; so that each had certain
provinces to govern and defend; without detriment, however, to the unity
of the whole, or to the dependence in which a Caesar stood as the
subordinate assistant and future successor of his Augustus.
In the partition, 292, Diocletian possessed the eastern provinces;
Galerius, Thrace, and the countries on the Danube (Illyricum);
Maximianus, Italy, Africa, and the islands; and Constantius, the
western provinces of Gaul, Spain, Britain, and Mauritania.
2. This new system could not but have a striking effect upon the spirit
of the government. It was now not only in fact, but also in form,
entirely in the hands of the rulers. By their continual absence from
Rome they became freed from that moral restraint in which the authority
of the senate, and the name of the republic, not yet entirely laid
aside, had held before them. Diocletian formally assumed the diadem,
and, with the ornaments of the east, introduced its luxuries into his
court. Thus was laid the foundation of that structure which Constantine
the Great had to complete.
3. The consequences of this new system became also oppressive to the
provinces, inasmuch as they had now to maintain four rulers, with their
courts, and as many armies. But however loud might be the complaints of
the oppression occasioned thereby, it was, perhaps, the only means of
deferring the final overthrow of the whole edifice. In fact, they
succeeded not only in defeating the usurpers, Allectus in Britain (who
had murdered Carausius in 293), Julian in Africa, and Achilleus in
Egypt; but also in defending the frontiers, which, indeed, by the
victories of Galerius over the Persians, they extended as far as the
Tigris. Did not, however, the gloomy perspective present itself, that
among so many rulers, and the undefined relations which existed between
the Caesars and the emperors, the union could not be of long continuance?
4. Diocletian voluntarily abdicated the throne (although the growing
power and encroaching disposition of Galerius might perhaps have had
some influence), and obliged his colleague Maximianus to do the same.
The two Caesars, Constantius and Galerius, were proclaimed Augusti, and
altered the division of the empire, so that the former possessed all the
western countries, of which, however, he freely ceded Italy and Africa
to Galerius, who had all the remaining provinces. The latter, during the
same year, created Flavius Severus, Caesar, and confided to him the
government of Italy and Africa; as he did also C. Galerius Maximin, to
whom he gave the Asiatic provinces. The administration of the two
emperors, however, was very different; Constantius was as much beloved
for his mild and disinterested government, as Galerius was hated for his
harshness and prodigality. Constantius died very soon after at York,
leaving his son Constantine heir to his dominions, who was immediately
proclaimed Augustus by the legions, although Galerius would only
acknowledge him as Caesar.
5. Thus Constantine, who afterwards obtained the surname of Great, began
to rule, aged 33-64, though at first only over Britain, Spain, and Gaul;
nevertheless, after seventeen years of violence and warfare, he
succeeded in opening himself a way to the sole dominion of the empire.
The rulers disagreed among themselves; and formidable usurpers started
up and rendered war inevitable.
The history of the first seven years of Constantine, 306-313, is very
complicated; after that, he had only one rival to struggle with,
314-323. At his accession, Galerius, as Augustus, was in possession of
all the other provinces; of which, however, he had given to Caesar
Maximin the government of those of Asia, and to Caesar Severus, now
created Augustus, Italy and Africa. The latter, however, rendering
himself odious by his oppression, Maxentius, the son of the former
emperor, Maximianus, assumed the title of Augustus at Rome (Oct. 28,
306), and associated his father with himself in the government; so
that at this time there were six rulers: Galerius, Severus,
Constantine, Maximin, and the usurpers Maxentius and his father
Maximianus. But in the year 307, Severus, wishing to oppose Maxentius,
was abandoned by his own troops, upon which he surrendered himself to
Maximianus, who caused him to be executed. In his place Galerius
created his friend Licinius, Augustus; and Maximin obtained the same
dignity from his army in Asia. In the mean time, Maximianus, after
having endeavoured to supplant his own son in Rome, fled to
Constantine, who had crossed over into Gaul and there defeated the
Franks, 306; but having made an attempt upon the life of Constantine,
who had married his daughter Fausta, that emperor caused him to be put
to death, 310. As the excesses of Galerius soon brought him to the
grave, 311, there only remained Constantine, Licinius, and Maximin,
and the usurper Maxentius. The latter was soon defeated and slain,
312, before the gates of Rome, by Constantine, who thereby became
master of Italy and the capital. A war having broken out about the
same time between Maximin and Licinius, Maximin was defeated near
Adrianople, and then killed himself, 313. The year 314 brought on a
war between the two remaining emperors, Constantine and Licinius,
which, however, ended the same year in an accommodation, by which
Constantine obtained all the countries on the south bank of the
Danube, as well as Thrace and Moesia Inferior; it broke out again,
however, in 322, and was finally terminated by a decisive victory in
Bithynia, and the total overthrow of Licinius, whom Constantine put to
death, 324.
6. However opposite may be the opinions formed respecting the reign of
Constantine the Great, its consequences are perfectly plain. Although he
annihilated military despotism, he established in its stead, if not
completely, yet in great measure, the despotism of the court, and
likewise the power of the hierarchy. He had already, during his
expedition against Maxentius, decided in favour of the Christian
religion; and since he thereby gained a vast number of partisans in all
the provinces, and weakened at the same time the power of his
co-emperors, or competitors, it was the surest way he could have taken
to obtain sole dominion, the great object of his ambition. This change
must nevertheless have had very considerable influence on every part of
the government, as he found in the previously established hierarchy a
powerful support of the throne; and since he, in concert with it,
settled what was, and what was not the orthodox doctrine, he introduced
a spirit of persecution heretofore unknown.
At a period in which religious parties must almost necessarily have
become political parties, we can by no means venture to judge of the
importance of the sect by the importance of their points of doctrine.
The quarrels of the Arians, which arose at this time, gave
Constantine, by the council of Nice, 325, the opportunity he wished
for, of making good his authority in religious legislation.
7. The removal of the seat of empire from Rome to Constantinople was
connected with this change in the form of worship--as a Christian court
would have been awkwardly situated in a city still altogether
pagan--although the need there was of protecting the frontiers against
the Goths and Persians had a considerable share therein. It did,
indeed, become the principal means of establishing the despotism of the
court; but those who regard it as one of the causes of the decline of
the empire, should remember, that for an empire fallen so low as the
Roman was at this time, despotism was almost the only support that
remained.
The various partitions of the empire from the time of Diocletian, had
led the way to this change of the capital; because a natural result of
that system was, that the emperors and Caesars, when not with the army
as they usually were, would reside in different cities. The seat of
Diocletian's government was at Nicomedia; of Maximian's, at Milan;
even Constantine himself remained but very little at Rome. In these
new residences they felt themselves unfettered; and therefore,
although the Roman senate existed till after the time of Constantine,
its authority must have fallen of itself from the time of Diocletian.
8. We ought not, therefore, to wonder that the consequence of this
removal was so complete a change in the whole form of government, that
after a short time it seemed to be altogether a different state. A
partition of the empire was made, which, though it might in part have
been founded on those which had previously existed, was yet so
different, that it not only changed the ancient divisions of the
provinces, but completely altered their mode of government.--The court,
with the exception of polygamy, assumed entirely the form of an eastern
court.--A revolution also had taken place in the military system, by the
complete separation of the civil and military authorities, which the
praetorian praefects had hitherto possessed, but who now became merely
civil governors.
According to the new division the whole empire was divided into four
_praefectures_, each of which had its _dioceses_, and each diocese its
_provinces_. The praefectures were: I. The eastern (_praefectura
Orientis_); it contained five dioceses; 1. _Orientis_; 2. _Aegypti_;
3. _Asiae_; 4. _Ponti_; 5. _Thraciae_; forming altogether forty-eight
provinces, and comprising all the countries of Asia and Egypt,
together with the frontier countries of Libya and Thrace. II.
_Praefectura Illyrici_, containing two dioceses; 1. _Macedoniae_; 2.
_Daciae_; forming eleven provinces, and comprising Moesia, Macedon,
Greece, and Crete. III. _Praefectura Italiae_, containing three
dioceses; 1. _Italiae_; 2. _Illyrici_; 3. _Africae_; forming twenty-nine
provinces, and comprising Italy, the countries on the south of the
Danube, as far as the boundaries of Moesia; the islands of Sicily,
Sardinia, and Corsica, and the African provinces of the Syrtis. IV.
_Praefectura Galliarum_, containing three dioceses; 1. _Galliae_; 2.
_Hispaniae_; 3. _Britanniae_; forming altogether twenty-eight provinces,
and comprising Spain and the Balearian islands, Gaul, Helvetia, and
Britain.--Each of these praefectures was under a _praefectus praetorio_
(praetorian praefect), but who was merely a civil governor, and had
under him _vicarios_, in the dioceses, as well as the _rectores
provinciarum_, of various ranks and titles. They were named
_proconsules praesides_, etc. Besides these, Rome and Constantinople,
not being included in any of the four praefectures, had each its
praefect.
As principal officers of state and the court (_s. cubiculi_), we now
for the first time meet with the _praepositus s. cubiculi_
(grand-chamberlain), under whom were all the _comites palatii_ and
_cubicularii_, in four divisions; these, at a later period, were
frequently eunuchs of great influence; the _magister officiorum_
(chancellor, minister of the interior); the _comes sacrarum
largitiorum_ (minister of the finances); the _quaestor_ (the organ of
the emperors in legislation; minister of justice and secretary of
state); the _comes rei principis_ (minister of the crown-treasury)
[privy-purse]; the two _comites domesticorum_ (commander of the
household guards), each of whom had his corps (_scholas_) under him.
The number of the state officers and courtiers was continually
increasing. If the good of a commonwealth consisted in forms, ranks,
and titles, the Roman empire must at this time have been truly happy!
At the head of the troops were the _magistri peditum_ (masters of the
infantry) and the _magistri equitum_ (masters of the horse), under the
_magister utriusque militae_ (general in chief of the whole army).
Their subordinate commanders were called _comites_ and _duces_.
Constantine considerably reduced the army. In the arrangement of the
troops he also made great alterations; these, however, were but of
slight consequence compared with that which was produced by admitting
into the service a continually increasing number of barbarians.
_Notitia dignitatem utriusque Imperii cum not._ PANCIROLLI GRAEV.
_Thesaur. Antiquitat. Rom._ vol. vii.
9. It would naturally be expected that these great changes should lead
to others in the system of taxation. New taxes, or old ones revived,
were added to those already existing, and became, by the manner in which
they were collected, doubly oppressive. We shall particularly notice,
_a._ The annual land-tax (_indictio_). _b._ The tax upon trade (_aurum
lustrale_). _c._ The free gift (_don. gratuit._), now grown into an
obligatory tax (_aurum coronarium_). To these we must add the municipal
expenses, which fell entirely upon the citizens, and especially upon the
civic officers (_decuriones_), places which must have been generally
held by the rich, as Constantine had in great measure appropriated the
wealth of the cities to the endowment of churches, and the support of
the clergy.
_a._ The land-tax, or _indiction_, which if not first introduced by
Constantine was entirely regulated under him, was collected after an
exact register, or public valuation, of all the landed estates. Its
amount was yearly fixed and prescribed by the emperor (_indicebatur_),
and levied by the rectors of provinces and the decurions; an arbitrary
standard (_caput_) being taken as the rate of assessment.
As this register was probably reviewed every fifteen years, it gave
rise to the _cycle of indictions_ of fifteen years, which became the
common era, beginning from September 1, 312. In this manner the tax
included all those who were possessed of property. _b._ The tax on
commerce; which was levied on almost every kind of trade. It was
collected every four years, whence the _aurum lustrale_. _c._ The
_aurum coronarium_ grew out of the custom which obtained of
presenting the emperors with golden crowns on particular occasions;
the value of which was at last exacted in money. Every considerable
city was obliged to pay it.
10. The rapid spread of the Christian religion, the promulgation of
which was enforced as a duty upon all its professors, was now
accelerated by the endeavours of the court. Constantine forbade
sacrifices, and shut up the temples; and the violent zeal of his
successors unfortunately soon turned them into ruins.
_Histoire de Constantin-le-Grand_, _par le_ R. P. BERN. DE VARENNE.
Paris, 1778, 4to.
_Vita di Constantino il Grande dell'_ ABB. FR. GUSTA. Fuligno, 1786.
Both these works, especially the first, are written in a tone of
panegyric; the latest, and by far the best, is
# _Life of Constantine the Great_, by J. C. F. MANSO. Bresl. 1817.
With several very learned appendixes, which clear up some particular
points.
11. The three Caesars and sons of Constantine the Great, Constantine,
337-340; Constantius, 337-361; and Constans, 337-350; had been carefully
educated, and yet resembled one another as much in their vices as they
did in their names. They indeed divided the empire again upon the death
of their father; but were so eager after territory, which neither of
them was qualified to govern, that a series of wars followed for the
next twelve years, till at last Constantius was left master of the
whole; and by the murder of most of his relations secured the throne to
himself.
In the partition of the empire Constantine obtained the _praefectura
Galliarum_, Constans the _praefectura Italiae et Illyrici_, and
Constantius the _praefectura Orientis_. But as Constantine desired to
add Italy and Africa to his portion, he attacked Constans, and
thereby lost his life, so that Constans came into thee possession of
the western countries. In consequence, however, of his wretched
misgovernment, Magnentius, a general, proclaimed himself emperor in
Gaul, and Constans was slain in endeavouring to escape, 350. A war
with Constantius, who was then occupied in the east, became
inevitable, and broke out 351. The usurper was defeated first at Mursa
in Pannonia, then retreating into Gaul he was again defeated, 353;
upon which he slew himself, together with his family.
12. As Constantius, however--sunk in effeminacy and debauchery, and
surrounded and governed by eunuchs--was unable to sustain the weight of
government alone, he took his cousin Constantius Gallus, hitherto a
state prisoner, and whose father he had formerly slain, to his
assistance, created him Caesar, and sent him into the east against the
Parthians. But his excessive arrogance, which was fomented by his wife
Constantina, rendered him so dangerous that Constantius recalled him,
and caused him, upon his return, to be put to death in Istria. His
younger brother Fl. Julian, from whom the suspicious Constantius
believed he had nothing to fear, was promoted in his place, created
Caesar, and sent to defend the frontiers on the Rhine. Although Julian
passed suddenly from study to warfare, he not only fought against the
Germans with success, but also made a deep inroad into their country. In
the mean time Constantius, after his generals had been beaten by the
Persians, who wished to reconquer the provinces they had ceded, was
preparing an expedition against them in person, and with that view
endeavoured gradually to withdraw the troops of Julian, in consequence
of which the latter, suspecting his design, was induced to accept the
diadem presented by his soldiers. While marching, however, along the
Danube against Constantius, he received information of that prince's
death in Asia.
13. Fl. Julian, (the apostate,) who reigned from his twenty-ninth to his
thirty-second year, was the last and most highly gifted prince of the
house of Constantine. Instructed by misfortunes and study, he yet had
some faults, though certainly free from great vices. He began with
reforming the luxury of the court. His abjuration of the religion now
become dominant, and which he wished to annihilate by degrees, was an
error in policy, which he must have discovered to his cost had his reign
been prolonged. Wishing, however, to terminate the war against the
Persians, he penetrated as far as the Tigris, where he lost his life in
an engagement, after a reign of three years.
# _The Emperor Julian and his Times_, by AUGUST. NEANDER. Leipsic,
1812. An historical sketch.
14. Fl. Jovianus, now thirty-three years of age, was immediately raised
to the purple by the army. He concluded a peace with the Persians, by
which he restored them all the territory that had been conquered from
them since the year 297. After a short reign of eight months he was
carried off by a sudden disorder; and the army proclaimed Fl.
Valentinian at Nice in his stead, Valentinian almost immediately
associated his brother Valens with himself in the government, and
divided the empire by giving him the _praefectura Orientis_, and
retaining the rest for himself.
15. The reign of Valentinian I. in the east, who, in the year 367,
created his son Gratian Augustus with himself, is distinguished by the
system of toleration which he followed with regard to the affairs of
religion, though in other respects a cruel prince. Nearly the whole of
his reign was taken up in almost continual struggles with the German
nations, who had recovered from the losses they had suffered under
Julian. His first efforts were directed against the Franks, the Saxons,
and the Alemanni on the Rhine; and afterwards against the Quadi and
other nations on the Danube; where he died of apoplexy at Guntz in
Hungary.
16. In the mean time his brother Valens (aged 38-52 years) had to
contend with a powerful insurrection which had broken out in the east. A
certain Procopius had instigated the people to this, by taking advantage
of the discontent occasioned by the oppression of Valens, who, having
adopted the opinion of the Arians, was more disliked in the east than
his brother was in the west. His war against the Persians ended with a
truce. But the most important event that happened during his reign, was
the entrance of the Huns into Europe, which took place towards its
close. This in its turn gave rise to the great popular migration, by
which the Roman empire in the west may properly be said to have been
overthrown. The immediate consequence was the admission of the greater
part of the Visigoths into the Roman empire, and this occasioned a war
which cost Valens his life.
The Huns, a nomad people of Asia, belonged to the great Mongolian
race. Having penetrated to the Don, 373, they subdued the Goths upon
that river as far as the Theiss. The Goths, divided into Ostrogoths
and Visigoths, were separated from one another by the Dnieper. The
former, driven from their country, fell upon the Visigoths, in
consequence of which the emperor Valens was requested by the latter to
grant them admission into the Roman empire, and with the exception of
the Vandals, who had been seated in Pannonia from the time of
Constantine, they were the first barbarian nation that had been
settled within the boundaries of the empire. The scandalous oppression
of the Roman governor, however, drove them into rebellion; and as
Valens marched against them, he was defeated near Adrianople and lost
his life, 378.
17. During these events, Gratian (aged 16-24 years) succeeded his father
Valentinian I. in the west, and immediately associated his brother,
Valentinian II. (aged 5-21 years) with himself in the empire; giving
him, though under his own superintendence, the _praefectura Italiae et
Illyrici_. Gratian set forward to the assistance of his uncle Valens
against the Goths, but receiving on his march an account of his defeat
and death, and fearing the east might fall a prey to the Goths, he
raised Theodosius, a Spaniard, who had already distinguished himself as
a warrior, to the purple, and gave him the _praefectura Orientis et
Illyrici_.
18. The indolent reign of Gratian led to the rebellion of Maximus, a
commander in Britain, who, crossing into Gaul, was so strongly supported
by the defection of the Gallic legions, that Gratian was obliged to seek
safety in flight. He was, however, overtaken and put to death at Lyons.
By this event Maximus found himself in possession of all the _praefectura
Galliarum_; and by promising Theodosius not to interfere with the young
Valentinian II. in Italy, he prevailed upon him to acknowledge him
emperor. But having broken his promise by the invasion of Italy, he was
defeated and made prisoner by Theodosius in Pannonia, and soon after
executed. Upon this Valentinian II. a youth of whom great hopes were
entertained, became again master of all the west. But, unfortunately, he
was murdered by the offended Arbogast, his _magister militum_; who,
thereupon, raised to the throne his own friend Eugenius, _magister
officiorum_. Theodosius, however, so far from acknowledging, declared
war against him and made him prisoner. He himself thus became master of
the whole empire, but died in the following year.
19. The vigorous reign of Theodosius in the east, from his thirty-fourth
to his fiftieth year, was not less devoted to politics than to religion.
The dexterity with which he at first broke the power of the victorious
Goths (though they still preserved their quarters in the provinces on
the Danube), procured him considerable influence, which the strength and
activity of his character enabled him easily to maintain. The blind
zeal, however, with which he persecuted Arianism, now the prevailing
creed in the east, and restored the orthodox belief, as well as the
persecutions which he directed against the pagans and the destruction of
their temples, occasioned the most dreadful convulsions. His efforts to
preserve the boundaries of the empire, not a province of which was lost
before his death, required an increase of taxes; and however oppressive
this might be, we cannot impute it to the ruler as a crime. In an
empire so enfeebled in itself, and which, nevertheless, had powerful
foes on every side to contend with, it followed that every active reign
would be oppressive. Yet never before had the internal depopulation of
the empire made it necessary to take so many barbarians into Roman pay,
as under this reign; whence naturally followed a change in the arms and
tactics of the Roman armies.
P. ERASM. MULLER, _de genio saeculi Theodosiani_. Havniae, 1798, 2 vols.
A very learned and in every respect excellent description of the
deeply-decayed Roman world as it now stood.
20. Theodosius left two sons, between whom the empire was divided. Both
parts, however, were certainly considered as forming but one empire--an
opinion which afterwards prevailed, and even till late in the middle
ages had important consequences--yet never since this period have they
been reunited under one ruler. The eastern empire, comprising the
_praefectura Orientis et Illyrici_, was allotted to the eldest son,
Arcadius (aged 18-31) under the guardianship of Rufinus the Gaul. The
western, or the _praefectura Galliarum et Italiae_, to the younger,
Honorius, aged 11-39, under the guardianship of the Vandal Stilico.
21. The western empire, to the history of which we shall now confine
ourselves, suffered such violent shocks during the reign of Honorius, as
made its approaching fall plainly visible. The intrigues of Stilico to
procure himself the government of the whole empire, opened a way for the
Goths into its interior, just at a time when they were doubly
formidable, fortune having given them a leader greatly superior to any
they had hitherto had. Alaric king of the Visigoths established himself
and his people in the Roman empire, became master of Rome, and mounted
the throne: it was the mere effect of chance that he did not overthrow
it altogether.
Both Honorius and Arcadius, especially the latter, belonged to that
class of men who never come to years of maturity; their favourites and
ministers therefore governed according to their own inclination.
Stilico, who made Honorius his son-in-law, was not deficient, indeed,
in abilities for governing; and his endeavour to obtain the management
of the whole empire, arose, perhaps, from the conviction that it was
necessary he should have it. He could not, however, gain his object by
intrigue; for after the murder of Rufinus; 395, he found a still more
powerful opponent in the eunuch Eutropius, his successor in the east.
Under the regency of Stilico, Gaul, in consequence of its troops being
withdrawn to oppose Alaric, 400, was inundated by German tribes--by
Vandals, Alani, and Suevi--who from thence penetrated even into Spain.
Nevertheless, he preserved Italy from their attacks by the victory
which he gained, 403, over Alaric at Verona; and again over
Radagaisus, 405, who had advanced with other German hordes as far as
Florence. But Stilico, having entered into a secret alliance with
Alaric, for the purpose of wresting eastern Illyrica from the empire
of the east, was overreached by the intrigues of the new favourite
Olympius, whose cabal knew how to take advantage of the weakness of
Honorius, and of the jealousy of the Roman and foreign soldiers.
Stilico was accused of aspiring to the throne, and was executed August
23, 408. Rome lost in him the only general that was left to defend
her. Alaric invaded Italy the same year, 408, and the besieged Rome
was obliged to purchase peace; the conditions, however, not being
fulfilled, he was again, 409, before Rome, became master of the city,
and created Attalus, the praefect of the city, emperor instead of
Honorius, who had shut himself up in Ravenna. In 410 he assumed the
diadem; and, making himself master of the city by force, gave it up to
be plundered by his troops. Soon afterwards, while projecting the
capture of Sicily and Africa, he died in lower Italy. His
brother-in-law and successor, Adolphus, together with his Goths, left
Italy, now completely exhausted, 412, went into Gaul, and from thence
proceeding into Spain, founded there the empire of the Visigoths: he
carried with him, however, Placidia the sister of Honorius, either as
prisoner or as hostage, and married her in Gaul. During these events
an usurper arose in Britain and Gaul named Constantine, 407: he was
vanquished, and put to death, 411, by Constantius, one of Honorius's
generals. This latter prince not only gave Constantius his sister
Placidia, who had become a widow and was restored in 417, in marriage,
but also named him Augustus in 421. He died, however, a few months
after, so that Placidia henceforward had a considerable share in the
government. She went nevertheless, 423, to Constantinople, where she
remained until the death of Honorius.
# _Fl. Stilico, or the Wallenstein of Antiquity_, by CHR. FR. SCHULZE,
1805. Not written by way of comparison.
22. In this manner was a great part of Spain, and part of Gaul, cut off
from the Roman empire during the reign of Honorius. After his death the
secretary John usurped the government, but was defeated by the eastern
emperor Theodosius II. The nephew of Honorius, Valentinian III. a minor
(aged 6-36), was then raised to the throne, under the guardian care of
his mother Placidia (! 450). Under his miserable reign the western
empire was stripped of almost all her provinces with the exception of
Italy. Yet the government of his mother, and afterwards his own
incapacity, were as much the cause as the stormy migration of barbarous
tribes, which now convulsed all Europe.
Britain had been voluntarily left by the Romans since 427. In Africa,
the governor Boniface having been driven into rebellion by the
intrigues of the Roman general Aetius, who possessed the ear of
Placidia, invited the Vandals from Spain, under the command of
Genseric, to come to his assistance. The latter then obtained
possession of the country, 429-439; indeed, even as early as 435,
Valentinian was obliged to make a formal cession of it to them.
Valentinian's wife Eudoxia, a Grecian princess, was purchased by the
cession of western Illyricum (Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Noricum); so
that of all the countries south of the Danube there now only remained
those which belonged to the praefecture of Italy: Rhaetia and
Vindelicia. On the south-east of Gaul was formed, 435, the kingdom of
the Burgundians, which, besides the south-east part of France,
comprised also Switzerland and Savoy. The south-west was under the
dominion of the Visigoths. There remained only the territory north of
the Loire which still submitted to the Roman governors; the last of
whom, Syagrius, survived the fall of the empire itself; holding out
till the year 486, when he was defeated near Soissons by Clodovicus,
or Clovis, king of the Franks.
23. But while the western empire seemed thus of itself almost to fall to
pieces, another impetuous rush of nations took place, which threatened
the whole of western Europe. The victorious hordes of Huns who now
occupied the territory formerly the seat of the Goths, between the Don
and the Theiss, and even as far as the Volga, had united themselves,
since the year 444, under one common chief, Attila; who, by this union
and his own superior talents as a warrior and ruler, became the most
powerful prince of his time. The eastern empire having bought a peace by
paying him a yearly tribute, he fell with a mighty army upon the western
provinces. The united forces, however, of the Romans under Aetius and the
Visigoths, obliged him near Chalons (_in campis Catalaunicis_) to
retreat. Nevertheless, the following year he again invaded Italy, where
he had a secret understanding with the licentious Honoria, Valentinian's
sister. The cause of his second retreat, which was soon followed by his
death, is unknown. The miserable Valentinian soon after deprived the
Roman empire of its best general, being led by his suspicions to put
Aetius to death. He himself, however, was soon doomed to undergo the
punishment of his debaucheries, being murdered in a conspiracy formed by
Petronius Maximus, whose wife he had dishonoured, and some friends of
Aetius, whom he had executed.
24. The twenty years which intervened between the assassination of
Valentinian, and the final destruction of the Roman empire in the west,
was nearly one continued series of intestine revolutions. No less than
nine sovereigns rapidly succeeded one another. These changes, indeed,
were but of little importance in this troublesome period, compared to
the terror with which Genseric king of the Vandals filled the Roman
empire: he by his naval power having become master of the Mediterranean
and Sicily, could ravage the coasts of the defenceless Italy at his
pleasure, and even capture Rome itself. While in Italy, the German
Ricimer, general of the foreign troops in Roman pay, permitted a series
of emperors to reign in his name. It would have been his lot to put an
end to this series of Augusti, but for mere accident, which reserved
that glory for his son and successor, Odoacer, four years after his
father's death.
After the death of Valentinian, Maximus was proclaimed emperor; but as
he wished to compel Eudoxia, Valentinian's widow, to marry him, she
called over Genseric from Africa, who took and pillaged Rome, and
Maximus perished after a reign of three months, 455. He was succeeded
by M. Avitus, who ascended the throne at Arles; and he again was soon
deposed by Ricimer, 456, who, just before, had defeated the fleet of
the Vandals. Ricimer now placed upon the throne, first Julianus
Majorianus, April 1, 457; but he, having distinguished himself in the
wars against the Vandals, 461, was set aside, and Libius Severus put
in his place, who, however, died in 465, probably of poison. His
death was followed by an interregnum of two years, during which
Ricimer ruled, though without the title of emperor. At length the
patrician Anthemius, then at Constantinople (where they never gave up
their pretensions to the right of naming or confirming the sovereigns
of the west), was, though not without the consent of the powerful
Ricimer, named emperor of the west, April 12, 467, by the emperor Leo.
But differences having arisen between him and Ricimer, the latter
retired to Milan, 469, and commenced a war, in which he took and
pillaged Rome, and Anthemius was slain. Ricimer himself followed soon
after, ! Aug. 18, 472. Upon this, Anicius Olybrius, son-in-law of
Valentinian III. was proclaimed Augustus, but dying in three
months, Oct. 472, Glycerius assumed the purple at Ravenna, without,
however, being acknowledged at Constantinople, where they in
preference named Julius Nepos Augustus. The latter, in 474, having
expelled Glycerius, became also in his turn expelled by his own
general Orestes, 475, who gave the diadem to his son Romulus
Momyllus, who, as the last in the succession of Augusti, acquired
the surname of Augustulus. In 476, however, Odoacer, the leader of
the Germans in the Roman pay at Rome, sent him, after the execution
of Orestes, into captivity, and allowed him a pension. Odoacer now
remained master of Italy till the year 492, when the Ostrogoths,
under their king Theodoric, founded there a new empire.
25. Thus fell the Roman empire of the west, while that of the east,
pressed on every side, and in a situation almost similar, endured a
thousand years, notwithstanding its intestine broils, which would alone
have sufficed to destroy any other, and the hosts of barbarians who
attacked it during the middle ages. The impregnable situation of its
capital, which usually decides the fate of such kingdoms, joined to its
despotism, which is not unfrequently the main support of a kingdom in
its decline, can alone, in some measure, explain a phenomenon which has
no equal in the history of the world.
APPENDIX.
CHRONOLOGY OF HERODOTUS TO THE TIME OF CYRUS, EXTRACTED FROM THE
RESEARCHES OF M. VOLNEY. See Preface.
Although Herodotus did not write his work in chronological order, yet
we cannot doubt that he had some general plan of computing time. By
carefully selecting and comparing the separate data scattered through
his work, this plan to a certain extent may be traced out, and early
history, with regard to settled chronology, must necessarily gain a good
deal. The following essay is founded upon a procedure of this kind; it
is drawn entirely from Herodotus, and only from data which he has
precisely determined, the passages of his work being always referred to.
The year B. C. 561, in which the fall of Astyages and the Median empire
took place, as may be proved from Herodotus himself, is a fixed point of
time from which we may ascend into higher antiquity. This point of time
may be determined by the chronological data respecting the battle of
Marathon, four years before the death of Darius (Herodotus VII. 1. 4.)
agreeing with the general data of the Greeks, who fix it in the third
year of the 72nd Olymp. B. C. 490. By adding to this the thirty-two
years of Darius's reign that had already elapsed (Herodotus, ibid.), the
eight months of Smerdis (Herodotus, III. 68.), the seven years and five
months of Cambyses (Herodotus III. 66.), and the twenty-nine years of
Cyrus (Herodotus, I. 214.), we obtain the year 560 as the first year of
Cyrus.
I. CHRONOLOGY OF THE MEDIAN EMPIRE.
B. C.
End of the Median empire 561.
Duration of the Median empire one hundred and
fifty-six years (Herodotus, I, 130.)
The beginning of it, therefore, after their separation
from the Assyrians, would be 717.
In this period, at first, six years of anarchy[a] 716-710.
Reign of Deioces fifty-three years (Herodotus, I. 102.) 710-657.
Reign of Phraortes, twenty-two years (ibid.) 657-635.
Cyaxares, forty years (I. 106.) 635-595.
Irruption and dominion of the Scythians, twenty-eight
years (I. 203. 106.) 625-598.
Conquest of Nineveh (I. 106.) 597.
Astyages reigned thirty-five years (I. 130.) 595-561.
The succession of Median kings given by Ctesias, which entirely differs
from this, the author thinks might be explained by a duplication;
see # _Gott. Gel. Anz._ 1810, p. 4.
[a] These are certainly not determined from Herodotus; but they
remain after subtracting the one hundred and fifty years'
reign of the four Median kings.
II. CHRONOLOGY OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE.
The dominion of the Assyrians over Asia, or their empire, ended with the
revolt of the Medes (Herodotus, I. 95.); although the existence of their
state did not then end, but terminated with the capture of Nineveh by
Cyaxares, B. C. 597.
B. C.
Revolt of the Medes, as above 717.
The dominion of the Assyrians had endured five
hundred and twenty years (Herodotus, I. 95.)
The Assyrian empire lasted therefore from 1237-717.
As Herodotus intended to write the history of this empire in a separate
work (I. 184.), he only casually mentions (I. 7.) its founder Ninus, who
began to reign 1237; and afterwards Sennacherib and his expedition (II.
141.); and the last king, Sardanapalus (II. 150.).
The mention of Sennacherib and his expedition furnishes a point of time
for comparing the chronology of Herodotus with that of the Bible, or the
Jews. According to the latter, Sennacherib's expedition took place B. C.
714. (see above, p. 26.); his death takes place immediately after, and
he has for his successor Esar-haddon, 2 Kings, xix. 37. Here then is
certainly a contradiction, since, according to Herodotus, the Assyrian
dominion had ceased three years before, namely, 717. M. Volney
endeavours to reconcile this difficulty by the restoration of an ancient
reading in the sacred text; according to which Amon, king of Judaea,
reigned twelve years instead of two (2 Kings, xxi. 10.); from which it
would follow, that the expedition of Sennacherib took place in 724. As
this would leave seven years after his death for his successor
Esar-haddon, who agrees both in time and name with the Sardanapalus of
the Greeks (the Greek name being formed from Esar-haddon-pal, i. e.
Esar, the lord, son of Pal), the two chronologies are thus made to agree
exactly. But even in following the ancient usual reading, the greatest
difference between the two statements is only ten years; quite as little
as can be reasonably expected under such circumstances.
With regard to the Assyrian chronology of Ctesias, M. Volney has
satisfactorily shown that it is full of contradictions, and unworthy of
any credit.
III. CHRONOLOGY OF THE LYDIAN EMPIRE.
The arrangement of the Lydian chronology rests upon the settlement of
two principal facts: first, the great eclipse of the sun under Alyattes,
foretold by Thales (Herodotus, I. 74.); and secondly, the conquest of
Sardes, and overthrow of the empire under Croesus, by Cyrus; both of
which Herodotus certainly mentions, but without assigning any precise
date. But by a careful comparison of all the data it has been proved,
that the great eclipse in Asia Minor (according to the Tables of Pingre)
happened in the year 625; and the conquest of Sardes, and the end of the
Lydian empire, B. C. 557, or in the fourth year of Cyrus. Therefore:
B. C.
End of the Lydian empire 557.
It subsisted under three houses; under that of the Atyadae (fabulous and
uncertain); under that of the Heraclidae, five hundred and five years
(Herodotus, I. 7.); and under the last, that of the Mermnadae, one
hundred and seventy years.
The Heraclidae and Mermnadae, then, reigned altogether six hundred and
seventy-five years. Therefore:
B. C.
Commencement of the reign of the Heraclidae, with Agron
the son of Ninus (I. 7.) 1232.
End of this house with the murder of Candaules, by Gyges 727.
By fixings the time of Agron, son of Ninus, Herodotus verifies himself
(I. 7.); as, by the preceding data, Ninus began his reign in Assyria,
1237; consequently, it must have been in the fifth year of his reign
that he conquered Lydia, and placed his son Agron upon the throne.
B. C.
Dominion of the Mermnadae, one hundred and seventy
years, under kings of that house 727-557.
Gyges, thirty-eight years (Herodotus, I. 14.) 727-689.
Ardys, forty-nine years (Herodotus, I. 16.) 689-640.
First irruption of the Cimmerians 670.
Sadyattes, twelve years (Herodotus, I. 16.) 640-628.
Alyattes, fifty-seven years (Herodotus, I. 25.) 628-571.
War with Cyaxares, ending with the great eclipse,
and second irruption of the Cimmerians 625.
Croesus, fourteen years and fourteen days (Herodotus,
I. 86.) 571-557.
IV. CHRONOLOGY OF THE BABYLONIANS.
For this as well as for the Egyptians there is no evidence to guide
us, the data being very scanty, and taken from Herodotus alone. The
chronology of the Babylonians, according to the canon of Ptolemy, begins
with Nabonassar, 747, who was succeeded by twelve kings (mentioned in
the same canon), down to Nabopolassar; (see above, p. 28.)
B. C.
Nabopolassar 627-604.
Nebuchadnezzar 604-561.
Evil-Merodach 561-559.
Neriglissar 559-555.
Labynetus 555-538.
Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus 538.
V. CHRONOLOGY OF THE EGYPTIANS.
M. Volney very properly commences this with the dodecarchy--as of the
earlier periods only the time of Sesostris, 1365, is ascertained;--and
arranges it in the following manner.
B. C.
Dodecarchy 671-656.
Psammetichus's sole dominion thirty-nine years 656-617.
Reign of Neco, sixteen years 617-601.
-------- Psammis, six years 601-595.
-------- Apries, twenty-five years 595-570.
-------- Amasis, forty-four years 570-526.
Psammenitus, six months 525.
Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses
* * * * *
I. THE REIGNING HOUSES OF MACEDON.
I. HOUSE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT.
PHILIP ! 336. married, 1. Olympias. 2. Cleopatra. (3. Concubines.)
|
+------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1. 1. Cleopatra. 3. 3. |
| | |
ALEXANDER THE GREAT ! 323. PHILIP ARRHIDAEUS ! 317. |
married, 1. Roxana. (2. Barsine.) married Eurydice. |
| |
+--------------------------------------+ Thessalonice.
| 1. 2. | married Cassander.
ALEXANDER ! 311. HERCULES ! 309.
II. HOUSE OF ANTIPATER.
ANTIPATER ! 320.
|
CASSANDER ! 298, married Thessalonice.
|
+-------------------------------------------------------+
| PHILIP ! 297. ANTIPATER ! 294. ALEXANDER ! 294. |
III. HOUSE OF ANTIGONUS.
ANTIGONUS ! 301.
|
DEMETRIUS I. POLIORCETES ! 284.
|
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+
| Stratonice. ANTIGONUS I. GONATAS ! 242. |
married, 1. Seleucus I. |
2. Antiochus I. +-------------------------------------+
| DEMETRIUS II. ! 233. Alcyoneus. |
| |
+-------------------+ +---------------+
| PHILIP II. ! 179. | | ANTIGONUS II. |
| DOSON ! 221
+------------------------------------+
| PERSEUS ! 166. Demetrius ! 180. |
II. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE SELEUCIDAE.
SELEUCUS I. NICATOR ! 281.
married, 1. Apame. 2. Stratonice, daughter of Demetrius Poliorcetes.
|
+--------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1. 2. |
ANTIOCHUS I. SOTER ! 262. married, Phila married
1. Stratonice, his mother-in-law. 2. Anonymous. Antigonus Gonatas
| king of Macedon.
|
+--------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1. 1. 2. |
ANTIOCHUS II. THEOS ! 247. Apame Laodice.
married, married Magas
1. Laodice, his sister-in-law. of Cyrene.
2. Berenice, daughter of Ptol. Philad.
|
+--------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1. 1. 1. |
SELEUCUS II. CALLINICUS ! 227. Antiochus Stratonice married
married Laodice, Hierax. Ariarathes IV. of
daughter of Andromachus, Cappadocia.
father of Achaeus.
|
+--------------------------------------------------------------------+
| SELEUCUS III. Stratonice married ANTIOCHUS III. THE GREAT ! 187.|
CERAUNUS ! 224. Mithridates IV. married Laodice, daughter of
of Pontus. Mithridates IV. of Pontus.
|
+------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Antiochus Laodice. | ANTIOCHUS IV. Cleopatra Antiochis |
! 192. | EPIPHANES ! 164. married married
| | Ptolemy V. Ariarathes V.
| | of Cappad.
| +-----------------------------+
| | ANTIOCHUS V. EUPATOR ! 161. |
|
SELEUCUS IV. PHILOPATOR ! 176.
married his sister Laodice.
|
+------------------------------------------------------+
| DEMETRIUS I. Laodice |
! 150. married Perseus king of Maced.
|
+--------------------------------------------------------------------+
| DEMETRIUS II. NICATOR ! 126. married, ANTIOCHUS SIDETES ! 131. |
1. Cleopatra, daughter of Ptol. Philom. married his
2. Rhodogyne. | daughter-in-law, Cleopatra.
| |
+-------------------------------------+ +---------------------------+
|SELEUCUS V. ANTIOCHUS GRYPHUS ! 97. | | ANTIOCHUS CYZICENUS ! 96. |
! 125. married Cleopatra Selene, married Cleopatra,
daughter of Ptol. Phys. daughter of Ptol. Phys.
| |
| +----------------------------+
| | ANTIOCHUS EUSEBES ! c. 90. |
| married Cleopatra Selene.
| |
| +---------------------------------------+
| | ANTIOCHUS SELEUCUS CYBIOSACTES |
| ASIATICUS ! 58. ! 57. married
| Berenice, daughter
| of Ptol. Auletes.
|
+------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Seleucus Antioch. Philippus Demetr. Antioch. |
Epiph. ! 94. Epiph. ! 93. Epiph. ! 83. Eucar. Dionys.
! c. 87. ! 89.
III. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE PTOLEMIES.
PTOLEMY I. son of LAGUS ! 284.
married, 1. Eurydice, daughter of Antipater.
2. Berenice.
(3. Concubines.)
|
+-----------------------------------------------------+
| | | |
1. | | |
Ptol. Ceraunus ! 279. | 2. |
king of Macedonia. | Arsinoe |
2. |
PTOL. II. PHILADELPHUS ! 246. 3.
married, 1. Arsinoe, daughter Magas of Cyrene.
of Lysimachus. |
2. His sister Arsinoe. +-------------+
| Berenice
|
+-------------------------------------------------------+
| PTOL. III. EVERGETES ! 221. Berenice married |
Married Berenice, Antiochus Theos.
daughter of Magas.
|
+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| PTOL. IV. PHILOPATOR ! 204. Magas. Arsinoe. |
married, 1. His sister Arsinoe.
(2. Agathoclea.)
|
+----------------------------+
| PTOL. V. EPHIPHANES ! 181. |
married Cleopatra,
daughter of Antiochus the Great.
|
+---------------------------------------------------------------------+
| PTOL. VI. PHILOMETOR ! 145. Cleopatra. PTOL. VII. PHYSCON ! 117.|
married his sister Cleopatra. married,
| 1. His sister Cleopatra.
| 2. Cleopatra the younger.
| (3. Irene.)
Cleopatra the younger. |
|
+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 2. | 2. | 3. |
PTOL. VIII. | PTOL. ALEXANDER | Ptol. Apion.
LATHYRUS ! 81. | I. ! 88. | king of Cyrene,
married, | married Cleopatra, | ! 97.
1, 2. his two sisters. | daughter of |
(3. Concubines.) | Ptol. Lathyrus. |
| | |
| 2. 2.
| Cleop. Selene. Cleopatra.
|
+------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | | | | |
| 2. | 3. | | |
| Cl. Berenice. | Ptol. of Cyprus | PTOL. ALEXANDER |
| | ! 57. | II. ! 80. |
| | | married |
| | | Cleop. Berenice. |
2. 3. 3. |
Cleopatra ! 88. PTOL. AULETES ! 51. Cleopatra. PTOL. ALEX.
married married, III. ! 66.
Alex. I. 1. His sister Cleop.
2. Unknown.
|
+--------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1. | 2. | Arsinoe |
BERENICE ! 55. | PTOL. DIONYSIUS ! 47. | ! 43.
married, | married Cleopatra. |
1. Seleucus Cybios. | |
2. Archelaus. 1. 2.
CLEOPATRA ! 30. Ptol. the younger ! 44.
married, married Cleopatra.
1. 2. her brothers.
(3. Jul. Caesar.)
4. Antony
IV. THE REIGNING HOUSES OF THE JEWS.
HOUSE OF THE MACCABEES.
Mattathias ! B. C. 166.
|
+------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Judas Maccabaeus, Jonathan, Simon, high priest |
general of the army high priest ! 143. and ethnarch, ! 135.
! 161. |
+----------------------+
| John Hyrcanus ! 107. |
|
+------------------------------------------------+
| Aristobulus I. ! 106, Alex. I. Jannaeus ! 79. |
king and high priest. married Alexandra.
|
+------------------------------------------------+
| Hyrcanus II. ! 30. Aristobulus. |
high priest and ethnarch. ! 49.
|
+-----------------------------------------+
| Alexander II. ! 49. Antigonus ! 37. |
|
+-----------------------------------------------+
| Aristobulus ! 34. Mariamne ! 28. |
married Herod the Great.
II. HOUSE OF HEROD.
Antipater ! 43.
|
+----------------------------------------------------------+
| Salome. Herod the Great ! A. C. 3. |
married, 1. Doris. 2. Mariamne. 3. Many others.
|
+--------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Antipater Alexander Aristobulus Archelaus, | Philip, |
! A. C. 3. ! B. C. 5. ! B. C. 5. ethnarch, | tetrarch,
| deposed | ! A. C. 34.
+-------------------+ A. C. 6. |
| Herod II. Agrippa | |
! A. C. 44. Antipas, tetrarch,
| deposed A. C. 39.
+---------------+ married Herodias.
| Herod Agrippa |
! A. C. 100.
V. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE CAESARS.
I.
C. Julius Caesar, praetor, ! 84.
|
+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| C. JULIUS CAESAR, dictator, Julia ! 52. |
! 44. married Accius Balbus.
| |
+-----------------------------+ +-----------------------+
| Julia ! 52. married Pompey. | | Accia ! 42, |
married C. Octavius.
|
+--------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Octavia the elder | C. OCTAVIUS (CAESAR AUGUSTUS) |
married M. Marcellus. | ! A. C. 14 (see No. II.)
|
Octavia the younger married,
1. C. Marcellus. 2. Pompey. 3. M. Antony.
II.
CAESAR OCTAVIANUS AUGUSTUS ! A. C. 14.
married, 1. Scribonia. 2. Livia, widow of Tiberius Claudius Nero.
| |
| +------------------------------------------------------+
| | TIBERIUS NERO ! A.C. 37. Nero Claudius Drusus ! 9. |
| married, 1. Vipsania. married Antonia
| 2. Julia. the younger.
| | |
| +--------------------------+ |
| | DRUSUS CAESAR ! A. C. 25.| |
| |
| +---------------------------------------------------+
| | Germanicus CLAUDIUS ! A. C. 54. |
| ! A. C. 19. married, 1. Messalina.
| married Agrippina. 2. Agrippina.
| | |
| | +------------------------------------+
| | | 1. Britannicus 1. Octavia |
| | ! A. C. 34. ! A. C. 59.
| | married Nero.
| |
| +-------------------------------------------------------+
| | Nero Drusus | Agrippina |
| ! A. C. 29. ! A. C. 35. | married,
| | 1. Cn. Domitius.
| CAIUS CALIGULA 2. Claudius.
| ! A. C. 41. |
| |
| +---------------------------------------+
| | 1. |
| DOMITIUS NERO ! A. C. 68.
| married, 1. Octavia. 2. Poppaea Sabina
|
+----------------------------------------------------------+
| 1. |
Julia ! A. C. 17.
married, 1. ! M. Cl. Marcellus. 2. Agrippa. 3. Tiberius.
|
+------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. |
C. Caesar L. Caesar Agrippina Julia Agrippa
! A. C. 4. ! A. C. 2. ! A. C. 35. ! A. C. 30. Posthumus
married ! A. C. 14.
Germanicus.
VI. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF CONSTANTINE.
CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS ! 306.
married, 1. Helena. 2. Theodora.
|
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+
CONSTANTINE the Great ! 337. | Jul. Constantius |
married, 1. Minervina. | ! 337. married, |
2. Fausta. Constantia 1. Galla. |
| married 2. Basilina. |
| C. Valer LICINIUS, | |
| Caesar, ! 324 +----------+ |
+--------------------------+ | Fl. Valer. |
1. | 2. | +--------------+ Licinius |
CRISPUS | CONSTANTIUS | 1. 2. ! 326. |
! 326. | ! 361. | Gallus JULIAN |
2. 2. ! 354. (the apostate) |
CONSTANTINE CONSTANS ! 363. |
! 340. ! 350. Annibalianus.
|
+-----------------------------+
| Dalmatius Annibalianus |
Caesar ! 339. ! 338.
PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE, OXFORD.
* * * * *
Transcriber's note:
The original text includes Greek characters. For this text version
these words have been replaced with transliterations.
The dagger symbol (indicating death) has been replaced by ! within
this text version.
Also, sidenotes have been removed to ease readability of the text.